LI  E>  RAHY 
OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY 
Of  ILLINOIS 

031 

v.3£ 


/ 


i 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/unitededitorsenc32unse 


UNITED  EDITORS' 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
AND  DICTIONARY 


A  Library  of  Universal  Knowledge 

and  an 

Unabridged  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language 


FORTY  VOLUMES 

ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

UNITED  EDITORS'  ASSOCIATION 
1907 


Copyright,  1906, 

BY 

WILLIAM  S.  BRYAN. 


091 
V.  3Z 


SCHEME  OE  SOUND  SYMBOLS 

FOB  THE  PRONUNCIATION  OF  WORDS. 


Note.— (-)  is  the  mark  dividing  words  respelt  phonetically  into  syl- 
lables; ('),  the  accent  indicating  on  which  syllable  or  syllables  the 
accent  or  stress  of  the  voice  is  to  be  placed. 


S°boIls'eSuim"Representing  the  Sounds  as  sound°™hrfl!  andMarks 
^    exemplified  in  the  Words.  ^"^Cnunclatlon^ 

a. .  .mate,  fate,  fail,  aye  mat,  fat,  fal,  a. 

d. .  .mat,  fat  mat,  fat. 

d.  .  .far,  calm,  father  .far,  Mm,  fa  titer, 

a. .. care,  fair  car,  far. 

aw.  .fall,  laud,  law   fawl,  lawd,  law. 

e.  .  .mete,  meat,  feet,  free   met,  met,  fit,  f re. 

e. .  .met,  bed  met,  bed. 

e. .  .her,  stir,  heard,  cur   .her,  ster,  herd,  ker0 

I . .  .pine,  ply,  height  pin,  pll,  hit. 

%. .  .pin,  nymph,  ability  pin,  nimf,  d-bil'i-tk 

d. .  .note,  toll,  soul  not,  tul,  sol. 

d.  .  .not,  plot   .not,  plot. 

6. .  .move,  smooth  mov,  smoth. 

d.  .  .Goethe  (similar  to  e  in  her). .  .goteh. 

ow.  .noun,  bough,  cow  nown,  bow,  how. 

oy  .  .boy,  boil  boy,  boy  I. 

u. .  .pure,  dew,  few  pur,  du,fu. 

u. .  .bud,  come,  tough  bud,  hum,  tuf 

u. .  .full,  push,  good  ful,  push,  gud 

u. .  .French  plume,  Scotch  guid.  .plum,  gild. 

ch..  .chair,  match   char,  mdch. 

ch. . .  German    buch ,  Heidelberg, 

Scotch  loch  (guttural)  buch,  hi ' del-be rch,  loch. 

g  game,  go,  gun   .gam,  go,  gun. 

j  judge,  gem,  gin  .juj,  jem,  jhi. 

k.  .  .king,  cat,  cot,  cut  king,  kdt,  kbt,  kut. 

s  sit,  scene,  cell,  city,  cypress,  .sit,  sen,  set,  sit'i,  si' pres. 

sA...shun,  ambition  shun,  dm  bish'un. 

th..  .thing,  breath   thing,  breth. 

tfft...  though,  breathe  thd,  breth. 

z — zeal,  maze  muse  zel,  mdz,  muz. 

zh... azure,  vision  dzh'er,  mzh'un. 


ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  THIS  WORK. 


a.,  or  adj..  ..adjective 

a.b  Bachelor  of  Arts 

abbr  abbreviation,  abbre- 
viated 

abl.  or  abla.ablative 

Abp  Archbishop 

abt  about 

Acad   Academy 

acc.  or  ac.  .accusative 

accom accommodated,  ac- 
commodation 

act  active 

a.d  in  the  year  of  our 

Lord  [Anno  Dom- 
ini] 

Adjt  Adjutant 

Adm   Admiral 

adv.  or  ad.. adverb 

A.  F  Anglo-French 

Ag  Silver  [Argentum] 

agri  agriculture 

A.  L  Anglo-Latin 

Al  Aluminium 

Ala  Alabama 

Alb  Albanian 

alg  algebra 

a.m  before  noon  [ante 

meridiem] 

a.m  Master  of  Arts 

Am  Amos 

Amer  America,  -n 

anat  anatomy,  anatomical 

anc  ancient,  anciently 

an.  m  in   the  year  of  the 

world  [Anno  Mun- 

di] 

anon  anonymous 

antiq  antiquity,  antiqui- 
ties 

aor   aorist,  -ic 

app  appendix 

appar  apparently 

Apr  April 

Ar  Arabic 

arch   architecture 

archseol ....  archaeology 

arith  arithmetic 

Ark  Arkansas 

art  article 

artil   artillery 

AS  Anglo-Saxon 

As   Arsenic 

Assoc  Association 

asst   assistant 

astrol  astrology 

astron  astronomy 

attrib  attributive 

atty  attorney 

at.  wt  atomic  weight 

Au  Gold  [Auruni] 


a.  u.c  in  the  year  of  the 

building  of  the  city 
(Rome)  [A  nnourbis 
condiice] 

Aug  August 

aug  augmentative 

Aust  Austrian 

A.  V  authorized  version 

[of  Bible,  1611] 
avoir  avoirdupois 

B   Boron 

B  Britannic 

b  born 

Ba   Barium 

Bart   Baronet 

Bav  Bavarian 

bl.;  bbl  barrel;  barrels 

b.c  before  Christ 

b.c.l  Bachelor    of  Civil 

Law 

b.d  Bachelor  of  Divinity 

bef  before 

Belg  Belgic 

Beng   .Bengali 

Bi  Bismuth 

biog  biography,biograph« 

ical 

biol  biology 

b.  l  Bachelor  of  Laws 

Bohem  Bohemian 

bot  botany,  botanical 

Bp   Bishop 

Br  Bromine 

Braz   Brazilian 

Bret  Breton 

Brig   Brigadier 

Brit  British,  Britannica 

bro   brother 

Bulg  Bulgarian 

bush  busbel,  bushels 

C  Carbon 

c  century 

Ca   Calcium 

Cal  California 

Camb  Cambridge 

Can  Canada 

Cant  Canterbury 

cap  capital 

Capt  Captain 

Card  Cardinal 

carp  carpentry 

Cath  Catholic 

caus  causative 

cav  .cavalry 

Cd  Cadmium 

Ce   Cerium 

Celt  Celtic 

cent  central 

cf  compare  [confer] 

ch  or  chh... church 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Chal  Chaldee 

chap   ..chapter 

chem  chemistry,  chemical 

Chin  Chinese 

Chron  Chronicles 

chron  chronology 

CI  Chlorine 

Class  Classical    [  =  Greek 

and  Latin] 

Co  Cobalt 

Co  Company 

Co....  county 

cog  ..cognate  [with] 

Col  Colonel 

Col  Colossians 

Coll  College 

oolloq  colloquial 

Colo  Colorado 

Com  Commodore 

com  commerce,  commer- 
cial 

com  common 

comp  compare 

comp   composition,  com- 
pound 

compar  comparative 

conch  conchology 

cong  congress 

Congl  Congregational 

conj   conjunction 

Conn  or  Ct. Connecticut 

contr  contraction,  con- 
tracted 

Cop  Coptic 

Cor  Corinthians 

Corn  Cornish 

corr  corresponding 

Cr  Chromium 

crystal  crystallography 

Cs   Caesium 

ct  cent 

Ct.  or  Conn.Connecticut 

Cu  Copper  [Cuprum] 

cwt   a  hundred  weight 

Cyc  Cyclopedia 

D  Didymium 

D.  or  But..  Dutch 

d  died 

d.  [1.  s.  d.].. penny,  pence 

Dan  Daniel 

Dan  Danish 

dat  dative 

dau  daughter 

D.  C  District  of  Columbia 

D.c.L  Doctor  of  Civil  [or 

Common]  Law 

D.D  Doctor  of  Divinity 

Dec  December 

dec  declension 

def  .....definite,  definition 

deg  ....degree,  degrees 

Del  o .  ..Delaware 

del  delegate,  delegates 

dem  democratic 

dep  deputy 

dep  deponent 

dept  department 

deriv  derivation,  deriva- 
tive 

Deut  Deuteronomy 

dial  dialect,  dialectal 

diam  diameter 

Die  Dictionary 


diff  different,  difference 

dim  diminutive 

dist...   district 

distrib  distributive 

div  division 

doz  dozen 

Dr  Doctor 

dr  dram,  drams 

dram  dramatic 

Dut.  or  D... Dutch 

dwt   pennyweight 

dynam  or 

dyn  dynamics 

E  Erbium 

E.  ore  East,  -era,  -ward 

E.  or  Eng.  .English 

Eccl  Ecclesiastes 

eccl.  or      j  ecclesiastical  [af» 

eccles  i  fairs] 

ed  edited,  edition,  edi- 
tor 

e.  g  for    example  [ex 

gratia] 

E.  Ind.  or  j  East  Indies,  East 
E.  I  "j  Indian 

elect  electricity 

Emp  Emperor 

Encyc  Encyclopedia 

Eng.  orE.  .English 

engin  engineering 

en  torn...  ..entomology 

env.  ext  envoy  extraordinary 

ep  epistle 

Eph  Ephesians 

Episc   Episcopal 

eq.  01  =..  .equal,  equals 

equiv  equivalent 

esp  especially 

Est   Esther 

estab  established 

Esthon  Esthonian 

etc  and  others  like  [et 

cetera] 

Eth  Ethiopic 

ethnog  ethnography 

ethnol  ethnology 

etseq  and  the  following 

[et  sequential 

etym  etymology 

Eur  European 

Ex  Exodus 

exclam  exclamation 

Ezek  Ezekiel 

Ezr  Ezra 

F  Fluorine 

F.  or  Fahr.  Fahrenheit 

f .  or  fern . . .  feminine 

F.  or  Fr  French 

fa   .  .father 

Fahr.  or  F.Fahrenheit 
far  farriery 

Fe  Iron  [Ferrum] 

Feb  February 

fern  or  f.  ..feminine 

fig  figure,  figuratively 

Fin  Finnish 

F.— L         French  from  Latin 

Fla  Florida 

Flem  Flemish 

for  foreign 

fort  fortification 

Fr.  or  F. .  .French 
tK***x±*  t  .....from 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


freq  frequentative 

Fris   Frisian 

ft  foot,  feet 

f ut   future 

G.  or  Ger... German 

G  Glucinium 

Ga  Gallium 

Ga  Georgia 

Gael  Gaelic 

Gal   Galatians 

gal  gallon 

galv  galvanism,  galvanic 

gard  gardening 

gen  gender 

Gen  General 

Gen  Genesis 

gen  genitive 

Geno  Genoese 

geog  geography 

geol  geology 

geom ....  ...geometry 

Ger  German,  Germany 

Goth  Gothic 

Gov  Governor 

govt  government 

Gr  Grand,  Great 

Gr  Greek 

gr  grain,  grains 

gram   grammar 

Gr.  Brit. .  ..Great  Britain 

Gris  Grisons 

gun  gunnery 

h  Hegira 

H  Hydrogen 

h  hour,  hours 

Hab  Habakkuk 

Hag  Haggai 

H.  B.  M  His  [or  Her]  Britan- 

nic Majesty 

Heb  Hebrew,  Hebrews 

her  heraldry 

herpet  herpetology 

Hg  Mercury  [Hydrar- 
gyrum] 

hhd  hogshead,  hogsheads 

Hind  Hindustani,  Hindu, 

or  Hindi 

hist  history,  historical 

Hon   Honorable 

hort  horticulture 

Hos  Hosea 

Hung  Hungarian 

Hydros  Hydrostatics 

I  Iodine 

I.;  Is  Island  ;  Islands 

Icel  Icelandic 

ichth  ichthyology 

Ida  Idaho 

i.  e  that  is  [id  est] 

111  Illinois 

illus  illustration 

impera  or 

impr  imperative 

impers  impersonal 

impf  or  imp.  imperfect 
impf.  p.  or 

imp  imperfect  participle 

Improp  improperly 

In  Indium 

in  inch,  inches 

incept  inceptive 

Ind  India,  Indian 

Ind  Indiana 


ind.  indicative 

indef   indefinite 

Indo-Eur . .  .ludo-Europeab. 

inf  infantry 

inf  or  infin. infinitive 

instr.  instrument,  -al 

int  interest 

intens  intensive 

inter  j.  or 

int   interjection 

interrog ....  interrogative  pro- 
noun 

intr.  or 

in  tran  s . . .  i  nt  ran  si  ti  ve 

Io  Iowa 

Ir  Iridium 

Ir  Irish 

Iran  Iranian 

irr   irregular,  -ly 

Is  Isaiah 

It  Italian 

Jan   .January 

Jap  Japanese 

Jas  James 

Jer  ...Jeremiah 

Jn  John 

Josh  Joshua 

Jr  Junior 

Judg   Judges 

K  Potassium  [Kalium] 

K  ...Kings  [in  Bible] 

K  king 

Kan  Kansas 

Kt  Knight 

Ky  Kentucky 

L  Latin 

L  Lithium 

1.  [1.  s.  d.],  J  pound,  pounds 

or  £  )  [sterling] 

La  Lanthanium 

La  Louisiana 

Lam  Lamentations 

Lan  g  Languedoc 

lang  language 

Lap  Lapland 

lat   latitude 

lb.;  lib.  or  J  pound;  pounds 

lbs  )  [weight] 

Let  Lettish 

Lev  Leviticus 

LG  Low  German 

I.  h.d  Doctor  of  Polite  Lit- 

erature 

Lieut  Lieutenant 

Lim  Limousin 

Lin  Linnseus,  Linneean 

lit  literal, -ly 

lit   literature 

Lith..  Lithuanian 

lithog  lithograph,  -y 

LL  Late    Latin,  Low 

Latin 

II.  d  Doctor  of  Laws 

long  longitude 

Luth  Lutheran 

M  Middle 

M  Monsieur 

m  mile,  miles 

m.crr  masc. masculine 

m.a  Master  of  Arts 

Mace  Maccabees 

mach  machinery 

Mag  Magazine 


ABBREVIATIONS, 


Mai  Major 

Mai  Malachi 

Mai  Malay,  MarCiyan 

manuf . . . .  .manufacturing, 
manufacturers 

Mar  March 

masc  or  m. masculine 

Mass  Massachusetts 

math   mathematics,  math- 
ematical 

Matt  Matthew 

m.d  Doctor  of  Medicine 

MD  .Middle  Dutch 

Md   Maryland 

ME  Middle    English,  or 

Old  English 

Me  Maine 

mech  mechanics,  mechani- 
cal 

med  medicine,  medical 

mem  member 

mensur  mensuration 

Messrs.  or 
MM  ....  .Gentlemen,  Sin 

metal  metallurgy 

metaph  —  metaphysics,  meta- 
physical 

meteor  meteorology 

Meth  Methodist 

Mex  Mexican 

Mg   Magnesium 

M.Gr  Middle  Greek 

MHG  Middle   High  Ger- 
man 

Mic  Micah 

Mich   Michigan 

mid  middle  [voice] 

Milan  Milanese 

mid.  L.  or  j  Middle  Latin,  Me- 

ML  (    diaeval  Latin 

milit.  or 

mil  military  [affairs] 

min   minute,  minutes 

mineral  mineralogy 

Minn  Minnesota 

Min.  Plen.  .Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary 

Miss   Mississippi 

ML.  or       J  Middle  Latin,  Me- 
mid.  L. . .  |    diaeval  Latin 

MLG  Middle  Low  German. 

Mile  Mademoiselle 

Mme  Madam 

Mn  Manganese 

Mo  Missouri 

Mo  Molybdenum 

mod  modern 

Mont   Montana 

Mr  Master  [Mister] 

Mrs   .Mistress  [Missis] 

MS.;  MSS.. manuscript;  manu- 
scripts 

Mt  Mount,  mountain 

mus  music 

mus. doc...  .Doctor  of  Music 
myth   mythology,  mytho- 
logical 

N  Nitrogen 

N.  or  n  North,  -ern,  -ward 

n   noun 

n  or  neut... neuter 

Na  Sodium  [Natrium] 

Nan  « ..Nahum 


N.  A.,  or 
N.  Amer.North  America,  -n 

nat  natural 

naut  nautical 

nav  navigation.  navftjaf* 

fairs 

Nb  Niobium 

N.  C.  or 
N.  Car. .  .North  Carolina- 

N.  D  North  Dakota 

Neb   Nebraska 

neg  negative 

Neh  Nehemiah 

N.  Eng  New  England 

neut  or  n... neuter 

Nev  Nevada 

N.Gr  New  Greek,  Modern 

Greek 

N.  H  New  Hampshire 

NHG  New  High  German 

[German] 

Ni   Nickel 

N.  J  New  Jersey 

NL   New  Latin,  Modern 

Latin 

N.  Mex  New  Mexico 

N.  T..  or 
N.  Test.. .New  Testament 

N.  Y  New  York  [State] 

nom   nominative 

Norm.  F  . .  Norman  French 
North.  E  ..Northern  English 

Norw  Norwegian,  Norsa 

Nov  November 

Num  Numbers 

numis   numismatics 

O  Ohio 

O  Old 

O  Oxygen 

Obad  Obadiah 

obj —  objective 

obs.  or  t . .  .obsolete 

obsoles   obsolescent 

O.Bulg  Old  Bulgarian  or  Old 

Slavic 

Oct  October 

Odontog. .  .odontography 

OE  Old  English 

OF  or 

O.  Fr....01d  French 

OHG  Old  High  German 

Ont  Ontario 

opt.  optics,  optical 

Or  Oregon 

ord   order 

ord  ordnance 

org  organic 

orig  original. -ly 

ornith ..... .ornithology 

Os  Osmium 

OS  Old  Saxon 

O.  T.,  or 

O.  Test... Old  Testament 

Oxf  Oxford 

oz  ounce,  ounces 

P  Phosphorus 

p.;  PP  page;  pages 

p.,  or  part.. participle 
Pa.  or  Penn.Pennsylvania 

paint   painting 

pa  I  aeon  palaeontology 

pari   parliament 

pass  passive 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


pathol  or 

path  pathology 

Pb  Lead  [Plumbum] 

Pd   Palladium 

Penn  or  Pa.Pennsylvania 

perf   perfect 

pern   perhaps 

Fers  Persian,  Persic 

pers  person 

persp  perspective 

pert  pertaining  [to] 

Pet  Peter 

Pg.  or  Port.  Portuguese 

phar  pharmacy 

ph.d   Doctor  of  Philoso- 
phy 

Phen  Phenician 

Phil  Philippians 

Philem  Philemon 

philol  philology,  philologi- 
cal 


philos.  ^     j  philosophy, 


philo- 


or  phil...")  sophical 

phonog  phonography 

photog  photography 

phren  phrenology 

phys  physics,  physical 

physiol  physiology,  physi- 
ological 

Pied  Piedmontese 

PI   Plate 

pi.  or  plu... plural 

PI.  D  Piatt  Deutsch 

plupf  pluperfect 

p.M  afternoon  [post  meri- 
diem] 

pneum  pneumatics 

P.  O  Post-office 

poet  poetical 

Pol  Polish 

pol  econ . .  .political  economy 

polit  politics,  political 

pop  population 

Port,  or  Pg.Portuguese 

poss  possessive 

PP  pages 

pp  past  participle,  per- 
fect participle 

p.  pr  present  participle 

Fr.  or  Prov. Provencal 

pref  prefix 

prep  preposition 

Pres  President 

pres   present 

Presb  Presbyterian 

pret  preterit 

prim  primitive 

priv  privative 

prob  probably,  probable 

Prof   Professor  - 

pron  pronoun 

pron  pronunciation,  pro- 
nounced 

prop  properly 

pros  prosody 

Prot  Protestant 

Prov. or  Pr. Provencal 

Prov  Proverbs 

prov  province,  provincial 

Prov.  Eng.  .Provincial  English 

Prus  Prussia,  -n 

Ps  Psalm,  Psalms 

psychol. . .  .psychology 


pt  past  tense 

pt  pint 

Pt  Platinum 

pub  published,  publisher, 

publication 

pwt  pennyweight 

Q  Quebec 

qt  quart 

qtr  quarter  [weight] 

qu  query 

q.v  which    see  [quod 

vide] 

R  Rhodium 

R  River 

Rb  Rubidium 

R.  Cath  Roman  Catholic 

rec.  sec  recording  secretary 

Ref  Reformed 

refl  reflex 

reg  regular,  -ly 

regt  regiment 

rel.  pro.  or 

vet  relative  pronoun 

repr  representing 

repub  republican 

Rev  Revelation 

Rev  The  Reverend 

Rev.  V  Revised  Version 

rhet  rhetoric,  -al 

R.  I  Rhode  Island 

R.  N  Royal  Navy 

Rom   Roman,  Romans 

Rom  Romanic     or  Rcw 

mance 

r.r  railroad 

Rt.  Rev  ...Right  Reverend 

Ru.  Ruthenium 

Russ  Russian 

r.w  railway 

S  Saxon 

S  Sulphur 

s  second,  seconds 

s.  [1.  s.  d.] .  .shilling,  shillings 

S.  or  s  South,  -era,  -ward 

S.  A.  or 

S.  Amer.. South  America,  »n 

Sam  Samaritan 

Sam  Samuel 

Sans,  or 

Skr  Sanskrit 

Sb  Antimony  [Stibium] 

s.C  understand,  supply, 

namely  [scilicet] 

S.  C.  or 
S.  Car.. .  .South  Carolina 

Scand  Scandinavian 

Scot  Scotland,  Scotch 

scr  scrupJe,  scruples 

Scrip  Scripture  [sj,  Scrip 

tural 

sculp  sculpture 

S.  D  South  Dakota 

Se  Selenium 

sec  secretary 

sec  section 

Sem  Semitic 

Sep  September 

Serv  Servian 

Shaks  Shakespeare 

Si  —  Silicon 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Sic  Sicilian 

sing  singular 

sis  sister 

Skr.  or 
Sans  Sanskirt 

Slav  Slavonic,  Slavic 

Sn  Tin  [Stannum] 

Soc  Society 

Song  Sol. .  .Song  of  Solomon 

Sp  Spanish 

sp.gr  specific  gravity 

sq  square 

Sr  Senior 

Sr.  Strontium 

 Saint 

 street 

stat  statute 

s.t.d  Doctor   of  Sacred 

Theology 

sub  j  subjunctive 

suf  suffix 

Su.  Goth . .  .Suo-Gothic 

superl  superlative 

Supp  Supplement 

Supt   Superintendent 

surg  surgery ,  surgical 

Surv  surveying 

Sw  Swedish 

Swab  Swabian 

sym  symbol 

syn  synonym,  -y 

Syr  Syriac,  Syrian 

t   town 

Ta  Tantalum 

Tart  Tartar 

Te  Tellurium 

technol  technology 

teleg  telegraphy 

Tenn  Tennessee 

term  termination 

terr  .territory 

Teut  Teutonic 

Tex  Texas 

Th  Thorium 

theat   theatrical 

theol  theology,  theological 

tLarap  therapeutics 

Thess  Thessalonians 

Ti  Titanium 

Tim  Timothy 

Tit./  Titus 

Tl  Thallium 

toxicoL  toxicology 

tp  township 

tv.  or  trans. transitive 

Uansl  translation,  transt 

lated 


trigon  trigonometry 

Turk  Turkish 

typog  typography,  type 

graphical 

II  Uranium 

ult  ultimate,  -ly 

Unit  Unitarian 

Univ  Universalist 

Univ  University 

U.  Presb . .  .United  Presbyterian 

U.  S  United  States 

U.  S.  A  United  States  Army 

U.  S.  N  United  States  Navy 

Ut  Utah 

V  Vanadium 

v  verb 

Va  Virginia 

var  variant  [word] 

var  .variety  of  [species] 

Ven  , . , .  Venerable 

Venet  Venetian 

vet  veterinary 

v.  i.  or 
v.  intr.  ...verb  intransitive 

vil  viliage 

viz  namely,  to-wit  [vide- 
licet] 

v.  n  verb  neuter 

voc  vocative 

vol  volume 

vols  volunteers 

Vt   .Vermont 

v.  tr         .verb  transitive 

W  Tungsten  [Wolfram] 

W  Welsh 

W.  or  w....West,  -ern,  -ward 

Wal   Walachian 

Wall  Walloon 

Wash  Washington 

Westph  Westphalia,  -n 

W.  Ind.     jWest  Indies,  West 
or  W.I...")  Indian 

Wis  Wisconsin 

wt  weight 

W.  Va  oWest  Virginia 

Wyo  Wyoming 

Y  Yttrium 

yd  yard 

yr  year 

Zech  Zechariah 

Zeph .   Zephaniah 

Zn  Zinc 

zool  zoology,  zoological 

Zr  Zirconium 


See  also  ABBREVIATIONS-  in  VoL  L 


UNITED  EDITORS' 
ENCYCLOPEDIA  AND 
DICTIONARY. 


REPOLISH,  v.  re-pol'ish  [re,  again,  and  polish] :  to 
polish  again. 

REPONE,  v.  re-ponf  [L.  reporter e,  to  replace,  to  re- 
store— from  re,  back  or  again;  ponere,  to  put  or  place] : 
in  Scotch  law,  to  restore  to  a  situation  formerly  held. 
Repo'ning,  imp.    Reponed',  pp.  -pond". 

REPORT,  v.  re'port\  [L.  reportare,  to  bring  back;  to 
report — from  re,  back  or  again;  porto,  I  carry:  It.  ripor- 
tare;  F.  rapport er,  to  relate]  :  to  bear  or  bring  back,  as 
an  answer;  to  give  an  account  of;  to  relate;  to  circulate 
by  popular  rumor:  to  announce  or  make  a  statement  of 
facts;  to  give  an  official  statement;  to  follow  the  busi- 
ness of  a  reporter;  in  mil.,  to  announce  or  inform  of 
one's  presence;  to  state  officially  to  a  superior  the  breach 
or  neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  another :  N.  an  account 
or  statement  circulated;  that  which  is  noised  about  re- 
specting a  thing;  common  fame;  noise,  as  of  a  gun;  an 
official  statement  of  facts;  a  statement  of  proceedings, 
etc. ;  an  account  of  a  law  case.  Reporting,  imp. :  N. 
the  act  of  giving  an  account  of  anything  orally  or  in 
writing:  the  art  or  profession  of  a  reporter.  Report'ed, 
pp.  Report'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  writes  down  in  short- 
hand the  proceedings  of  legislatures,  of  courts  of  law, 
and  of  public  meetings,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  publication. 
Reportable,  a.  -a-bl,  fit  to  be  reported.  To  be  re- 
ported or  To  be  reported  of,  to  be  well  or  ill  spoken  of; 
to  be  mentioned  with  respect  or  reproach.  To  report 
one's  self,  to  present  one's  self  before  a  superior,  or  at 
headquarters,  for  inspection  or  orders.  Confidential 
report,  a  private  and  secret  statement  of  the  results  of 
an  inspection  or  inquiry  to  a  superior  authority. — Syn. 
of  'report,  v.':  to  narrate;  recite;  tell;  relate;  describe; 
detail; — of  'report,  n.':  narration;  detail;  relation;  ac- 
count; description;  narrative;  recital;  hearsay;  story; 
rumor;  fame;  renown;  repute. 

REPORTING,  British  Parliamentary,  public  re- 
ports of  speeches,  debates,  and  proceedings  in  the  British 
legislature.    The  voluminous  work  Parliamentary  Bis- 
tory  of  England,  is  considered  in  England  the  most  val- 
Vol,  32—1 


REPORTING.  . 
uable  historical  work  in  the  language.  In  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne,  a  monthly  pamphlet,  the  Political  State, 
gave  an  outline  of  the  debates  in  parliament.  In  the 
reign  of  George  I.,  the  Historical  Register,  published  an- 
nually, professed  to  give  reports  of  parliamentary 
speeches.  The  Gentleman's  Magazine  began  a  monthly 
publication  of  the  debates,  the  number  for  1735,  Aug., 
containing  a  report  of  the  debate  in  the  house  of  lords 
on  the  previous  Jan.  3.  Cave,  the  publisher,  continued 
the  practice  in  succeeding  numbers;  procuring  for  a 
friend  or  two  with  himself,  admission  into  the  gallery  of 
the  house  of  commons,  or  to  some  concealed  station  in 
the  other  house,  where  they  privately  took  notes,  which 
they  compared  and  adjusted  in  a  neighboring  tavern. 
An  abler  hand,  Guthrie  the  historian,  was  employed  to 
reduce  this  crude  matter  to  form;  but  no  publication  of 
it  was  made  till  after  the  session  had  ended.  Cave,  at 
length  growing  bolder,  printed  in  full  the  names  of 
speakers.  Both  houses  took  alarm,  and  passed  resolu- 
tions forbidding  reports  of  debates.  The  publication  of 
the  debates  of  either  house  had  been  repeatedly  declared 
a  high  breach  of  privilege.  In  1738  Speaker  Onslow 
called  the  attention  of  the  house  of  commons  to  the 
breach  of  its  standing  orders  by  Cave  and  others.  The 
result  was  another  resolution  against  the  publication  of 
debates  'either  while  parliament  is  sitting  or  during  the 
recess/  and  a  threat  to  proceed  against  offenders  with 
the  'utmost  severity.'  The  reports,  notwithstanding, 
still  appeared,  but  under  the  disguise  of  'Debates  in  the 
Senate  of  Lilliput/  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine;  and 
'Debates  in  the  Political  Club/  in  the  London  Magazine. 
the  celebrated  Dr.  Johnson  was  employed  by  Cave  in 
the  composition  of  his  parliamentary  debates,  and  the 
reports  1740-43  are  held  to  have  been  entirely  prepared 
by  him;  sometimes  with  the  assistance  of  the  above- 
mentioned  Guthrie,  who  had  a  good  memory,  and  used 
to  bring  home  as  much  as  he  could  recollect  from  the 
house;  and  sometimes,  according  to  Boswell,  with  no 
other  aid  than  the  names  of  the  orators  and  the  side  on 
which  they  spoke.  When  it  was  observed  to  Johnson 
that  he  dealt  out  reason  and  eloquence  equally  to  both 
parties,  he  remarked:  'I  took  care  that  the  whig  dogs 
should  not  have  the  best  of  it.'  It  was  not  till  30  years 
later  that  the  parliamentary  debates  descended  from  the 
magazines  to  the  newspapers.  The  latter  had,  however, 
for  some  time  resolved  to  report  the  debates  (Woodf all's 
Junius,  iii.  345),  and  they  took  advantage  of  the  popu- 
lar excitement  concerning  the  Luttrell-Wilkes  election 
for  Middlesex,  to  try  the  right  of  the  house  to  interdict 
the  publication  of  its  proceedings. 

The  contest  between  parliament  and  the  press  be- 
gan at  the  close  of  1770.  Some  printers  of  London 
daily  papers  were  ordered  under  arrest,  1771,  Mar.,  for 


REPORTING. 

printing  the  proceedings  of  the  house  of  commons.  Some 
surrendered,  and  asking  pardon  on  their  knees  at  the  bar 
of  the  house,  were  discharged.  One,  Miller,  not  surren- 
dering, was  ordered  into  the  custody  of  the  sergeant-at- 
arms,  whose  messenger  arrested  Miller  within  the  city  of 
London,  and  was  immediately  given  into  custody  by 
Miller  for  assault,  and  carried  before  the  lord  mayor,  who 
declared  the  speaker's  warrant  illegal,  discharged  Miller, 
and  committed  the  messenger  for  assault.  Two  other 
printers,  Wheble  and  Thompson,  had  been  carried  re- 
spectively before  Aldermen  Wilkes  and  Oliver,  who  im- 
mediately discharged  them,  and  bound  them  over  to 
prosecute,  and  the  speaker's  messenger  to  answer,  t_ 
charge  of  assault  and  false  imprisonment.  -  The  house  of 
commons  was  furious.  It  ordered  the  attendance  of  the 
iord  mayor  (a  member  of  the  house),  and  of  Alderman 
Oliver.  The  aldermen  of  London  attended  the  house,  and 
pleaded  their  own  cause,  alleging  that  their  charters 
exempted  the  citizens  from  any  law  process  being  served 
on  them  except  by  their  own  officers.  The  house  com- 
mitted the  lord  mayor  and  Alderman  Oliver  to  the  Tower. 
The  city  of  London  loudly  protested,  and  the  whole 
country  responded  to  the  appeal.  Tne  power  of  parlia- 
ment to  imprison  ceases  at  the  end  of  the  current 
session,  and  on  the  day  of  prorogation,  1771,  July  23,  the 
lord  mayor  and  Alderman  Oliver  marched  out  of  the 
Tower  in  triumph;  and  at  night  tbe  city  was  illuminated. 
A  few  days  afterward,  the  speaker's  messenger  who  had 
arrested  Wheble  was  tried  at  Guildhall  for  the  assault, 
found  guilty,  fined  Is.,  and  imprisoned  for  two  months. 
Next  session,  tbe  house  of -commons  tacitly  acknowledged 
itself  beaten.  The  printers  defied  the  house  and  continued 
to  publish  their  proceedings.  In  a  short  time ,  the  house  of 
lords  also  conceded  the  point.  The  victory  was  complete, 
and  no  attempt  has  since  been  made  to  prevent  publication 
of  the  debates  and  proceedings  of  parliament.  The  reso- 
lution affirming  that  it  is  a  high  indignity  to,  and  'notor- 
ious breach  of,  the  privileges  of  the  house  to  publish  the 
debates/  still  remains  unrevoked  on  the  Journals;  yet  gal- 
leries have  been  constructed  for  accommodation  of  re- 
porters. It  is  still  in  the  power  of  any  member,  who  may 
call  the  speaker's  attention  to  the  fact  that  'strangers  are 

E resent/  to  exclude  the  public  and  the  reporters  from  the 
ouse;  and  this  power  has  been  exercised  during  living 
memory;  but  on  such  occasions  one  or  more  members  who 
have  dissented  from  this  course  have  taken  notes  of  the 
speeches,  and  have  avowedly  sent  them  to  the  newspapers. 

The  old  machinery  of  newspaper  reporting  was  exceed- 
ingly defective  till  1815.  At  that  time  the  public  interest 
in  domestic  affairs  made  the  publication  of  parliamentary 
debates  an  object  of  national  importance;  and  in  a  few 
years  parliamentary  reporting  assumed  its  present  full, 
detailed,  and  accurate  character.  Increased  facilities  for 
the  discharge  of  their  important  and  arduous  duties  were 
from  time  to  time  ojiven  to  the  reporters.    In  the  splendid 


REPORTING. 

new  Palace  of  Westminster,  in  which  the  two  houses  now 
hold  their  deliberations,  exclusive  galleries  are  provided 
for  accommodation  of  reporters:  in  the  house  of  lords, 
their  gallery  faces  the  throne  and  the  woolsack;  in  the 
house  of  commons,  it  is  behind  the  chair.  The  organiza- 
tion of  parliamentary  reporters  for  the  Times  newspaper 
and  other  great  English  journals  is  admirably  complete; 
and  arrangements  of  all  kinds  have  been  brought  to  a 
perfect  system  for  securing  expedition  and  accuracy.  A 
long  speech  may  be  said  to  extend  from  the  mouth  of  the 
speaker  to  Printing  House  Square.  Relays  of  reporters 
make  their  notes,  each  in  turn  reading  from  them  to  an 
operator  on  a  telephone  wire  in  the  office  of  the  paper, 
who  transmits  -the  matter  to  the  composing  room  where 
the  first  portions  of  the  speech  are  frequently  in  type 
before  the  orator  finishes  his  speech  in  Parliament. 

A  few  years  ago  the  object  desired  by  newspaper  pro- 
prietors was  not  a  literal  report,  but  what  may  be  called 
the  spirit  of  a  speech — a  faithful  abridgment  of  the  sen- 
timent, matter,  and  style  of  the  speaker.  Parliamen- 
tary reports  subsequently  became  more  diffuse,  the 
debates  of  a  single  evening  not  unfrequently  occupying 
between  20  and  30  columns  of  small  type.  This,  how- 
ever, has  not  been  maintained;  and  though  much  might 
be  said  against  reporting  at  great  length  of  important 
speeches,  there  can  be  nothing  said  in  favor  of  such  ex- 
cessive condensation  of  all  speeches  as  prevails  in  most 
of  the  London  newspapers — the  Times  and  the  Standard 
being  exceptions.  The  only  publication  since  the  Mirror 
of  Parliament  which  professes  to  give  all  the  speeches 
fully  and  accurately  is  Hansard's  Parliamentary  Debates 
(see  Hansard). 

Publicity  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant instruments  of  parliamentary  government.  Long 
before  a  measure  can  be  adopted  by  the  legislature,  it 
has  been  approved  or  condemned  by  the  public  voice; 
and,  living  and  acting  in  public,  parliament  under  a  free 
representation  has  become  as  sensitive  to  public  opinion 
as  a  barometer  to  atmospheric  pressure.  See  May's  Con- 
stitutional History  of  England;  Knight  Hunt's  Fourth 
Estate;  Andrews's  History  of  British  Journalism;  Pen- 
dleton's Newspaper  Reporting  in  Olden  Times  and  To- 
day (1890);  also  article  Newspaper, — See  Wilkes, 
John. 

REPORTING,  Congressional  and  Other  Legisla- 
tive: act  of  taking  down  for  preservation  or  publica- 
tion the  speeches  and  proceedings  in  legislative  bodies. 
Tn  the  United  States  it  is  done  by  two  kinds  of  report- 
ers, official  and  newspaper.  The  duties  of  an  official 
reporter  are  wholly  distinct  from  those  of  the  clerk  or 
sec.  of  the  body  who  keeps  the  official  record  and 


Heidelberg  Castle,  erected  1556-1559, 


REPOSE— REPOUR. 
the  movement  of  bills  and  resolutions.  Formerly  rapid 
long-hand  writers  were  employed  to  report  legislative 
speeches  and  debates;  but  they  are  now  generally  superseded 
by  stenographers.  All  official  reporters  in  the  U.  S.  con- 
gress are  stenographers.  In  the  senate  there  are  a  chief 
and  four  assistants;  in  the  house  a  chief  and  five  assistants. 
In  both  branches  nearly  all  the  clerks  of  committees  are 
stenographers.  The  same  customs  prevail  in  the  principal 
state  legislatures.— Each  house  of  congress  has  a  special 
gallery  for  the  exclusive  use  of  newspaper  reporters,  under 
the  control  of  the  senate  committee  on  rules  and  of  a 
standing  committee  of  the  newspaper  correspondents  on 
duty  at  Washington.  These  reporters  do  not  pretend  to 
take  down  speeches  and  debates  verbatim,  but  rather  apply 
themselves  to  running  notes  of  a  speech  or  debate  and  to 
composing  word  pictures  of  scenes  in  the  halls  below  during 
important  or  exciting  movements.  Strict  rules  govern  the 
issue  of  tickets  for  the  privilege  of  the  press  galleries,  and 
no  reporter  holding  one  can  be  personally  interested  in  any 
legislation  before  congress  or  in  any  claim  before  its  com- 
mittees. More  than  two  hundred  reporters,  representing 
newspapers  in  every  part  of  the  country,  hold  tickets  to 
the  press  galleries. 

REPOSE,  v.  re-pdz'  [F.  repos,  rest;  reposer,  to  rest,  to 
repose — from  L.  repositus,  placed  back  again — from  re, 
back  or  again ;  pono,  I  p?ace:  It.  ripdsare:  Sp.  xeposar\.  to 
lay  or  be  at  rest;  to  rest  mentally;  to  place  or  rest  in,  as 
confidence;  to  sleep;  to  recline;  to  rely,  with  in  or  on: 
N.  state  of  sleep;  rest;  quiet;  rest  of  mind;  in  paint.,  cer- 
tain parts  in  the  composition  of  a  picture  wThich  seem  to 
tranquillize  its  aspect.  Repo  sing,  imp.  Reposed',  pp. 
-pozd' .  Repo  sal,  n  -zdl,  the  act  of  reposing  or  resting. 
Repo'sedly,  ad.  -zed-li.  Repo'sebness,  n.  -zed-nes,  state 
A  being  at  rest.  Reposer,  n.  -zer,  one  who  reposes. 
Reposit,  v.  -poz'tt,  to  lay  up;  to  lodge,  as  for  safety  or 
preservation.  Repos  iting,  imp  Repos'ited,  pp.  Re- 
position, n.  repd-zish'un,  the  act  of  replacing;  the  act  of 
laying  up  in  safety.  Repository,  n.  re-poz'i  ter'l  [L.  re- 
positorium,  a  cupboard]:  a  place  where  things  are  deposited 
for  safety  or  preservation;  a  place  where  articles  are  kept 
for  sale. — Syn.  of  'repose,  v.':  to  rest;  recline;  sleep; 
lodge;  abide;  settle;  deposit;  reposit;  couch; — of  '  repose, 
n.':  rest;  ease;  quiet;  quietness;  peace;  tranquillity;  recum- 
bency; reclination. 

REPOSSESS,  v.  re'poz-zes'  [re,  again,  and  possess]:  to 
possess  again.  Re  posses  sion,  n.  the  ac^  of  possessing 
again. 

REPOUR,  v.  repbr'  [re,  again,  and  pour}:  tc  poitf 
again. 


REPOUSSfi— REPREHEND. 

REPOUSSE,  u.  re-pos'd  [F. — from  repousse?*,  to  thrusi 
back;  re,  again,  and  pousser;  L.  pulsar 'e,  to  push]:  orna- 
mented metal-work  formed  in  relief;  and  the  method  of 
producing  it.  The  ornamentation  resembles  embossing; 
but  the  effect  is  produced  by  hammering  up  the  metal, 
which  is  generally  thin,  from  the  back;  aud  when  a  rude 
resemblance  of  the  figure  to  be  produced  is  thus  formed, 
it  is  worked  up  by  pressing  and  chasing  the  front  surface. 
The  finest  specimens  of  tiiis  art  are  of  the  cinque-cento  or 
16th  c.  period,  by  Benvenuto  Cellini.  Cellini  carried  the 
art  to  France,  where  it  has  of  late  been  much  developed. 
Much  common  R.  work  is  done  in  various  countries  in  the 
soft  white  metals,  such  as  pewter  and  Britannia  metal; 
and  as  these  are  easily  worked,  and  can  afterward  be 
electroplated,  so  as  to  hide  the  quality  of  the  material,  they 
are  in  considerable  demand.  After  they  are  hammered  up 
from  the  inside,  they  are  filled  with  liquid  pitch,  and  set 
by  until  it  becomes  solid.  Then  they  are  modelled  and 
chased  on  the  surface,  the  pitch  forming  a  support,  which 
prevents  the  tools  from  pressing  down  more  than  is 
required.  The  pitch  is  afterward  melted  and  drained  out, 
and  a  subsequent  boiling  in  an  alkaline  lye  completely 
cleans  the  work.  Tea  and  coffee  pots  are  among  the  chief 
articles  made  in  this  manner. 

REPPLIER,  Agnes  :  essayist  ;  b.  Philadelphia.  She  is 
of  French  extraction,  and  a  member  of  the  Rom.  Cath. 
ch.  She  is  largely  self  educated,  not  having  learned  to 
read  until  nine  years  of  age,  but  having  been  an  eager 
listener  to  the  best  reading.  Her  method  still  is  to  read 
and  to  write  what  interests  her.  She  began  writing  at  an 
early  age,  and  showed  a  combined  force  of  thought  and 
charm  of  expression  which  soon  secured  place  in  the  At- 
lantic Monthly  and  other  leading  periodicals.  She  visited 
England  1894,  and  was  received  with  welcome  in  literary 
circles.  Her  published  works  include  Books  and  Men, 
1888;  Points  of  View,  1891  ;  Essays  in  Miniature,  1892; 
Essays  in  Idleness,  1893  ;  In  the  Dozy  Hours,  1894  ;  and 
Varia  (Essays)  1897.  Miss  R.  has  also  edited  a  Volume  of 
Famous  Verse  in  Riverside  Library  for  Young  People. 

REPREHEND,  v.  rep're-hend'  [L.  reprehen' dere,  to 
check,  to  censure;  reprehen' susf  checked,  restrained — from 
re,  again;  prehenderey  to  lay  hold  of:  It.  riprendere:  F. 
reprendre]:  to  administer  reproof  or  censure  to;  to  chide; 
to  rebuke;  to  censure.  Rep  rehending,  imp.  Rep  re- 
hended, pp.  Rep  rehend'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  repre- 
hends. Rep'rehen  sible,  a.  -re-hen' si-bl  [F. — L.]:  deserv- 
ing reproof  or  censure;  blamable;  culpable.  Rep  rehen  - 
sibly,  ad.  -Mi.  Rep'rehen'sibleness,  n.-bl  nes,  the  quality 
of  being  reprehensible;  culpableness.  Rep  rehen  sion,  n. 
-hen1  shun  [F. — L.]:  reproof;  censure.  Rep'rehen'sive, 
a.  -sw,  or  Rkp'rehen  sory,  a.  -ser-%,  containing  reproof  or 
censure. — Syn.  of  'reprehension':  reproof;  blame;  censure* 
admonition;  caution;  reprimand;  warning. 


REPRESENT— REPRESENTATION  , 

REPRESENT,  v.  rep're-zeni  [F.  representer— from  u 
reprmsentdre,  to  represent — from  re,  again;  prcesentdre,  to 
place  before — from  prcesens  or  prcesentem,  present:  It.  rap- 
presentare]:  to  show  or  exhibit  by  resemblance;  to  describe; 
to  show  by  words  and  actions;  to  personate;  to  act  the 
character  of  another,  as  in  a  play;  to  appear  in  an  assembly 
tor  others;  to  act  as  a  substitute  for;  to  show  by  arguments 
or  a  statement  of  facts.  Represent  jng  imp.  Rep  re- 
sented, pp.  Rep'resent  er,  n.  -er,  one  who  represents. 
Represent  able,  a.  -ci-bl,  that  may  be  represented. 
Rep'resent'ment,  n.  -ment,  image;  an  idea  proposed  as 
exhibiting  the  likeness  of  something.  Rep  resent  a'  tion, 
n.  -td  shun  [F. — L.]:  the  act  of  describing  or  showing;  a 
respectful  declaration;  that  which  exhibits  by  resemblance, 
as  a  picture  or  a  statue;  a  plan;  a  map;  a  model:  the  act  of 
representing  others,  as  by  deputation;  a  collective  body  of 
representatives  (see  Representation,  in  Politics):  perform- 
ance, as  of  a  play  on  the  stage.  Rep'resent  ative,  n. 
~a-tlv,  one  who  exhibits  the  likeness  of  another;  an  agent;  a 
deputy;  a  substitute;  one  who  represents  another  or  others; 
in  nat.  hist.,  that  which  represents  the  full  character  of  the 
type  of  a  group:  Adj.  bearing  the  character  or  power  of 
another;  conducted  by  the  agency  of  delegates  chosen  by 
the  people.  Rep'resent' atively,  ad.  -II.  Rep  resent' - 
ativeness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  represent- 
ative.— Syn.  of  '  representation  ':  resemblance;  exhibition; 
likeness;  description;  show;  delineation;  portraiture;  sight; 
spectacle. 

REPRESENTATION,  in  Politics:  function  of  the 
delegate  of  a  constituency  in  a  legislative  or  other  public 
assembly.  The  principle  of  R.,  even  where  not  directly 
recognized,  must  be  presumed  to  have  existed  to  some 
extent  in  all  governments  not  purely  democratic,  so  far  as 
the  sense  of  the  whole  nation  was  considered  to  be  spoken 
by  a  part,  and  the  decisions  of  a  part  to  be  binding  on  the 
whole.  The  constitution  of  ecclesiastical  councils,  in 
which  an  express  or  implied  R.  is  necessarily  involved, 
doubtless  conduced  to  the  application  of  a  similar  prin- 
ciple to  national  assemblies;  but  it  is  in  the  exigencies  of 
feudalism  that  we  trace  the  beginnings  of  an  avowed  and 
regulated  system  of  political  R.  The  feudal  superior  who 
had  to  levy  aid  from  his  vassals,  summoned  a  limited  num- 
ber of  them  to  attend  him,  and  confer  regarding  the  re- 
quired aid.  The  earliest  complete  system  of  representative 
institutions  is  found  in  the  parliament  of  the  Sicilies  under 
Hie  Swabian  kings;  but  Britain  is  the  only  country  in 
which  a  representative  feudal  assembly  ripened  into  a  legis- 
lative. As  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  we  find  the 
knights  of  the  shire  elected  by  the  '  men  of  the  country  ' 
probably  the  king's  military  tenants,  to  consider  in  the 
stead  of  each  and  all  of  them,  what  aid  would  be  granted 
to  th<j  king  for  a  proposed  expedition  into  Gascon y. 
Representatives  of  the  burgesses  were  soon  afterward 
summoned,  and  were  permanently  ingrafted  on  parlia- 
ment by  Ee  va  ;d  I.  In  Scotland,  representative  burgesses 
formed  a  part  of  the  national  assembly  from  the  time  o{ 


REPRESENTATION. 

Robert  Bruce's  famous  parliament  at  Cambuskenneth  1326; 
but  till  a  comparatively  late  period,  all  the  barons  or  free- 
holders of  the  country  formed  part  of  the  king's  council 
and  were  entitled  to  attend  in  person.  James  I.,  on  his 
leturn  from  England,  attempted  to  introduce  a  system  of 
11.  among  them,  bui  it  became  practically  inoperative;  and 
it  was  not  tiil  1587  that  the  representatives  of  the  small 
barons  came  to  form  part  of  the  parliament.  The  prog- 
ress of  society  has  led  to  great  changes  in  the  constitution 
of  the  British  elective  body,  the  most  sweeping  being 
those  introduced  by  the  Reform  acts:  see  Parliament: 
Reform,  Parliamentary. 

An  important  question  naturally  arises  connected  with 
the  subject  of  R.:  Is  the  delegate  the  mere  mouthpiece  of 
his  constituents,  who  must  give  effect  to  all  their  opinions 
and  interests,  or  is  it  his  duty  to  exercise  his  trust  in  the 
first  instauce  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  nation?  The 
former  idea  of  R,  was  doubtless  the  earlier  one;  but  it  can- 
not be  easily  vindicated  on  any  proper  theory  of  govern- 
ment; and  it  is  now  the  generally  recognized  doctrine 
among  English  statesmen,  that  a  member  of  the -house  of 
commons  is  bound  to  the  entire  nation  by  ties  higher  than 
those  which  bind  him  to  his  constituents;  and  that  he 
ought  to  support  such  measures  as  he  judges  most  bene- 
ficial to  the  country,  even  at  the  risk  of  prejudicing  the 
immediate  local  interests  of  the  body  which  sends  him.  It 
is  therefore  not  very  easy  to  reconcile  with  sound  principles 
the  usage  which  obtains  so  largely  of  demanding  pledges 
from  candidates  for  R.  as  to  how  they  are  to  vote  on  every 
public  question  that  is  likely  to  come  before  them.  Yet 
there  is  practically  a  difficulty  in  preventing  a  system  of  R. 
from  becoming  one  of  mere  delegation,  so  long  as  the  con- 
stitution gives  to  the  electors  the  power  of  making  their 
vote  depend  on  any  conditions  which  they  may  think  fit  to 
attach  to  it. 

Most  speculative  politicians  of  the  present  day  consider 
a  representative  government  of  some  sort  as  the  best  ideal 
type  of  government;  but  all  repudiate  the  idea  of  an  inborn 
right  in  all  citizens  to  participate,  and  still  more  to  partici- 
pate equally,  in  the  right  of  choosing  the  governing  body. 
Any  very  extensive  suffrage  tends  to  the  predominance  of 
mere  numbers  over  intelligence,  while  a  very  limited  suf- 
frage has  been  objected  to  as  precluding  the  benefits  which 
the  community  at  large  are  presumed  to  draw  from  partici- 
pation in  public  functions.  Several  intelligent  political 
writers,  while  advocating  a  widely  extended  suffrage,  have 
proposed  a  graduation  of  that  suffrage  by  giving  to  each 
individual  a  number  of  votes  corresponding,  as  far  as 
practicable,  to  his  intelligence,  property,  or  social  position. 
This  is  set  forth  as  the  ideal  of  representative  government; 
but  the  chief  question  is:  By  what  test  can  the  best  ap- 
proximate estimate  of  social  value  be  arrived  at?  Two 
different  schemes  for  this  purpose  have  been  proposed  by 
John  Stuart  Mill  and  Prof.  Lorimer  respectively — the 
former  founded  mainly  on  intelligence  as  indicated  by  in 
struetion,  and  the  latter  on  wealth  and  social  position.  The 


REPRESENTATION. 

attention  of  political  writers  has  lately  been  directed  ajao 
to  the  question  of  the  R.  of  minorities  in  local  communities, 
which  at  present  are  not  allowed  to  contribute  an  element 
in  representative  assemblies.  The  most  feasible  scheme 
for  minority  R.  is  perhaps  that  of  Hare,  which  had  the 
approval  of  Mill,  by  which  those  who  do  not  like  the  local 
candidates,  are  to  be  allowed  to  fill  up  voting  papers  by  a 
selection  from  the  names  of  any  persons  on  the  list  of  candi- 
dates, with  whose  general  political  principles  they  sym- 
pathize. This  system,  with  its  other  advantages,  would,  it 
is  supposed,  bring  into  legislative  bodies  numerous  men  of 
able  and  independent  thought,  who,  by  the  present  system, 
refrain  from  offering  themselves,  as  having  no  chance  of 
election  by  the  majority  of  any  existing  constituency.  See 
J.  S.  Mill,  Representative  Government  (1861);  Lorimer, 
Political  Progress  not  necessarily  Democratic  (1857);  Hare, 
The  Election  of  Representatives  (1860);  Walpole.  The  Elec- 
torate and  the  Legislature  (1882);  Traill.  Central  Government. 

In  the  United  States  provision  has  been  made  by  law  in 
several  states  for  the  R.  of  minority  bodies.  Thus  the 
N  Y.  statute  prescribing  the  mode  of  electing  members  of 
the  constitutional  convention  of  1867  provided  for  the  elec- 
tion by  the  people  of  32  members  at  large,  but  an  elector  was 
1  ermitted  to  cast  his  vote  for  onl}r  16:  thus  each  of  the  2 
political  parties  could  elect  an  equal  number  of  the  mem- 
bers. In  Penn.,  the  constitutional  convention  act  of  1872 
provided  for  a  proportional  R.  of  the  2  parties  in  the  elec- 
tion of  members  of  the  convention:  but  in  Penn.  all  the 
members — those  at  large  and  those  for  the  33  districts- 
were  to  be  chosen  according  to  this  method,  viz.:  a  voter 
might  cast  ballots  for  14  of  the  28  members  at  large;  and 
for  2  out  of  3,  or  4  out  of  6,  of  the  members  from  his  district. 
This  scheme  of  'limited  voting'  has  often  been  put  in 
practice  in  other  states.  A  different  mode  of  attaining  the 
same  end  is  the  '  free  '  or  4  cumulative '  vote.  This  scheme 
enables  even  a  small  minority  of  the  body  politic  to  ob- 
tain R.  By  it  every  elector  is  entitled  to  a  number  of  votes 
equal  to  the  number  of  representatives  to  be  chosen  from 
his  district:  but  he  may  give  them  all  to  one  candidate. 
The  method  of  cumulative  voting  was  proposed  for  adop- 
tion in  the  Brit,  parliament  1867,  but  was  rejected:  it  has 
since  been  put  in  practice  in  Britain  in  the  election  of 
local  representative  bodies.  It  is  embodied  in  the  111.  con- 
stitution of  1870:  Art.  IV.  §7  prescribes  the  method  of 
cumulative  voting  for  election  of  members  of  the  state 
house  of  representatives.  By  the  laws  of  many  of  the  states 
the  same  method  is  required  in  election  of  directors  and 
managers  of  incorporated  companies.  See  Ballot:  Suf. 
frage:  Government  (and  references  under  it).  . 

In  the  United  States  the  theory  is  that  the  senate  repre  - 
sents the  several  states  as  equal  individual  political  entities, 
while  in  the  lower  house  the  representatives  of  the  peopk 
appear:  thus  in  the  senate  all  the  states,  large  and  small, 
have  an  equal  representation — each  state  having  2  senator* 
and  no  more.  In  the  house  of  representatives,  the  people 
ot  each  state  have  a  R.  proportioned  in  number  %  the 


REPRESS— REPRIN1 

population,  except  that  each  state,  however  small,  is  en- 
titled to  R.  by  one  member.  The  territories  of  the  United 
States  have  no  R.  in  the  federal  senate:  to  the  house  of 
representatives  they  are  entitled  to  send  each  one  4  delega'e,' 
who,  however,  has  no  vote.  In  most  of  the  state  legislatures, 
U.  in  both  of  the  houses  is  generally  based  on  population, 
regard  being  had,  however,  to  geographical  subdivisions, 
as  counties,  townships,  wards,  etc.  In  some  states  (e.g.. 
Conn.)  the  town  is  in  part  the  basis.— See  Congress,  U.  S. 

REPRESS,  v.  re-pres'  [L.  repressus,  checked,  restrained 
—from  re,  back;  pressus,  pressed,  squeezed,  premere,  to 
press]:  to  put  or  keep  down;  to  crush;  to  restrain;  to  sub 
due.  Repressing,  imp.  Repressed',  pp.  -prfot'. 
Repress  er,  n.  -er,  one  who  represses.  Repress'ible,  a. 
-i-bl,  that  may  be  repressed.  Repress'ibly,  ad.  -bit. 
Repression,  n.  -presh'un  [F.— L.]:  the  act  of  subduing; 
check;  restraint.  Repressive,  a.  -pres'iv,  tending  or 
able  to  repress.  Repress  ively,  ad.  -It. — Syn.  of  're- 
press': to  subdue;  overpower;  crush;  smother;  suppress; 
curb;  check;  restrain;  quell. 

REPRIEVE,  v.  re-prev'  [OF.  reprover — from  L.reprobdre, 
to  disallow,  to  reject  (see  Reprobate)]:  to  suspend  or  de- 
lay the  execution  of  a  criminal;  to  grant  a  respite  to,  to  re- 
lieve from  any  suffering  for  a  time:  N.  suspension  or  delay 
of  punishment  for  a  crime;  applied  chiefly  in  connection 
with  capital  crimes.  The  U.  S.  constitution  gives  the  pres. 
power  to  grant  reprieves.  There  are  several  grounds  on 
which  the  judge  or  a  court  may  grant  R.  One  is,  where 
the  judge  is  not  satisfied  with  the  verdict,  or  is  doubtful  of 
the  validity  of  the  indictment;  in  which  case  he  reprieves 
the  sentence  to  give  time  for  some  appeal.  Moreover,  a 
ground  of  R.  acted  on  as  a  matter  of  course,  is  when  the 
prisoner  is  a  woman  pregnant  in  the  sense  of  being  'quick 
with  child,'  and  pleads  that  fact;  in  which  case  execution 
of  the  sentence  is  delayed  until  after  her  delivery.  This 
was  the  law  of  ancient  Rome;  and  nothing  connected  with 
the  memory  of  Queen  Mary  in  her  persecution  of  the 
Protestants  is  more  detestable  than  the  burning  in  her 
reign  of  a  pregnant  woman  in  Guernsey,  when  the  child, 
which  was  born  at  the  stake,  was  cast  into  the  fire  as  a 
young  heretic.  Another  cause  of  R.  is  the  insanity  of  the 
prisoner,  whether  the  insanity  supervened  after  the  crime 
or  not.    Repriev  ing,  imp.    Reprieved',  pp.  -prevd'. 

REPRIMAND,  v.  rep  ri-mdnd'  [F.  reprimander,  to  rep- 
rimand—from L.  reprimen'dus,  to  be  curbed  or  restrained 
— from  re,  back;  premo,  I  press]:  to  administer  a  severe 
reproof  or  rebuke  to  for  a  fault,  either  in  private  or  k 
public;  to  chide  or  reprove;  to  censure;  to  admonish: 
N.  severe  reproof  or  censure  for  a  fault.  Rep'rimand'ing, 
imp.  Rep  rimand  ed,  pp.— Syn.  of  *  reprimand,  v.':  to 
rebuke;  censure;  blame;  reprove;  reprehend;  chide;  re- 
proach; upbraid;  animadvert. 

REPRINT,  v.  re-print'  [re,  again,  and  print]:  to  print 
a  second  or  new  edition:  N.  re' print,  a  second  or  new 
edition  of  a  book.    Reprint  ing,  imp.    Reprint  ed,  pp. 


REPRISAL— REPROBATE. 

REPRISAL,  n.  re-prVzal  [P.  represaille,  retaliation — 
from  It.  ripi  esaylia:  L.  reprehen 'sus,  held  back,  seized  (see 
Reprehend)  | :  retaking,  from  an  enemy,  goods  which  he 
has  seized;  or  capture  from  him  of  other  goods,  as  equiva- 
lent for  the  damage  that  he  has  wrought.  Letters  of 
reprisals,  same  as  Letters  of  Marque  (q.v.). 

REPRISE,  n.  re-priz  [F.  reprise,  a  retaking:  L.  repren 
sus  or  reprehen' sus,  taken  or  held  back  (see  Reprehend)]: 
a  ship  retaken  from  an  enemy  or  pirate;  if  recaptured  within 
24  hours  of  the  hostile  seizure,  she  must  be  wholly  restored 
to  her  owners;  if  later,  she  is  the  lawful  prize  of  her  re- 
captors  :  in  arch.,  the  return  of  moldings  in  an  interna] 
angle;  in  OE.,  the  act  of  taking  something  by  way  of 
retaliation:  V.  in  OE.,  to  take  again;  to  recompense.  Re- 
pricing, imp.  Reprised  ,  pp.  -prizd' '.  Repri'ses,  n.  plu. 
deductions  and  payments  made  annually  out  of  lands, as  rent. 

REPROACH,  v.  re-prdch'  [F.  reprocher;  prov.  F.  re- 
propchar;  Sp.  reprochar,  to  reproach,  to  blame — from  a 
supposed  mid.  L.  repropidre,  to  lay  before  one's  eyes,  to 
blame — from  L.  prope,  near:  also  mid.  L.  reprochdre,  to 
charge  with  crime]:  to  pass  censure  upon  in  contemptuous 
terms;  to  upbraid;  to  charge  with  a  fault  in  severe  lan- 
guage: N.  censure  mingled  with  contemptuous  language; 
severe  reproof ;  infamy;  object  of  contempt  or  scorn;  that 
which  is  the  cause  of  shame.  Reproach  ing,  imp.  Re- 
proached', pp.  -prbchi .  Reproach  er,  n.  -er,  one  who 
reproaches.  Reproach/able,  a.  -dbl,  capable  of  being  re- 
proached. Reproach' ably,  ad.  -Ml.  Reproach'able- 
ness,  n.  -bl  nes,  the  state  of  being  reproachable.  Re- 
pro  ach'ful,  a.  -fed,  containing  or  expressing  reproach; 
bringing  or  casting  reproach;  upbraiding;  scurrilous;  base. 
Reproach  fully,  ad.  -II,  in  a  reproachful  manner;  scur 
rilously;  ignominiously.  Reproach  fulness,  n.  ~?ies,  the 
quality  of  being  reproachful.  Reproach'less,  a.  -les,  with- 
out reproach  — Syn.  of  '  reproach,  v.':  to  rebuke;  censure; 
blame;  upbraid;  revile;  vilify;  condemn; — of  'reproach, 
n  ':  discredit;  scandal;  dishonor;  contempt;  insult;  scorn; 
disgrace;  infamy;  shame;  disrepute;  opprobrium;  invective; 
abuse;  reviling;  scurrility;  insolence;  contumely;  sarcasm. 

REPROBATE,  a.  reprd-bdt  [L.  reprobutus,  censured, 
reproved;  reprobdre,  to  disapprove — from  re,  again;  pro- 
bdre,  to  test  J:  wholly  given  up  to  sin;  lost  to  virtue  or 
grace;  depraved;  abandoned;  rejected:  V.  to  disapprove 
with  marks  of  extreme  dislike;  to  give  up  to  destruction 
without  hope  of  pardon:  N.  a  person  given  up  to  wicked- 
ness; one  lost  to  virtue  and  religion.  Rep  robating,  imp. 
Reprobated,  pp.:  Adj.  rejected;  abandoned.  Rep'ro- 
bateness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of  being  reprobate.  Rep'ro- 
ba'tion,  n.  -bd'shun\¥. — L.]:  the  act  of  disallowing  with 
abhorrence;  in  iheol.,  state  of  being  consigned  or  abandoned 
to  destruction  without  hope  of  pardon — the  opposite  of 
election.  Rep'roba  tioner,  n.  -er,  one  who  holds  that 
part  of  the  human  race  were  created  for  reprobation. — - 
Syn.  of  '  reprobate,  a.':  abandoned;  profligate;  vile;  base; 
vitiated;  depraved;  castaway;  corrupt;  wicked. 


REPRODUCE— REPRODUCTION. 

REPRODUCE,  v.  re'prd-dus'  [re,  again,  and  produce: 
F.  reproduire  :  Sp.  reproducir]  :  to  form  anew  in  whole  or 
in  part  what  has  been  cat  off  or  lost ;  to  generate,  as  off- 
spring. Reproducing,  imp.  Reproduced',  pp.  -dust'. 
Reproducer,  n.  -ser,  one  who  or  that  which  reproduces. 
Reproductive,  a.  -dukftiv,  pert,  to  or  used  in  repro- 
duction ;  generative.  Reproduction,  n.  -shun  [F. — L.]  : 
the  act  or  process  of  renewing  that  which  has  been  lost 
or  destroyed ;  generation  ;  that  which  is  reproduced. 

REPRODUCTION  in  Animals,  propagation  of  or- 
ganized beings  in  the  animal  kingdom.  R.  is  by  three 
different  processes.  The  first  of  the  three  modes  of  mul- 
tiplication of  individuals  is  the  division  of  one  organism 
into  two;  each  of  these,  again,  dividing  into  two  others, 
and  so  on  :  this  is  termed  R.  by  fission.  The  second  mode 
of  R.  is  the  formation  of  a  bud  at  some  part  of  the  body  of 
the  animal:  this  bud  gradually  approximates  in  form  to 
that  of  the  parent  from  which  it  springs ;  its  pedicle  or 
stem  gradually  disappears  ;  and  the  liberated  bud  ulti- 
mately assumes  a  perfect  form,  resembling  in  all  respects 
the  parent  from  which  it  sprang :  R.  by  gemmation.  The 
third  mode  is  far  the  most  complicated  :  in  it  the  new  or- 
ganism results  from  a  series  of  change  soccurring  in  an  im- 
pregnated egg  or  ovum.  For  this  process,  distinct  sexual 
organs,  both  male  and  female,  are  required  ;  which,  how- 
ever, may  be  associated  in  the  same  individual,  though 
in  all  the  higher  animals  they  occur  in  distinct  individ- 
uals— a  female  organ  for  the  production  of  cells  termed 
'  germs,'  and  a  male  organ  for  the  production  of  certain 
cell  stermed  «  spermatozoa.'  It  is  from  the  union  (either 
within  or  without  the  body)  and  the  mutual  action  of 
these  cells — the  germ  and  the  spermatozoon — that  the 


Fig.  1.— Longitudinal  Fission  of  Vorticella. 


impregnated  ovum  results.  The  new  resulting  body  is 
altogether  different  from  either  of  the  cells  which  took 
part  in  its  production.  This  is  the  ordinary  form  of  R. 
in  all  the  higher  animals,  and  may  be  termed  true  gener- 
ation, in  contradistinction  to  the  previous  forms  of  re- 
production by  multiplication.  The  terms  Digenesis  and 
Heterogenesis  have  been  applied  by  recent  physiological* 
writers  to  designate  the  form  of  R.  in  which  the  con- 
tact of  germs  and  spermatozoa  gives  rise  to  fecundation ; 
while  the  germs  Monogenesis  and  Homogenesis  have  been 
similarly  applied  to  the  cases  in  which  non-sexual  R. 
takes  place  by  fission  or  gemmation. 

Fissiparous  multiplication  is  illustrated  by  reference  to 
the  Infusoria.  It  may  be  either  longitudinal,  as  usual 
in  VbrticeUa  ;  or  transverse,  as  in  Slentor;  or  indifferently 


longitudinal  or  transverse,  as  in  Chilodon,  Paramecium, 
etc.  The  joints  of  tape-worms  multiply  in  this  manner, 
and  when  sufficiently  developed  become  free.  Among 
some  of  the  Annelids  or  true  worms,  also,  E.  of  this  kind 
in  somewhat  modified  form  is  observed.  This  was  no- 
ticed first  in  a  Nais  by  the  Danish  naturalist  Miiller,  by 
whom  it  was  regarded  as  rare  and  accidental.  Re- 
searches of  De  Quatrefages  and  Milne-Edwards  have 
shown  that  the  process  is  far  more  significant  than 
Miiller  supposed.  In  the  genus  Syllis,  De  Quatrefages 
noticed  the  following  appearances :  When  one  of  these 
worms  is  about  to  reproduce  itself  by  fission,  a  number 
of  rings  become  developed  at  its  posterior  extremity, 
and  there  is  a  notch  or  groove  beween  the  first  of  these 
rings  and  the  part  in  front  of  it.  The  first  ring  soon  be- 
comes organized  into  a  head  provided  with  eyes  and 
antennas.  The  two  annelids,  parent  and  offspring,  con- 
tinue, however,  to  be  united  by  the  skin  and  intestine 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  latter  animal  lives  solely  on 


Fig.  2.—31yriana,  with  six  new  individuals  formed  on  it. 

the  food  swallowed  by  the  former.  During  this  period, 
each  possesses  independent  life,  for  a  struggle  may 
often  be  observed  between  the  two,  each  wishing  to  go 
its  own  way.  After  a  certain  time,  the  body  of  the  off- 
spring becomes  distended  with  ova  in  some  cases,  and 
with  spermatozoa  in  others,  while  neither  of  these  struct- 
ures is  seen  in  the  body  of  the  primary  animal.  Com- 
plete division  is  at  length  effected,  and  the  offspring  is 
free.  In  a  few  days,  however,  their  bodies  burst,  from 
the  distention  caused  by  their  contents.  Ova  and  sper- 
matozoa are  thus  diffused  through  the  water,  and  fecun- 
dation thus  takes  place.  In  the  genus  Myrianida  (Auto- 
lytus,  according  to  Grube's  classification),  Milne-Edwards 
has  seen  no  less  than  six  new  individuals  (instead  of  a 
single  one,  as  in  Syllis)  formed  in  gradual  succession, 
one  before  the  other,  between  the  two  terminal  seg- 


KEPRODUCTION. 
ments  of  the  original  body.  Each  of  these  new  individ- 
uals, as  it  arrived  at  maturity,  and  acquired  the  exter- 
nal form  (in  reduced  dimensions)  of  the  parents,  was 
found  to  be  possessed  of  reproductive  organs,  of  which 
the  original  animal  was  totally  devoid.  The  youngest 
and  smallest  individual  is  the  most  remote  from  the  tail. 

In  these  instances,  multiplication  by  division  occurs 
as  a  natural  process,  but  there  are  many  cases  in  which 
artificial  division  gives  rise  to  multiplication.  Bonnet 
having  found  that  a  certain  kind  of  small  worm,  when 
cut  in  two,  reproduced  a  tail  at  the  cut  extremity  of  the 
oephalic  half,  and  formed  a  head  upon  the  caudal  half, 
increased  the  number  of  sections,  and  finally  succeeded 
in  dividing  one  worm  into  26  parts,  almost  all  of  which 
acquired  a  head  and  tail,  and  thus  became  distinct  in- 
dividuals. Corresponding  results  may  be  obtained  by 
dividing  a  planaria  or  actinia  into  many  segments. 

Reproduction  by  gemmation  is  a  phenomenon  very  fre- 
quent in  the  lower  departments  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
In  the  lowest  of  the  animal  sub-kingdoms,  the  Pkotozoa 
it  occurs  in  the  Rhizopoda — viz.,  in  the  Foraminifera 
in  the  Spongiai,  being  probably  the  most  common  form 
of  K.  in  sponges ;  and  in  the  Infusoria, 
e.g.,  in  Vorticella.    In  the  Ccelen- 
tebata,  it  is  of  almost  general  occur- 
rence in  the  classes  Hydrozoa  and 
Actinozoa ;  and  in  the  Molluscoids 
it  occurs  in  Polyzoa  and  in  Tunicata. 
In  the  accompanying  figure  (fig.  3), 
the  process  is  shown  as  it  occurs  in 
the  Hydra  fusca,  a  fresh- water  hydra 
(type  of  the  Hydrozoa).     If  some 
hydras  are  kept  for  a  few  days  in 
a  glass  of  their  native  water,  knot- 
like excrescences  will  be  seen  on 
their  bodies.    These  are  the  buds  or 
gemmce,  which  rapidly  enlarge,  and 
each  by  degrees  assumes  the  appear- 
ance of  a  young  hydra,  tentacles 
appearing  about  the  mouth,  just  as 
in  the  original  animal.    For  some 
time,  a  portion  of  the  food  (minute 
infusoria,  entomostraca, etc.),  caught  j,.     3_#^m  fusca, 
and  digested  by  the  parent,  passes    witn  *  a  young  bud 
into  the  body  of  the  offspring ;  but    at  b,  and  more  ad- 
when  the  tentacles  are  sufficiently    danced  bud  at  c. 
developed,  the  young  polyp  catches  food  for  itself ;  and 
when  it  is  sufficiently  matured  to  commence  an  in- 
dependent existence,  the  connecting  pedicle  gives  way, 
and   the  young  animal   is  free  and  independent,  its 
posterior  aperture  of  communication  soon  closing. 

It  must  Jbe  distinctly  understood  that  the  fact  of  an 
organism  reproducing  itself  by  fission  or  gemmation 
does  not  by  any  means  exclude  the  possibility  that  it 
may  be  reproduced  also  by  fecundated  ova.  That  this 
li  the  case.  i&  indeed  showu  in  the  instance  of  th© 


BEPliO  jl»  U  OTION. 
worm  Myriana.     The  Hydra,  too,  increases  by  3"?a,  ana 
it  may  be  cut  in  pieces,  each  of  which  becomes  a  per- 
fect animal.    Other  corroborative  cases  might  be  given. 

In  true  generation-  two  special  organs  ar3  required — a 
female  organ  for  producing  ohe  germ-cell  or  ovum,  and  a 
male  organ  for  producing  the  sp  rm-cell  or  spermatozoon  ; 
and  each  form  of  generative  apparatus  consists  of  two 
parts,  of  which  one  is  a  formati.e  rgan — in  the  female 
termed  an  ovarium,  or  ovary,  ^nd  ir  the  male  a  testis — 
in  which  the  reproductive  cells  are  formed,  and  which 
is  essential;  and  an  efferent  duct,  by  which  the  products 
of  secretion  are  carried  off.  The  male  and  female  organs 
may  exist  in  separate  individuals,  or  they  may  co-exist 
in  the  same  individual,  giving  rise  to  the  condition 
known  as  Hermaphroditism  (q. v.).  The  former  condition  is 
termed  bisexual  or  diozcious,  and  the  latter  unisexual  or 
monozciou8.  Fov  a  general  description  of  the  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  impregnated  egg,  see  De- 
velopment OF  THE  EMBBYO. 

The  following  briefly  outlines  the  mode  or  modes  of 
B.  in  the  different  classes  of  animals,  beginning  with  the 
lowest. 

In  the  sub-kingdom  Protozoa,  B.  is  usually  by  fission, 
occasionally  by  gemmation;  but  no  satisfactory  in- 
stances of  true  sexual  propagation  by  means  of  ova  and 
spermatozoa  are  known,  those  cases  described  in  certain 
Infusoria  not  Laving  been  confirmed  by  subsequent  ob- 
servers. It  is  worthy  of  notice  that .  in  the  Infusoria, 
propagation  is  effected  in  no  less  than  three  different 
ways — viz.,  by  the  two  proces.  cs  already  described,  and 
by  a  process  known  as  '  en^ystation.    See  Infusoria. 

In  the  sub-kingdom  Ccelenterata,  it  is  iound  that 
both  the  Hydrozca  and  the  Anthozoa  multiply  by 
gemmation,  by  a  true  reproductive  process,  and  in  a  few 
genera  by  fission. 

In  the  Echinodermata  fission  has  been  observed  in 
one  class,  the  Holothuroidea,  which,  moreover,  have 
distinct  sexual  organs  combined  in  the  same  individual. 
In  the  other  classes — the  Echinoidea,  Asteroidea,  and 
Crinoidea — the  sexes  are  separate,  and  generation  takes 
place  only  by  the  union  of  germs,  or  ova  and  spermatozoa. 
In  the  Annelida,  true  generation  takes  place,  though, 
as  above  shown,  multiplication  is  sometimes  by  fission. 
In  the  lower  Mollusca  or  Molluscoids,  multiplication  is 
by  gemmation  and  by  true  generation ;  while  in  the 
higher  Mollusca,  multiplication  takes  place  only  by  true 
generation. 

In  the  Articulata — Insects,  Crustaceans,  etc.— dis- 
tinct generative  organs  arealv/ays  present;  and,  except 
in  one  class  of  Crustaceans — the  Cirrhopoda — the  sexes 
are  distinct. 

In  the  Vertebrata  is  found  the  highest  and  most 
complex  development  of  the  generative  function.  In 
them,  with  a  doubtful  exception  in  the  case  of  one  or 

two  genera  of  fishes,  the  sexes  are  always  distinct. 
The  osseous  and  cartilaginous  fishes  present  important 


REPRODUCTION, 
differences  in  their  reproductive  organs  and  modes  of 
R.  In  the  osseous  fishes,  the  essential  female  organ — - 
the  ovary,  or  roe — consists  of  a  large  membranous  bag, 
usually  in  two  lobes,  sometimes  single.  When  distended 
with  ova,  this  organ  fills  the  greater  part  of  the  abdom- 
inal cavity,  and  its  lining  membrane  is  arranged  in 
folds,  wherein  the  ova  are  formed  a^d  retained  until 
ripe  for  expulsion.  They  then  esca  e  into  the  ovarian 
cavity,  and  are  expelled  in  almost  incredible  numbers 
through  a  special  opening  immediately  behind  the  anus 
and  in  front  of  the  urinary  canal.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
cva  of  fishes  are  impregnated  after  their  expulsion;  and 
in  order  that  the  impregnation  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
£jgs  may  be  secured,  the  male  secietion  of  fishes — the 
nuid  containing  the  spermatozoa — is  very  abundant ;  the 
male  secreting  gland,  which  in  fishes  is  termed  *  the 
milt'  or  «  soft  roe,'  being  equal  in  bulk  to  the  ovary  of 
the  female.  In  a  few  instances,  however,  the  young  are 
hatched  in  the  ovary,  and  grow  to  a  considerable  size 
before  they  are  born,  and  in  these  cases-— e.g.,  in  the 
viviparous  blenny — impregnation  must  take  place  inter, 
nally.  In  the  cartilaginous  fishes— as  the  sharks  and 
rays — the  generative  organs  are  of  higher  type.  The 
eggs  are  here  always  impregnated  within  the  body  of 
the  female,  the  male  having  special  organs  by  which 
true  sexual  congress  is  effected,  and  the  ovaries  form 
two  large  racemous  bunches  on  either  side  of  the  spine. 
The  eggs  are  large  in  size,  and  comparatively  small  in 
number;  and  as  each  egg  escapes  from  the  ovary,  it  is 
seized  by  a  true  oviduct,  which  furnishes  it  with  ad- 
ditional protective  coverings.  About  the  middle  of  this 
tube  *  there  is  a  thick  glandular  mass,  destined  to 
secrete  a  horny  shell,  in  which 
the  yolk  and  white  of  the  egg 
become  incased.  The  egg, 
when  completed,  has  somewhat 
the  shape  of  a  pillow-case, 
with  the  four  corners  length- 
ened out  into  long  tendril-like 
cords,  whereby  the  egg  is  en- 
tangled among  the  sea- weed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  A 
brittle  g-shell  would  soon  be 
destroyed  by  the  beating  f 
the  waves ;  hence  the  necessity 
for  the  corneous  nature  of  the 
envelope ;  and  yet  how  is  the 
feeble  embryo  to  escape  from 
such  a  tough  and  leather-like 
cradle?  This  likewise  has  been 
Fig.4.-TheE^ofCartilag-  Provided  for.  The  egg  remains 
inous  Fish,  opened  so  permanently  open  at  one  ex- 
as  to  show  the  young  tremity  ;  the  slightest  pressure 
animal.  from  within,  therefore,  sepa- 

rates the  valvular  lips  of  the  opening,  and  no  sooner  has 
the  little  shark  thus  extricated  itself  from  its  confine* 


REPRODUCTION. 

ment,  than  the  two  sides  close  so  accurately,  that  the 
fissure  is  imperceptible.' 

In  the  Ampkibia  or  Batrachia,  the  sexes  are  more 
closely  associated  than  in  the  osseous  fishes,  the  ova 
being  generally  impregnated  as  they  escape  from  the 
oviduct.  The  mode  of  R.  of  some  amphibians  is  re- 
markable and  auomalous.    See  Pipa. 

In  the  true  Reptiles,  the  male  sexual  organs  become 
more  perfect,  adaptations  being  supplied  to  facilitate  the 
impregnation  of  the  female. 

In  Birds,  the  generative  organs  present  close  analogy 
to  those  of  the  higher  reptiles.  There  is  only  a  single 
ovary  (the  left)  that  has  a  bunch-like  or  racemous  ap- 
pearance; the  right,  with  its  oviduct,  being  always 
atrophied  or  rudimentary — a  remarkable  violation  of 
symmetry,  resembling  that  which  occurs  in  the  lungs  of 
serpents.  As  prolonged  utero-gestation  would  be  incom- 
patible with  flight,  incubation  here  attains  its  fullest 
development. 

In  Mammals,  a  new  organ  for  the  first  time  appears, 
from  which  that  important  class  derives  its  name.  In 
most  of  them  (see  Mammalia:  Placenta),  a  temporary 
organ  also,  the  Placenta,  is  formed,  by  which  the  fetus 
is  nourished  during  uterine  existence. 

Huxley's  Comp.  Anat.  of  Invertebrated  Animals,  p.  27 ; 
and  Balfour's  Comparative  Embryology. 

REPRODUCTION  in  Plants:  propagation  of  organ- 
isms in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  See  Plant:  Vegetable 
Physiology:  Fecundation.  Reproduction,  so  far  as 
known,  is  by  fission  and  more  rarely  internal  self-division 
in  the  Protophytes,  much  as  in  Protozoa:  budding  in 
these  low  organisms  is  a  modification  of  fission.  Above 
these  come  the  Zygospores  [Gr.  zugos,  yoke],  in  which 
two  sexual  cells,  mostly  without  observable  difference, 
unite  to  produce  a  thick-walled  'resting  spore*  (zygo- 
spore), which  continues  through  drought  or  winter.  Of 
this  division  is  the  class  named  from  its  zoospores,  or 
locomotive  sexual  cells,  including  the  curious  *  water- 
net/  common  in  ponds;  the  Conjugate,  in  which  there  is 
distinct  conjugation  of  the  entire  mature  plant,  as  in 
desmids  and  diatoms,  or  a  commingling  of  the  contents 
of  conjugated  cells  on  two  filaments,  as  in  Spirogyra  (the 
pond-threads  with  spiral  chlorophyl,  order  Zymenacw  and 
the  Mucor  type  of  molds,  which  also  produce  asexually 
in  terminal  cells  (conidia).  The  Oospores,  next,  develop 
a  large  cell,  oogonium,  containing  oosphores,  which  are 
fertilized  by  either  the  protoplasm  or  motil  spermato- 
zoids  issuing  from  another  special  smaller  cell,  antherid- 
ium,  and  produce  a  resting  oospore:  the  classes  differ 
greatly  in  size  and  structure,  including  the  small  gobular 
colony  Volvox;  the  filamentous  (Edogoniew,  forming 
green  fringes  on  sticks  in  water  and  developing  inter- 
calary sexual  cells;  the  similar  but  tubular  Cceloblasts, 
like  Vaucheria,  with  outgrowing  sexual  cells;  the  similar 
but  colorless  parasitic  Saprolegniaeea;  the  Peronospore 
molds  or  mildews,  germinating  m  the  cells  of  higher 


REPRODUCTION, 
plants,  such  as  grape  and  potato  vines ;  and  the  Fucaceous 
sea-weeds,  sometimes  gigantic.  The  Carpospores  form 
various  antherids,  and  a  sporocarp,  containing  one  or 
more  spores,  and  with  a  more  or  less  complex  envelope 
(fruit-like,  hence  the  name,  from  Gr.  karpos,  fruit),  and 
include  the  class  Coleochcete,  small  fresh-water  masses  of 
radiating  filaments ;  the  class  Floridece,  red  and  violet 
sea-weeds,  the  spermatozoids  of  which  float  about  until 
they  come  in  contact  with  carpogonia ;  the  class  Ascomy- 
cetes  [Gr.  askos,  sac],  including  various  molds,  the 
edible  morel,  black-knot,  lichens,  rusts  and  smuts ;  the 
Basidiomycetes,  fungi ;  and  the  Characece,  stoneworts, 
certain  aquatic  plants  with  stem  and  leaves — a  high 
advance  in  form,  with  the  same  essential  style  of  repro- 
duction as  rust  and  smut.  Next  above  are  the  Bryo- 
phytes,  comprising  liverworts  and  mosses,  with  alter- 
nations of  sexual  and  asexual  generations,  for  the  details 
of  which  see  Hepatic^  :  Mosses.  Following  these  are 
the  Pteridophytes,  with  similar  alternations,  but  with 
much  higher  development  of  tissues :  see  Equisetaceje  : 
Ferns.  In  the  highest  branch,  Phanerogamia  (see 
Phanerogamic,)  flowering  plants,  the  pollen-grain  pro- 
duced by  the  stamen,  meeting  the  stigma  of  the  pistil, 
sends  down  a  tubular  prolongation  of  itself  to  the  embry- 
onic vesicle,  and  a  seed  results,  which  differs  from  a 
spore  in  the  development  within  it  of  an  embryo  plant. 
For  details,  see  Vegetable  Physiology. 

Many  flowering  plants  are  fertilized  by  their  own 
pollen;  in  most  cases  the  wind  is  the  agent,  and  the 
plants  and  flowers  are  not  lacking  in  beauty  (see  Justice 
Edward  Fry,  Contemporary  Review,  1879-80,  on  Utility  to 
Flowers,  etc.).  In  plants  that  have  two  kinds  of  flowers, 
one  kind  showy,  the  other  hidden  (Cleistogenous,  q.v.),  the 
latter  are  most  prolific.  Still,  many  plants  are  dependent 
on  insects  for  cross-fertilization,  which  has  been  proved 
by  experiment  with  some  plants  to  be  highly  advan- 
tageous in  producing  vigorous  offspring;  and,  in  not  a 
few  instances,  the  position  of  stamen  and  pistil,  or 
the  former  not  coming  to  maturity,  or  else  not  at  the 
same  time  with  the  latter,  renders  the  plant  dependent 
on  insects  for  any  fertilization  at  all.  Sprengel,  in  the 
end  of  the  18th  c,  observed  some  of  these  facts,  and  they 
were  studied  by  Charles  Darwin  (q.v.),  and  set  forth 
in  several  of  his  works.  While  he  found  no  adaptation 
to  insects  in  some  orchids,  for  example,  in  others  he 
traced  the  most  elaborate  contrivances  for  this  agency. 
Thus  in  one  species,  Catasetum  saccatum,  when  an  insect 
lights  on  the  lip  of  the  male  flower,  and  touches  an 
irritable  horn  of  the  hood,  the  irritability  is  at  once  con- 
veyed to  the  hidden  curved  stamen,  which  springs  out, 
and  its  pollen  strikes  the  head  of  the  insect.  In  many 
common  plants  of  Europe  and  America,  arrangements 
as  certain  if  not  as  curious  are  found  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. As  to  beauty,  Darwin  claimed  only  that  flowers 
have  become  '  beautiful,  or  rather  conspicuous-  in  con- 


REPROMULG  ATE— KEPT  ANT. 
trast  with  the  greenness  of  the  leaves,'  to  attract  insects. 
This  is  nou  the  same  teaching  as  that  of  others,  e.g., 
Lubbock,  that  the  shape,  colors,  honey,  and  scent  ol 
flowers,  all  are  due  to  the  selection  exercised  by  insects. 
This  was  well  answered  by  the  late  Dr.  Asa  Gray,  him- 
self an  evolutionist,  in  the  Contemporary  Review  (1882) ; 
see  summary  in  H.  W.  Parker's  Spirit  of  Beauty,  pp.  63-64. 
Dr.  Gray  made  a  distinction  between  insect-produced 
and  insect-educed  beauty.  Darwin,  with  his  charac- 
teristic candor,  speaks  of  insects  linding  their  way  to 
minute  nectar-glands  on  leaves,  to  small  and  dingy 
flowers,  and  as  indifferently  visiting  the  variously  colored 
flowers  of  the  same  species,  or  after  the  petals  had 
fallen;  and  he  observed  bees  paying  no  attetition  to 
flowers  during  the  intervals  when  the  sun  was  not 
shining,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  odor.  The  heavenly  com- 
binations, harmonies,  and  delicate  perfections  of  beauty 
in  many  flowers  have  no  explanation  in  the  senses  and 
supra-oesophageal  ganglia  of  insects.  Besides,  there  is 
abundant  beauty  in  leaf,  stem,  fungus,  moss,  sea- weed, 
and  microscopic  features,  with  which  insects  have 
nothing  to  do. 

REPROMULG  ATE,  v.  re'prd-mul'gdt  [re,  and  promul 
gate] :  to  promulgate  again. 

REPROOF  :  see  under  Reprove. 

REPROVE,  v.  re-prov'  [P.  reprouver,  to  reject,  to  dis- 
allow— from  L.  reprobdre,  to  condemn  (see  Reprobate)]  : 
to  reprimand  ;  to  chide  ;  to  blame  or  censure  ;  to  rebuke. 
Reproving,  imp.  Reproved',  pp.  -provd'.  Reprov'er, 
n.  -er,  one  who  reproves.  Reprov'able,  a.  -prdv'a-bl, 
deserving  censure ;  blamable.  Reprov'ably,  ad.  -bll. 
Reprovingly,  ad.  -tt.  Reproof7,  n.  -prof,  blame  ex- 
pressed to  the  face;  censure;  in  OE.,  slander. — Syn.  of 
'  reprove  ' :  to  blame;  censure ;  check ;  chide  ;  reprehend  ; 
refute ;  rebuke  ;  scold  ;  reprimand  ; — of  *  reproof ' :  re- 
buke ;  censure  ;  blame  ;  admonition  ;  reprehension ; 
chiding. 

REPRUNE,  v.  re-pron'  [re,  again,  and  prune]  :  to 
prune  a  second  time. 

REPTANT,  a.  rep'tant  [L.  reptans  or  reptan'tem,  creep- 
ing, crawling;  repidre,  to  creep  (see  Reptile)]  :  in  bot., 
creeping.  Reptation,  n.  rep-ta'shun,  in  zool.,  the  act  of 
creeping  or  crawling. 


REPTILE. 

REPTILE,  n.  rep'lil  [F.  reptile  ;  It.  rettile  ;  Sp.  reptil, 
a  reptile — from  L.  reptilis,  creeping — from  reptare,  to 
creep  along,  to  crawl ;  repo,  serpo,  I  creep :  Gr.  herpo, 
I  creep]  :  an  animal  that  creeps  on  its  belly,  or  moves 
along  by  means  of  short  legs,  as  snakes,  lizards,  etc. ;  a 
grovelling  mean  creature :  Adj.  moving  on  the  belly,  or 
by  means  of  small  feet  or  legs.  Reptilia,  n.  plu.  rep- 
tU'i-a,  the  systematic  name  for  the  cold-blooded  verte- 
brate animals  that  never  possess  gills — including  tor- 
toises, snakes,  lizards,  and  crocodiles.  Reptii/ian,  a. 
-i-an,  belonging  to  the  reptiles  or  reptilia :  N.  one  of  the 
reptilia. — Reptiles  are  a  class  of  Vertebrates  distinguished 
from  Amphibians  (q.v.)  by  never  possessing  gills,  but  by 
breathing  by  lungs  throughout  life,  by  the  usual  pres- 
ence of  an  exoskeleton,  by  possession  of  only  one  occip- 
ital condyle,  and  by  numerous  other  characters — chiefly 
osteological.  They  agree  in  structure  much  more  closely 
with  birds,  which  Huxley  has  shown  to  present  only  a 
modification  of  the  reptilian  type,  and  with  which  he 
has  accordingly  united  them  into  the  group  Sauropsida. 
They  are  distinguished  from  birds  chiefly  by  the  exo- 
skeleton taking  the  form  of  scales  or  scutes,  but  never 
of  feathers,  by  the  forelimb  possessing  more  than  three 
digits,  by  the  slight  development  of  the  pelvis,  the  sep- 
arateness  of  the  metatarsal  bones,  and  the  cold  blood. 
They  are  divided  into  nine  orders,  of  which  the  first 
four  only  exist  at  the  present  day,  and  the  remaining 
five  are  extinct :  1.  Lacertilia  (lizards,  chameleons, 
blind- worms,  etc.) ;  2.  Crocodilia  (alligators,  crocodiles, 
gavials) ;  3.  Ophidia  (snakes) ;  4.  Chelonia  (tortoises  and 
turtles);  5.  Ickthyosauria  ('  fish-dragons ') ;  6.  Plesiosauria 
(the  so-called  '  swan-dragons ') ;  7.  Dicynodontia  (with 
walrus-like  teeth) ;  8.  Pterosauria,  or  pterodactyls  (the 
so-called  *  flying  dragons ') ;  and  9.  Ornithoscelida,  or 
bird-like  reptiles  (iguanodon,  etc.),  which  were  almost 
perfectly  intermediate  between  the  ordinary  reptiles  and 
the  birds. 

Except  the  tortoises,  the  reptiles  in  general  are  of 
elongated  form,  the  body  being  often  nearly  cylindrical, 
and  usually  terminating  in  a  very  long  tail.  In  a  con- 
siderable number  (as  the  serpents  and  some  of  the  liz- 
ards), no  traces  of  limbs  are  apparent ;  in  some  (as  cer- 
tain lizards),  the  limbs  are  rudimentary;  while  in  the  re- 
mainder the  limbs  are  fully  developed,  though  not  to 
the  extent  to  which  development  takes  place  in  birds  or 
quadrupeds,  as  the  feet  rarely  suffice  to  keep  the  bellj 
from  the  ground.  The  outer  covering  of  the  body  pre 
sents  several  well-marked  varieties.  In  a  few  of  th( 
lizards,  the  skin  is  covered  with  regular  scales,  com 
posed  of  a  mixture  of  bony  and  horny  matter,  and  lyinf 
over  each  other  like  those  of  fishes ;  in  most  lizards  anQ 
in  serpents,  there  are  scales  and  plates  developed  on  the 
surface  of  the  corium  or  true  skin,  and  covered  over  with 
epidermis,  which  is  thrown  off  at  intervals,  the  moult 
forming  in  accurate  cast  of  the  body  of  the  animal; 
while  in  the  crocodiles  and  tortoises  the  scales  are  con^ 


EEPTILE. 

verted  into  true  bony  plates,  which  in  tne  former  are 
embedded  in  the  tissue  of  the  skin,  and  in  the  latter  ai* 
united  with  the  ribs,  sternum,  etc.,  of  the  internal  skel- 
eton, to  form  the  complete  bony  case  into  which  the 
head  and  limbs  of  the  animal  can  be  retracted. 

The  skeleton  is  completely  ossified  in  all  reptiles,  and 
presents  to  the  philosophical  anatomist  many  points  of 
interest,  for  which  space  here  is  lacking.  In  the  skele- 
ton of  the  crocodiles  and  lizards,  there  is  an  obvious 
distinction  of  the  regions  of  the  neck,  trunk,  and  tail. 
The  total  number  of  vertebrae  is  often  great,  but  it  is 


Fig.  1.— Anatomy  of  a  Serpent, 
tongne  and  glottis;  ce,  oesophagus  (partly  removed  to  show  heart, 
'  etc.)  ;  Ir,  trachea  ;  ca,  ca,  carotid  arteries  ;  c,  left  auricle  ;  c\  right 
auricle  ;  vt,  ventricle  of  heart  ;  vc,  vena  cava  inferior  ;  p,  p,  principal 
lung  ;  p\  rudimentary  lung  ;  i,  stomach  ;  int,  intestines  ;  cl,  cloaca  ; 
an,  amis  ;  o,  ovary  ;  o',  o' ,  ova. 

chiefly  in  the  caudal  region  that  the  excess  occurs  ; 
there  being  36  caudal  vertebrae  in  the  crocodile,  and  115 
in  the  monster  lizard.  In  the  serpents,  the  vertebral 
column  is  more  abundantly  sub-divided  than  \n  any  other 
animal  ;  the  number  of  vertebrae  in  the  python  being 
422.  of  which  about  six-sevenths  possess  ribs  articu- 
lated to  their  bodies  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  ^  By  the 
motion  thus  allowed  to  the  ribs,  they  become  in  some 
degree  instruments  of  progression.  In  the  reptiles 
generally  (excepting  the  tortoises),  one  surface  of  each 
centrum  (or  body)  of  the  vertebrae  is  concave,  and  the 


KEPTILE. 

other  convex ;  while  in  the  tortoises  these  surfaces  are 
flat.  The  true  skull  is  small,  the  bulk  of  the  head  being 
made  up  by  the  jawbones.  As  the  sutures  separating 
the  individual  bones  never  become  obliterated,  the  rep- 
tilian skull  is  well  adapted  to  illustrate  the  true  struct- 
ure of  the  vertebral  skeleton.  In  fig.  3  is  the  skull  of 
the  crocodile ;  in  fig.  4,  that  of  a  serpent ;  and  in  both, 
the  corresponding  bones  are  indicated  by  the  same 


Fig.  2.— Anatomy  of  Lizard : 
a,  a',  arches  of  the  aorta;  r,  right  auricle;  I,  left  auricle;  vt  ven- 
tricle; vcs,  vena  cava  superior;  vci,  vena  cava  inferior;  va, 
ventral  aorta;  pv,  pulmonary  veins;  pa,  pulmonary  arteries; 
lu,  lung;  Zi,  liver  and  hepatic  vein;  k,  kidneys  and  renal  ves- 
sels; vp,  vena  porta);  s,  stomach;  int,  intestines;  an,  anus. 

references.  1  is  the  principal  frontal,  divided  in  the 
serpent  into  two  parts ;  2,  2  are  the  anterior,  and  4,  4  the 
posterior  frontals ;  7  is  the  parietal  bone,  usually  single 
in  reptiles;  12,  12  are  the  mastoid  bones  (homologous  to 
the  mastoid  process  in  man) ;  17,  17  are  the  intermaxil- 
laries  ;  18,  18  are  the  maxillaries  ;  20,  20  are  the  nasals  ; 
23  is  the  temporal  bone  (corresponding  to  the  squamous 
portion  of  the  human  bone) ;  34,  35,  36,  37  are  the  dental, 
the  articular,  the  angular,  and  the  opercular  portions  of 


BEPTILE. 

the  inferior  maxiua,  or  lower  jaw ;  a  is  the  tympanic  bone, 
which  supports  the  drum  of  the  ear ;  b  is  the  zygomatic 
or  malar  bone  ;  and  c,  c  the  lachrymals.  The  lower  jaw 
(except  in  the  tortoises)  presents  the  peculiarity  of  being 
composed  of  a  number  of  separate  pieces ;  there  being 
four  or  five  in  each  half -jaw  in  serpents,  while  in  crocc 


Fig.  3.-Skull  of  Crocodile. 


diles  and  lizards  each  half  is  divided  inco  leas'*'  /fve, 
and  generally  six  pieces,  which  are  united  by  suture. 
The  four  most  important  of  these  are  shown  in  fig.  3, 
The  purpose  of  this  arrangement  is  probably  (as  Dr, 
Buckland  suggested  in  his  Bridgewater  Treatise)  to  dimin- 
ish the  risk  of  fracture,  which  would  otherwise  attend 
the  snapping  together  of  their  elongated  jaws. 

The  bones  of  the  extremities,  except  in  the  serpents, 
which  have  no  limbs,  correspond  with  those  occurring 
in  the  higher  Vertebrata. 

The  mouth,  except  in  the  Chelonians,  is  usually  pro- 
vided with  conical  teeth,  adapted  rather  for  seizing  and 
holding  prey,  than  for  dividing  and  masticating  food 


Fig.  4.— Skull  of  Serpent. 


These  teeth,  like  those  of  fishes,  are  successional ;  that 
is  to  say,  new  teeth  are  being  constantly  developed, 
while  the  older  ones  are  regularly  shed.  In  the  croco- 
diles, three  or  even  four  generations  of  teeth,  sheathed 
one  within  the  other,  may  often  be  seen  in  the  same 
socket.  In  some  instances,  the  teeth  are  attached  solely 
to  the  jaws,  while  in  others  they  are  attached  also  to 
the  pterygoid  or  palate  bones.  In  Chelonians,  the  teeth 
are  replaced  by  a  horny  beak,  which,  according  to  the 
habits  cf  the  animal,  is  adapted  for  bruising  as  well  as 


REPTILE. 

cutting,  and  which  in  some  species  constitutes  a  some- 
what formidable  weapon. 

The  digestive  organs  present  less  marked  differences 
than  the  osseous  system.  With  the  exception  of  cer- 
tain Chelonians,  all  reptiles  are  carnivorous,  and  swal- 
low their  prey  whole.  Hence  the  jaws  are  adapted,  by 
their  mobility  and  sub-division  into  segments,  to  open 
very  widely,  and  the  oesophagus  is  capable  of  great  dil- 
atation. The  tongue  is  commonly  free,  elongated,  and 
bifid,  except  in  the  crocodiles,  in  which  it  is  immovable ; 
whence  the  popular  idea  that  these  animals  do  not 
possess  this  organ.  The  stomach  is  sometimes  scarcely 
larger  tlian  the  oesophagus  and  intestines  (as  in  ser- 
pents), while  in  other  cases  it  forms  a  sac  of  consider- 
able size.  In  either  case,  it  is  capable  of  great  dilata- 
tion. A  liver,  pancreas,  and  spleen  are  always  present, 
the  two  former  glands  pouring  their  secretions  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  intestine,  which  is  short,  wide,  ana 
not  much  twisted,  and  divided  into  two  portions,  cor- 
responding to  the  small  and  large  intestines  of  mam- 


Fig.  5.— Section  of  the  Lung  of  the  Turtle  (reduced). 

mals,  by  a  valve.  It  terminates  in  a  wide  cloaca,  into 
which  the  ducts  of  the  urinary  and  generative  organs 
usually  open.  The  anal  aperture  of  this  cloaca  is  trans- 
verse in  serpents  and  lizards,  and  longitudinal  in  croco- 
diles and  tortoises.  These  peculiarities  in  the  anal 
aperture  are  accompanied  by  remarkable  differences  in 
the  external  generative  organs  of  the  male,  and  seem  to 
divide  the  class  into  two  great  sections. 

It  is  in  their  circulating  and  respiratory  organs  that 
reptiles  present  the  most  marked  characteristics.  Like 
birds  and  mammals,  they  breathe  air;  but  like  fishes, 
they  are  cold-blooded.  The  reason  why  they  are  unable 
to  sustain  a  fixed,  temperature  above  and  independent 


REPTILE. 

of  that  of  the  surrounding  medium  is  due  partly  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  blood-vessels  (see  Circulation),  and 
partly  to  tlie  structure  of  the  lungs.  The  lungs  are  usually 
of  large  size  ;  but  as  they  are  not  sub-divided,  as  in  mam- 
mals aud  birds,  into  innumerable  microscopic  air-cells, 
the  real  aerating  surface  is  comparatively  small.  In 
several  orders,  they  are  merely  capacious  bags,  whose 
vascular  or  aerating  surface  is  but  slightly  increased 
by  saceuli  developed  in  their  cells.  In  serpents,  the 
pulmonary  arrangement  is  singular,  one  lung  (usually 
the  right  one)  being  of  extraordinary  length,  while  the 
other,  remains  altogether  rudimentary.  It  is  in  the  tor- 
toises and  crocodiles  that  the  lung  is  most  highly  de- 
veloped ;  but  if  the  reader  will  compare  the  accompany- 
ing figure  of  the  lung' of  the  turtle  with  a  section  of  any 
mammalian  lung,  he  will  at  once  perceive  the  striking 
difference.  This  inferiority  of  the  respiratory  apparatus 
of  reptiles  is  further  shown  in  the  absence  of  those 
means  for  continuous  introduction  and  expulsion  of  air 
which  are  observed  in  birds,  and  still  more  in  mammals 
(see  Respiration). 

The  cerebral  portion  of  the  nervous  system  in  many 
respects  resembles  that  of  fishes,  but  the  cerebraJ 
hemispheres  are  larger  in  proportion  to  the  optic  lobes, 
while  the  cerebellum  is  usually  smaller. 
The  organs  of  the  senses  are  better  de- 
veloped than  in  fishes.  The  eye  is  always 
present  in  reptiles,  and  presents  no  re- 
markable peculiarity.  We  here  first 
meet  with  a  special  arrangement  for  pro- 
tection of  this  delicate  organ;  '  for  while 
in  serpents  the  skin  of  the  head  passes 
continuously  in  front  of  the  eyes,  merely 
becoming  transparent  where  it  covers 
the  cornea,  it  is  doubled  in  most  other 
reptiles  into  two  folds,  constituting  the 
upper  and  lower  eyelids,  which  can  be 
drawn  together  by  a  sphincter  muscle; 
and  we  also  find  a  rudiment  of  a  third 
eyelid,  formed  by  an  additional  fold  of 
membrane  at  the  inner  angle,  which  is 
so  completely  developed  in  crocodiles  as 
to  form  a  nictitating  membrane,  that 
can  be  drawn  completely  across  the  eye, 
as  in  birds,  by  a  muscle  specially  adapted 
for  that  purpose.' — Carpenter's  General 

and  Comparative  Physiology,  3d  ed.  p.  495.  -n.     .    ^  W 

mi  e  i       •      •  u  •  if 1    i     -rig-  6.— Brain  ot 

1  he  organ  of  hearing  is  more  highly  de-  Turtle: 

veloped  than  in  fishes  or  amphibia.  There  ^  olfaetive  gan- 
is  no  external  auditory  canal,  the  mem-  glia  ;  B,  cere- 
brane  of  the  tympanum  being  covered  ex-  D  r^a  1  h  ©  ™  in- 
ternally by  the  integument  of  the  head.  ^ic  ganglia'; °t>", 
The  senses  of  taste  and  touch  are  prob-  cerebellum, 
ably  obtuse  in  most  animals  of  this 
class,  and  from  its  structure  the  tongue  is  conjectured 
to  be  rather  an  organ  of  touch  than  of  true  taste. 


KEPTILE. 

All  reptiles  are  oviparous  animals.  Certain  species, 
however,  retain  their  ova  in  a  sort  of  uterine  cavity, 
formed  by  dilatation  of  the  oviduct  near  its  termination 
in  the  cloaca,  until  the  development  of  the  embryo  is  so 
far  advanced  that  the  enveloping  membrane  bursts  pre- 
viously to  the  expulsion  of  the  ova,  so  that  the  young 
are  actually  born  alive — a  mode  of  production  to  which 
the  term  ovo -viviparous  is  applied.  The  eggs  are  rela- 
tively large,  and  are  furnished  with  a  very  large  yolk, 
for  the  nutrition  of  the  young  animal.  They  are  inclosed 
in  a  parchment-like  shell,  which  contains  very  little  cal- 
careous matter.  They  are  usually  deposited  in  warm, 
sandy  places,  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  or  in  dunghills, 
in  which  the  heat  induced  by  the  putrefactive  process 
facilitates  the  final  stage  of  embryonic  development. 
Lizards  lay  8  to  12  eggs,  serpents  10  to  50,  tortoises  20 
to  26,  and  crocodiles  20  to  60.  In  this  respect  they 
differ  widely  from  the  amphibia,  some  of  which  lay  as 
many  as  1,200  eggs.  The  common  opinion  that,  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  eggs,  the  reptiles  take  no  further  care 
of  their  progeny,  is  erroneous.  Crocodiles  and  lizards 
have  been  observed  to  watch  the  places  which  they  have 
chosen  as  their  nest;  and  the  pythons  (at  all  events, 
when  in  captivity)  coil  themselves  around  their  eggs, 
and  keep  up  a  temperature  considerably  above  that  of 
the  surrounding  medium.  The  sexes  are  always  sepa- 
rate ;  and  the  male  generative  organs,  far  more  highly 
developed  than  in  amphibians,  present  peculiarities 
which,  in  association  with  the  position  of  the  anal  aper- 
ture, have  beeu  adopted  by  zoologists  as  a  basis  of 
classification. 

In  relation  to  their  habitat,  it  may  be  observed  that 
most  of  the  tortoises  and  certain  serpents  are  essentially 
aquatic  animals  (some  inhabiting  fresh,  and  some  salt 
water),  which  rarely  seek  the  land  except  to  lay  their 
eggs.  Serpents,  however,  as  a  general  rule,  affect  moist 
places  in  the  neighborhood  of  water,  though  some  are 
inhabitants  of  dry,  sandy  deserts.  Lizards  mostly 
frequent  the  sandy  districts  of  hot  and  tropical  regions, 
and  either  burrow  in  the  ground  or  live  in  holes  in 
trees,  walls,  etc.  Reptiles  generally  predominate  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  the  globe,  in  which  alone  the  largest 
kinds  are  to  be  found.  In  the  northern  countries,  com- 
paratively few  species  are  found,  and  these  pass  a  great 
portion  of  the  year  in  Hibernation  (q.v.)  or  torpidity. 
Dr.  Carpenter  assigns  2,000  as  about  the  probable  num- 
ber of  existing  species  of  reptiles.  Schinz  states  that  in 
Europe  there  are  7  tortoises,  33  serpents,  and  35 
lizards.  See  Durneril  and  Bibron,  Erpetologie  Generate, 
ou  Hist.  Nat  Complete  des  Reptiles  (Paris  1834-54,  9 
vols  )  ;  also  (for  summary)  Huxley,  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated 
Animals  (London  1871), 


BEPUBLIC. 

REPUBLIC,  n.  re~pub'lik  [F.  republique;  It.  republica, 
a  republic  —  from  L.  respub'lica  —  from  res,  a  thing ; 
publicus,  belonging  to  the  people] :  state  or  country  in 
which  the  supreme  power  is  vested  in  rulers  elected 
periodically  by  the  people ;  a  commonwealth.  Repub'- 
IjICAN,  a.  -Zi-Mw,  pert,  to  a  republic ;  consonant  to  the 
principles  of  a  republic :  N.  one  who  favors  or  prefers 
the  government  of  a  republic.  Republicanism,  n.  -izm, 
attachment  to  a  republican  form  of  government;  the 
principles  on  which  it  is  founded.  Republic  of  let- 
ters, a  term  applied  to  the  whole  body  of  literary  and 
learned  men. — A  Republic  is  a  political  community  in 
which  the  executive  function  is  committed  to  a  person 
or  persons  elected  in  some  manner  by  the  body  of 
citizens  entitled  to  vote.  According  to  a  very  loose 
definition,  a  R.  may  vary  from  the  most  exclusive  oli- 
garchy to  a  pure  democracy ;  but  the  term  R.  is  not 
usually  thus  applied.  The  several  republics  of  Greece 
and  that  of  Rome  were,  at  the  outset  at  least,  aristo- 
cratic communities.  The  mediaeval  republics  of  Venice, 
Genoa,  and  the  other  Italian  towns  also  were  more  or 
less  aristocratic :  the  sovereign  power  was  held  to  be 
vested  in  the  franchised  citizens ;  and  every  function — 
legislative,  executive,  or  judicial — not  exercised  directly 
by  that  body,  could  be  exercised  only  by  parties  deriving 
their  authority  from  it.  But  the  extent  of  the  franchise, 
and  the  mode  of  exercising  it,  varied  much  in  these 
civic  communities ;  and  the  most  prosperous  and  long- 
lived  was  Venice,  which  was  also  the  most  aristocratic 
of  them  all.  In  the  16th  c,  the  Seven  Provinces  of  the 
Netherlands,  on  their  revolt  from  Spain,  adopted  a  re- 
publican form  of  government,  as  did  Switzerland  on 
becoming  independent  of  the  German  empire.  Great 
Britain  was  nominally  a  R.  for  eleven  years  (1649  to  60). 
France  was  a  R.  1793  to  1805,  and  1848  to  53 ;  and  the 
present  R.  was  proclaimed  1870,  Sep.  4 .  Such  govt,  as 
Spain  had  1873,  Feb. — 1874,  Dec.  31,  was  of  republican 
form.  Switzerland  also  is  a  R. ;  since  1848  more  dem- 
ocratic than  formerly.  The  other  republics  of  Europe 
are  the  diminutive  states  of  San  Marino  and  Andorra ; 
some  republican  elements  were  till  recently  traceable  in 
the  constitution  of  the  free  cities  Hamburg,  Bremen, 
and  Liibeck.  The  most  important  of  modern  republics  is 
that  of  the  United  States  of  America — dating  from  its 
separation  from  Great  Britain.  It  is  not  at  all  an  abso- 
lute or  pure  democracy,  though  its  government  involves 
some  strongly  democratic  elements.  Mexico,  except  dur- 
ing the  short-lived  empire  1863-67,  has  been  a  R.  since 
1824.  Ten  republics  at  present  exist  in  S.  America — Peru, 
Chili,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  Colombia  or  New  Granada,  Ven- 
ezuela, Ecuador,  Uruguay,  the  Argentine  Confederation, 
and  Brazil. — In  the  republics  'of  the  ancient  world,  the 
franchised  classes  exercised  their  power  directly,  with- 
out any  system  of  delegation  or  representation.  The 
same  was  at  first  the  case  in  the  Swiss  cantcns,  where, 
fcowever,  representative  government  has  been  gradually 


REPUBLICAN  FORK—  REPUBLISH. 
Introduced.  Modern  republics  have  been  founded  on 
the  representative,  not  the  direct,  system,  which  can 
hardly  exist  except  in  a  community  that  is  very  small 
and  concentrated  as  to  space.  Switzerland  is  a  federal 
R. ;  the  United  States  also  is  sometimes  so  termed ;  but 
is  rather  a  united  R.  of  many  republics — a  unique  polit- 
ical entity,  constituting  a  single  nation  under  one  of  the 
strongest  central  governments  anywhere  known ;  yet 
with  the  immense  powers  of  that  government  strictly 
defined  within  a  narrow  range,  while  reserving  to  each 
several  state  the  broad  sphere  of  government  concern- 
ing its  individual  affairs.  See  Constitution  of  ths 
United  States  :  Federal  Government. 

REPUBLICAN  FORK,  or  Republican  River  :  stream 
rising  in  n.e.  Colo.,  flowing  through  deep  canons  and 
majestic  scenery,  and  through  the  n.w.  part  of  Kan. 
into  Neb.  where  it  pursues  an  e.  course  and  drains  the 
s.w.  counties,  and  then  again  enter.!  Kan.  about  150  m. 
from  the  e.  border  of  the  state.  It  receives  numerous 
tributaries,  some  of  which,  as  Medicine  Lane  Creek, 
White  Man's  Fork,  and  Rock  Creek,  are  of  considerable 
size.  By  its  union  with  the  Smoky  Hill  it  forms  the 
Kansas  river,  in  the  state  of  Kansas.  Total  length  more 
than  400  miles. 

REPUBLICAN  PARTY  :  see  Political  Parties. 

REPUBLICATION,  re-pub'li-ka'shun  [re,  again,  and 
publication]  :  a  new  publication  of  something  formerly 
published. 

REPUBLISH,  v.  re-pub'IZsh  [re,  again,  and  publish,  to 
publish  a  new  edition  of  a  work.  Republishing,  imp* 
Republished,  pp.  Ms/it. 


BEPUDIATE — ^REPUDIATION  OP  DEBTS. 

REPUDIATE,  v.  re pu'di-dt  [L.  repudiatm,  repudiated 
— from  repudium,  a  separation,  a  divorce:  It.  repudiare : 
F.  repudier]:  to  disclaim;  to  disavow;  to  discard:  to 
divorce;  to  refuse  to  pay  or  acknowledge  any  longer,  as 
a  debt.  Repudiating,  imp.  Repudiated,  pp.  Re- 
pu'diator,  n.  -d-ter,  one  who  repudiates.  Repudiable, 
a.  -a-bl,  that  may  be  rejected ;  fit  or  proper  to  be  put 
away.  Kepu'dia'tion,  n.  -a'shun  [F. — L.] :  disavowal; 
rejection ;  divorce.  Reptj'dxa'tionist,  n.  -ist,  one  who 
disavows  liability  for  debt  incurred  by  a  predecessor  in 
office,  etc. — Syn.  of  'repudiate':  to  disavow;  deny; 
disown  ;  disclaim  ;  divorce ;  renounce ;  discard  ;  reject. 

REPUDIATION  of  Debts,  Governmental.  The 
earliest  and  only  financial  failure  of  the  United  States 
was  that  of  its  paper  currency  during  the  revolutionary 
war,  of  which  over  $200,000,000  had  been  issued  when, 
1780,  it  ceased  to  circulate  as  of  no  value.  To  the  extent 
that  the  national  govt. — not  then  fully  formed — can- 
celled debts  with  this  paper  money,  without  redeeming 
the  paper,  it  repudiated  its  obligations. 

About  1830-40  the  debts  of  various  states  of  the  Union 
assumed  serious  proportions.  The  aggregate,  1830, 
before  an  era  of  unwise  expenditure  set  in,  was  not  over 
$13,000,000.  Twelve  years  later  it  had  reached  $213,- 
777,916,  divided  as  follows  :  middle  states,  $73,348,072; 
southern  states,  $73,340,017;  western  states,  $59,931,- 
553;  eastern  states,  $7,158,274.  Foreign  investors  were 
the  chief  holders  of  American  securities,  and  Pres.  Van 
Buren  said,  1840,  that  the  outstanding  bonds  called  for 
$12,000,000  annually  to  pay  interest — '  a  sum  exceeding 
half  of  the  ordinary  revenues  of  the  whole  United 
States.'  Ind.,  1841,  with  not  over  100,000  voters,  and 
hardly  $3,000,000  of  capital  employed  in  trade,  was 
burdened  with  an  interest  charge  of  $1,000,000  a  year: 
the  result  was  hopeless  insolvency.  Ohio  also,  1841, 
was  hardly  less  deep  in  difficulties,  but,  with  immense 
resources  and  a  people  of  great  honesty  and  energy, 
managed  to  make  good  her  credit.  Of  all  the  state 
debts,  1840,  Perm,  had  the  largest,  $31,000,000 :  it  reached, 
1843,  nearly  $38,000,C00.  The  Philadelphia  bank  of  the 
U.  S.  suspended  for  the  third  and  last  time,  1841.  It 
was  found  to  have  been  plundered  by  its  officers ;  and 
that  jobbery,  favoritism  in  agencies,  and  mismanage- 
ment had  run  riot.  In  Aug.  the  state  failed  to  pay  in- 
terest due  on  its  bonds, with  the  effect  of  great  feeling 
in  England  against  America,  and  a  permanent  loss  to 
Philadelphia  of  financial  prestige,  the  advantage  of 
which  to  New  York  was  very  great. 

The  earliest  actual  repudiation  of  state  debts  was  by 
Miss.  1841,  July  14,  Gov.  McNutt  (gov.  1837-41),  under 
whose  sanction  (by  signature  to  legislative  acts  1837  and 
8)  $15,500,000  of  state  bonds  had  been  issued  to  the  Miss. 
Union  Bank,  declared  his  opinion  that  the  first  $5,000,- 
000  had  been  unconstitutionally  issued.    Under  Mc* 


EEPUDIATIQN  OF  DEBTS. 
Nutt's  successor,  T.  M.  Tucker  (gov.  1841-43),  elected  as 
an  original  opposer  of  the  issue  of  these  bonds,  their  re- 
pudiation was  an  accepted  fact,  which  the  legislature 
indorsed  by  a  resolution  1842.  In  1875,  when  $7,000,- 
000  of  the  Union  Bank  and  other  bonds  were  still  out- 
standing, on  which  no  interest  had  been  paid  since  1842, 
the  legislature  adopted,  and  the  subsequent  legislature 
ratified,  an  amendment  to  the  state  constitution,  pro- 
hibiting payment  on  *  any  bond  or  bonds  now  generally 
known  as  Union  railroad  or  Planters'  Bank  bonds.' 

The  debt  of  Va.,  at  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  was 
about  $41,000,000.  The  interest  account  1866  stood  at 
$2,250,000.  A  funding  scheme,  1870-1,  made  the  coupons 
of  a  new  issue,  receivable  for  taxes,  a  favor  to  the  state's 
creditors,  which  the  next  legislature  repealed;  and  when 
the  courts  decided  against  this, a  tax  of  \  per  cent,  was  laid 
on  the  funded  bonds,  and, under  the  name  '  readjustment,' 
repudiation  found  supporters.  The  interest  account 
was  $3,000,000  in  arrears  1875 ;  and  1876  the  outstanding 
bonds  amounted  to  $29,489,326.38.  A  refunding  act  was 
passed  1878,  Mar.  11,  providing  for  18-year  and  32-year 
3-per-cent.  and  4-per-cent.  non-taxable  bonds.  Early  in 
1879  the  McCulloch  bill  for  refunding  $8,491,961  was 
passed.  The  readjustees  now  met  in  convention,  and  at 
the  election  of  1879,  Nov.,  their  vote  was  77,070,  to  69,- 
736  debt-payers.  At  the  session  of  1879-80  a  bill  of  which 
H.  H.  Biddleberger  was  author  was  passed,  repudiating 
over  $13,000  000  of  state  debt,  but  this  Gov.Holliday 
vetoed.  Gen.  William  Mahone,  the  readjuster  leader, 
was  elected  U.  S.  senator  for  1881-87,  and  H.  H.  Riddle- 
berger  was  later  chosen  senator  for  1883-89,  the  read- 
justers'  fusion  having  elected  their  candidates  for  state 
offices  and  a  majority  of  the  legislature.  Acts  were 
then  passed  against  taking  the  coupons  on  state  bonds 
for  taxes,  as  a  means  of  repudiation  of  the  debt  con- 
fessed by  the  bonds.  See  Virginia. 

The  state  debt  of  Tenn.,  after  the  war,  stood  at 
about  $43,000,000,  of  which  $20,000,000  were  disposed 
of  by  sales  of  railroad  property.  From  1875,  when 
the  interest  account  was  greatly  in  arrears  and  bonds 
falling  due  could  not  be  paid,  measures  of  readjust* 
ment  began  to  be  considered;  and  1877,  Dec,  a  bill 
passed  the  house,  but  not  the  senate,  for  retiring  the 
old  bonds  at  40  per  cent,  of  their  face  value.  Gov. 
Porter,  a  year  later,  reported  over  $20,000,000  in  bonds 
outstanding,  of  which  $11,000,000  had  been  declared  in- 
valid.  A  bill  was  finally  p  issed,  1879,  March  28,  retiriug 
most  of  the  bonds  at  50  per  cent.,  in  exchange,  by  agree- 
ment with  creditors,  for  state  *  fours.'  The  election 
of  1879,  Aug.  7,  however,  went  against  ratification  of 
this.  Another  act  was  passed  1881,  May  19,  under 
which  less  than  half  the  old  bonds  were  exchanged,  at 
60  per  cent,  of  their  face  value,  for  bonds  bearing  in- 
terest 3  per  cent,  for  2  years,  4  per  cent,  for  the  next  2 
years,  5  per  cent,  for  the  next  2  years,  and  6  per  cent, 
thereafter.    The  election  of  1882  was  carried  by  read- 


REPUDIATION  OF  DEBTS. 

justers  opposed  to  so  much  favor  to  creditors  as  that  of 
the  act  of  1881 ;  and  an  act  was  passed  1883  on  the  basis 
of  the  1882  platform,  and  under  this  about  five-sixths  of 
an  indebtedness  of  $27,786,066  had  been  funded  1885 
into  30-year  bonds.    See  Tennessee. 

The  constitutional  convention  of  La.,  1879,  entertained 
a  proposition  to  acknowledge  about  $4,000,000  of  the 
state's  bonds,  issued  under  a  funding  act  of  1874,  Jan. 
24,  and  to  repudiate  nearly  $20,000,000,  A  debt  ordi- 
nance was  adopted  for  retiring  bonds  of  1874,  carrying 
7  per  cent,  interest,  in  exchange  for  new  bonds  on  which 
the  interest  was  to  be  2  per  cent,  for  5  years,  3  per  cent, 
for  15  years,  and  4  per  cent,  thereafter;  or  holders  might 
have  75  per  cent,  of  their  bonds  in  new  4-per-cent.  bonds. 
The  U.  S.  supreme  court  decided,  1883,  March,  that  this 
act  of  1880  violated  the  state's  contract  of  1874,  but  that 
there  were  no  means  to  compel  the  state  to  carry  out  its 
contract.    See  Louisiana. 

The  debts  created  in  Ga.,  under  the  managers  of  early 
reconstruction  after  the  civil  war,  were  repudiated  1877 
to  the  extent  of  $6,000,000. 

In  1876  Minn,  had  outstanding  over  $2,250,000  of 
$5,000,000  in  bonds  issued  in  aid  of  certain  railroads; 
and  the  attempt  was  made  by  a  committee  of  the  legis- 
lature to  show  that  these  bonds  need  not  be  paid,  ac- 
cording to  the  state  guarantee  of  1858.  A  bill  of  1877, 
Mar.  1,  was  rejected  by  the  people,  and  the  disposition 
to  repudiate  ran  a  considerable  course,  until  an  act  was 
carried  1880  exchanging  the  old  bonds  at  50  per  cent,  of 
their  face  value,  for  30-year  4%-per-cent.  'adjustment 
bonds,'  and  by  the  end  of  1881  nearly  all  had  been  so 
exchanged. 

In  1880  the  aggregate  bonded  debts  of  all  the  States 
amounted  to  $250,722,081;  by  1906  they  had  been  re- 
duced to  nearly  one-half  that  sum  and  nine  States  were 
reported  as  having  no  bonded  debt — Illinois,  Iowa,  Mich- 
igan, Montana,  Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Oregon  and 
West  Virginia.  Nearly  every  State  in  the  Union  now 
has  constitutional  prohibitions  from  borrowing  over  a 
certain  amount  of  percentage  for  public  purpose. 


REPUGN — HE  PULSION. 

REPUGN,  v.  re-pun'  [L.  repug'no,  I  fight  against  (see 
Repugnant)]  :  in  OE.,  to  withstand  *  to  resist.  Repugn'- 
ing,  imp.    Repugned',  pp.  -pund'. 

REPUGNANT,  a.  re-pug' nani  [F.  repugnant '—  /rom  L. 
repugnans  or  repugnan'tem,  fighting  against,  opposing — 
from  re,  against;  pugno,  I  fight:  It.  repugnante]  :  char- 
acterized by  opposition  or  contrariety  ;  adverse,  with  to  ; 
inconsistent';  inimical;  in  OE.y  disobedient.  Repug'- 
nantly,  ad.  -II.  Repugnance,  n.  -nms  [F. — L.],  or 
Repug'nancy,  n.  -nan-si,  opposition  of  mind  ;  resistance ; 
aversion ;  dislike.— Syn.  of  4  repugnance ' :  dislike ;  antip- 
athy ;  hostility ;  hatred ;  aversion ;  reluctance ;  unwill- 
ingness ;  inconsistency ;  irreconcilableness ;  contrariety ; 
resistance  ; — of  *  repugnant ' :  opposed ;  adverse ;  con- 
trary; opposite;  inimical;  hostile;  inconsistent ;  irrec- 
oncilable. 

REPULSE,  v.  re-puls'  [L.  repulsus,  driven  back;  re* 
pulsa,  a  refusal,  a  denial- — from  re,  back ;  pello,  I  drive  % 
It.  ripulsa] :  to  drive  back  by  force ;  to  repel :  N.  a  being 
checked  or  driven  back  by  force ;  refusal ;  denial.  Re- 
pulsing, imp.  Repulsed7,  pp.  -pulst'.  Repui/ser,  n. 
-ser,  one  who  repulses.  Repui/sion.  n.  -pul'shun 
[F. — -L.] :  the  act  of  driving  back;  the  power  by  which 
bodies  or  their  particles,  under  certain  circumstances, 
are  made  to  recede  from  each  other  (see  below).  Re- 
pulseless,  a.  -puls'les,  that  cannot  be  repelled.  Re- 
pulsive, a.  -iv,  tending  to  repulse ;  cold ;  reserved ; 
forbidding.  Repulsively,  ad.  -li.  Repuls'iveness,  n. 
-nes,  the  quality  of  being  repulsive  or  forbidding. 

REPUI/SION  :  term  for  a  hypothesis  formerly  much  in 
use  in  physics  to  account  for  a  group  of  phenomena ;  but 
which,  like  the  terms  Caloric,  Luminous  Corpuscles,  and 
other  crude  hypotheses  of  mediaeval  times  appears 
doomed  to  extinction.  The  apparent  R.  between  the 
particles  of  a  gas,  in  virtue  of  which  it  exerts  pressure  on 
the  containing  vessel,  is  now  known  to  be  due  to  motion 
(see  Heat).  A  wet  cork  and  an  oiled  one,  floating  on 
water,  repel  each  other — a  phenomenon  fully  accounted 
for  by  capillary  attraction ;  as  is  that  of  the  apparent 
repulsion  of  mercury  by  glass,  which  is  shown  to  be  due 
to  the  fact,  that  mercury  attracts  itself  more  than  it 
attracts  glass.  No  one  now  believes  that  a  balloon  rises 
while  a  stone  falls,  because  the  balloon  is  repelled,  and 
the  stone  attracted,  by  the  earth :  this  is  a  very  good 
example,  because  it  clearly  shows  how  apparent  R.  may 
be  the  result  of  attraction.  The  earth  attracts  the 
balloon  less  than  it  attracts  an  equal  bulk  of  the  medium 
(air)  in  which  it  floats ;  consequently,  the  pressure  of 
the  air  on  the  balloon  is  more  than  sufficient  to  support 
its  weight.  The  moon  raises  tides  not  only  on  the  side 
of  the  earth  nearest  her,  but  also  on  the  side  furthest 
from  her.  No  one  imagines  that  she  attracts  the  nearer 
water,  and  repels  the  further.  We  know  that  she  attracts 
the  nearer  water  more,  and  the  further  less,  than  she 
Vol.  32^2 


REPURCHASE— REQUA-BATTERY. 
attracts  the  earth ;  and  that  the  apparent  R.  is  thus 
merely  a  difference  of  attractions. 

It  is  not  quite  so  clear  how  we  are  to  account  gener- 
ally for  R.  in  Electricity  (q.v.),  Magnetism  (q.v.),  and 
electro-magnetism,  though  many  of  these  phenomena 
are  known  (especially  by  the  beautiful  experimental 
researches  of  Faraday)  to  bear  explanations  precisely 
analogous  to  that  of  the  balloon  above  alluded  to.  There 
are  also  very  curious  problems,  apparently  involving  R., 
connected  with  the  behavior  of  the  tails  of  comets.  But 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  we  shall  soon  be  able  to 
account  for  all  these  phenomena  by  simple  differences 
of  attraction  on  the  body  influenced  and  the  medium 
which  surrounds  it.  Our  real  difficulty  will  thus  be 
reduced  to  the  explanation  of  attraction  itself,  which, 
indeed,  promises  to  be  a  problem  of  a  far  higher  order 
of  complexity.  For  an  account  of  some  modern  specula- 
tions on  this  subject,  see  Fobce. 

REPURCHASE,  v.  re-per'chds  [re,  again,  said  purchase]  : 
to  buy  back :  N.  the  act  of  buying  again  what  has  been 
sold. 

REPUTE,  v.  re-put'  [F.  reputer,  to  repute,  to  esteem^, 
from  L.  reputdre,  to  compute,  to  calculate — from  re, 
again  ;  puto,  I  think  :  It.  reputare]  :  to  estimate  ;  to  think  ; 
to  hold ;  to  reckon :  N.  character,  either  good  or  bad ; 
established  opinion ;  general  estimation.  Repu'ting, 
imp.  Repu'ted,  pp  :  Adj.  reckoned;  accounted.  Re- 
pute'less,  -les,  disgraceful;  without  repute.  Reputa- 
ble, a.  rep'u-td-bl,  having  the  good  opinion  of  men ;  held 
in  esteem  ;  respectable ;  honorable.  Reputably,  ad. 
-td-bli.  Rep'utableness,  n.  -bl-ves,  the  quality  of  being 
reputable.  Rep'uta'tion,  n.  -td'shun  [F. — L.] :  good 
name ;  character  either  in  good  or  bad  sense  in  public 
opinion ;  credit.  Reputedly,  ad.  re-pu'ted-li.--SYN.  of 
*  reputable':  creditable  ;  honorable  ;  estimable;  re- 
spectable ; — of  'reputation ' :  repute ;  regard ;  estimation ; 
honor ;  fame  ;  esteem  :  credit ;  character ;  renown. 

REPU'TED  OWN'ER,  in  English  Law:  bankrupt 
trader  who  apparently  possesses  goods  which  he  is  hold- 
ing with  the  consent  of  the  real  owner.  Because  a  trader's 
holding  such  goods  is  fitted  to  give  the  impression  of  a 
greater  capital  or  stock  than  he  possesses,  and  thereby 
to  obtain  for  him  greater  credit,  it  is  provided  that  the 
goods  so  held  may  be  ordered  by  the  bankruptcy  court 
to  be  sold  for  benefit  of  the  creditors.- — In  the  United 
States  it  has  been  held  usually  that  one  having  posses- 
sion  of  and  apparent  title  to  goods  cannot,  on  those 
grounds,  give  real  title  in  them  to  a  purchaser ;  but  N.  Y. 
statutes  provide  somewhat  differently. 

REQUA-BATTERY,  n.  re'kwa-bdt'er-i  [etym.  doubt- 
ful] :  a  kind  of  mitrailleuse,  consisting  of  a  number  of 
rifle  breech-loading  barrels  arranged  upon  a  horizontal 
plane  on  a  light  field  carriage.  They  were  much  used 
in  the  attack  upon  Charleston  1863  by  the  U.  S.  forces 
under  Gillmore. 


REQUENA— REQUISITE. 

REQUENA,  ra-kan'ya  :  town  of  Spain,  in  the  modern 
province  of  Cuenca,  about  80  m.  s.e.  of  the  town  of 
Cuenca.  Its  people  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
woolen,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics.    Pop.  10,500. 

REQUEST,  n.  re-kwest'  [OF.  requests  ;  F.  requete,  a  re- 
quest— from  L.  requisitus,  sought  or  searched  for — from 
re,  again ;  qucesitus,  sought ;  quarere,  to  seek] :  a  desire 
expressed  to  another  for  something  to  be  granted  or 
done ;  state  of  being  desired ;  the  thing  asked  or  solic- 
ited; petition;  prayer;  entreaty;  demand:  V.  to  express 
a. desire  for;  to  solicit  respectfully.  Requesting,  imp. 
Requested,  pp.  Requester,  n.  -er,  one  who  requests, 
In  request,  in  demand ;  in  credit  or  reputation.  Court 
of  requests,  in  England,  an  anc.  court  of  equity,  in- 
ferior to  the  court  of  chancery — abolished  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.  Various  local  tribunals,  also  so  named, 
for  recovery  of  small  debts,  have  been  superseded  by  the 
county  courts. — Syn.  of  *  request,  v.'  to  ask;  solicit; 
petition ;  beseech  ;  desire ;  beg ;  pray ;  entreat ;  suppli- 
cate ;  implore ;  crave. 

REQUICKEN,  v.  re-kwik'en  [re,  and  quicken] :  in  OE.t 
to  reanimate ;  to  inspire  with  new  life. 

REQUIEM,  n.  refkwi-em  [L.  requies  or  requiem,  rest, 
repose,  as  from  labor,  suffering,  or  care — from,  re,  again; 
quies,  rest :  F.  requiem :  It.  requie] :  dirge  or  grand  and 
solemn  musical  service  for  the  dead  in  the  Rom.  Cath. 
Church  ;  consisting  in  the  celebration  of  the  mass  Pro 
Fidelibus  Defunctis  (For  the  Faithful  Departed),  the 
first  words  of  the  Introit  of  which  are  Requiem  ceternam. 

REQUIN,  n.  rek'win  [F.] :  the  white  shark ;  the  Car- 
charms  vulgaris. 

REQUIRE,  v.  re-kwir'  [L.  requirere,  to  want,  to  require 
—from  re,  back  or  again ;  quairo,  I  seek :  F.  requerir] :  to 
ask,  as  of  right  or  by  authority ;  to  demand ;  to  claim ; 
to  call  for;  to  make  necessary;  to  need;  in  OE.,  to 
request.  Requiring,  imp.  Required',  pp.  -kwird\ 
Requi'rer,  n.  -rer,  one  who  requires.  Requi'rable,  a. 
-ra-bl,  capable  of  being  required.  Requirement,  n. 
-merit,  demand ;  claim  ;  in  the  plu.,  things  for  the  supply 
of  needs;  necessaries.-— Syn.  of  'require':  to  enjoin; 
prescribe ;  order ;  demand ;  exact ;  direct ;  ask ;  need. 

REQUISITE,  a.  reh'wi-zit  [L.  requisitus,  needed,  being 
requisite ;  requirere,  to  require — from  re,  back  or  again ; 
quairo,  I  seek :  It.  requisito,  requisite] :  necessary ;  need- 
ful; essential:  N.  something  required  by  the  nature  of 
things,  or  by  circumstances ;  a  want ;  a  need.  Req'ui- 
sitely,  ad.  41.  Req'uisiteness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of 
being  requisite  or  necessary.  Requisition,  n.  -zish'un 
[F. — L.] :  written  request  or  invitation;  demand;  in 
international  or  interstate  law,  demand  by  the  authori- 
ties of  a  state  or  nation  on  those  of  another  for  the 
rendering  or  extradition  of  an  alleged  criminal  (see 
Extradition).  In  mil.,  a  written  demand  for  forage, 
food,  arms,  etc.    It  is  closely  related  to  contribution^ 


BEQU1TE — BEBEWARD. 
but  differs  from  it  in  that  the  requisition  is  a  demand 
for  supply  of  food,  animals,  labor,  etc.,  for  the  use  of 
the  party  making  it,  while  the  contribution  is  a  cash 
payment  required  either  to  furnish  supplies  to  the 
invaders  or  to  give  them  the  means  for  carrying  on  the 
government.  In  common  use,  the  term  requisition 
often  includes  everything  under  the  head  of  contribu- 
tion. The  old  custom  of  imposing  heavy  fines  on  an 
invaded  country  has  been  greatly  modified,  and  civilized 
nations  have  generally  adopted  the  principle  that  in 
war  the  rights  of  private  citizens  should  be  respected, 
and  that  when  it  is  necessary  to  take  their  property 
receipts  should  be  given  for  the  same  in  order  that  pay- 
ment may  be  made  after  the  war.  Requisition,  v.  to 
make  a  requisition  upon ;  to  demand  ;  to  ask.  Bequisi- 
tive,  a.  re-kwiz'i-tiv,  expressing  or  implying  demand.— 
Syn.  of  *  requisite,  a':  necessary;  essential;  needful; 
indispensable. 

REQUITE,  v.  re-kwit'  [re,  again,  and  quit]  :  to  make  a 
return  for  treatment,  either  good  or  evil;  to  repay;  to 
recompense  ;  to  avenge.  Bequi'ting,  imp.  Bequi'ted, 
pp.  Bequi'ter,  n.  -ter,  one  who  requites.  Bequi'tal, 
n.  -tat,  the  act  of  requiting;  return  for  treatment,  good 
or  bad;  retribution;  recompense. — Syn.  of  *  requite': 
to  compensate ;  pay;  repay;  remunerate;  reward;  rec- 
ompense ;  satisfy ;  punish ;  retaliate. 

BEBEDOS,  n.  rer'dos  [F.  arriere,  behind;  dos ;  L. 
dorsum,  the  back] :  in  arch.,  wall  at  the  back  of  an  altar, 
seat,  large  fireplace,  etc.  ;  screen ; 
partition  wall.  In  churches,  the 
B.  is  usually  in  the  form  of  a 
screen  behind  the  altar,  and 
rising  3  to  6  ft.  above  it,  detached 
from  the  e.  wall,  and  invariably 
ornamented  with  niches,  statues, 
etc.,  or  with  paintings  or  tapes- 
try. Yery  fine  examples  are  at 
Durham,  St.  Albans,  etc.,  in 
England ;  in  Trinity  Church,  New 
York ;  and  other  churches. 

RE  BEE,   n.   rer'e:    a  plant, 
Typha  angustifolia,  the  leaves  of 
which  are  used  in  the  N.  W. 
Provinces  of  India  for  making  RerecatheScfra1bUry 
mats. 

BEBEMOUSE,  n.  rer'mows  [AS.  hreremus,  a  bat — from 
AS.  hreran  ;  Icel.  hrcera  ;  Ger.  ruhren,  to  stir] :  the  bat : 
also  spelt  Beaemouse. 

BE-BESOLVE,  v.  re're-zoW  [re,  again,  and  resolve] :  to 
resolve  a  second  time. 

BEBEWABD,  n.  rer'wawrd  [from  rear,  and  ward] :  the 
part  of  an  army  which  marches  in  the  rear. 


RES-RESCRIPT. 
RES,  n.  rez  [L.  a  thing] :  a  thing;  a  matter;  a  point;  a 
cause  or  action.    Used  in  legal  phrases,  as  res  gestae, 
things  done;  res  judicata,  a  matter  already  adjudicated 
upon. 

RESACA  DE  LA  PALMA,  rd-sa'ka  da  Id  pdl'md, 
Battle  of  :  engagement,  in  the  Mexican  war,  1846, 
May  9,  in  a  ravine  (from  which  the  battle  is  named) 
which  crosses  the  Matamoros  road  about  three  m.  from 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  battle  ground,  thickly  covered 
with  palm  trees,  was  in  Cameron  co.,  Tex.  The  Mexican 
force,  led  by  Gen.  Arista,  numbering  6,000  men,  was 
quickly  defeated  by  2,000  U.  S.  troops  under  Gen.  Taylor. 

RES  AIL,  v.  re-sal'  [re,  again,  and  sail] :  to  sail  back. 

RESALE,  n.  r&sal  [re,  again,  and  safe]:  a  second  sale. 

RESALUTE,  v.  re'sa-ldf  [re,  again,  and  salute] :  to 
salute  or  greet  anew. 

RESCIND,  v.  re-slnd'  [F.  rescinder  -from  L.  rescindere, 
to  abolish,  to  rescind—from  re,  back  or  again ;  scindere, 
to  cut,  to  split :  It.  rescindere] :  to  render  null  or  make 
void ;  to  revoke ;  to  repeal.  Rescinding,  imp.  Re- 
scinded, pp. — Syn.  of  1  rescind ' :  to  abrogate ;  annul ; 
reverse ;  void ;  vacate ;  revoke ;  repeal ;  recall. 

RESCISSION,  n.  re-sizh'un  [F.  rescision — from  mid.  L. 
rescissidnem,  an  annulment,  as  of  deeds — from  L.  rescis- 
sus,  abolished :  It.  rescissione,  rescission  (see  Rescind)]  °. 
act  of  abrogating  or  annulling.  Rescissory,  a.  re-sis'- 
ser-i  [mid.  L.  rescissdrius] :  having  power  to  rescind. 

RE  SCR  I  BE,  v.  re-skrW  [L.  rescribere,  to  write  in  reply 
to — from  re,  again ;  scribo,  I  write] ;  to  write  back ;  to 
write  over  again.  Rescri'bing,  imp.  Rescribed',  pp. 
»skribd'. 

RESCRIPT,  n.  re'skript  [L.  rescripius,  answered  in 
reply  to— from  re,  again;  scriptus,  written;  scribo,  I 
write]  :  an  answer  in  writing:  eminently,  the  answer  of  a 
pope  or  an  emperor  to  one  consulting  him  on  any  ques- 
tion of  jurisprudence  officially  propounded  to  him.  Re- 
scripta  principis  were  one  of  the  authoritative  sources  of 
the  civil  law,  and  consisted  of  the  answers  of  the 
emperor  to  those  who  consulted  him,  either  as  public 
functionaries  or  as  individuals,  on  questions  of  law. 
They  were  often  applied  for  by  private  persons,  espe- 
cially women  and  soldiers,  to  solve  their  doubts  or  grant 
them  privileges.  The  rescripts  directed  to  corporate 
and  municipal  bodies  were  known  as  Pragmatical  sanctioned, 
a  name  which  has  found  its  way  into  the  public  law  of 
"Europe :  see  Pragmatic  Sanction.  Rescripts  might 
gradually  come  to  have  the  force  of  law,  so  far  as  their 
determinations  in  particular  cases  were  of  general  ap- 
plication. Rescription.  n.  re-skrip'shun  [F.— L.J :  the 
answering  of  a  letter 


EESCUE — RESECTION. 
RESCUE,  v.  res'ku  [OF.  rescousse,  a  rescue ;  rescousse, 
to  recover :  It.  riscuotere,  to  fetch  a  thing  out  of  pawn, 
— from  L.  re,  back  or  again ;  excutere,  to  take  away  by 
force — from  ex,  out ;  quatere,  to  shake,  drive]  :  to  set  free 
from  danger  or  restraint ;  to  deliver  from  evil  in  any 
way ;  to  recapture ;  to  liberate :  N.  deliverance  from 
danger  or  restraint;  release;  liberation;  recapture;  in 
law,  illegal  delivery  and  discharge  of  a  prisoner  or  of 
goods  out  of  the  custody  of  the  law.  If,  e.g.,  a  tenant 
whose  goods  are  distrained  for  rent,  take  them  by  force 
from  the  officer,  the  distrainer  has  right  of  action  against 
the  tenant  or  person  who  rescues  the  goods.  When  a 
prisoner  is  in  custody  for  felony,  and  is  rescued,  the 
rescuer  commits  a  felony.  Res'cuing,  imp.  Rescued, 
pp.  -kud.  Res'cuer,  n.  -M-eV,  one  who  rescues. — Syn.  of 
4  rescue,  v.':  to  liberate;  recapture;  retake;  deliver; 
save ;  free. 

RESEARCH,  n.  re-serch'  [re,  again,  and  search:  comp. 
E.  recherche,  inquiry,  search] :  a  laborious  or  continued, 
search  after  facts  or  principles;  investigation;  ex- 
amination.— Syn.  :  inquiry;  scrutiny;  examination; 
investigation. 

RESEAT,  v.  re-set'  [re,  again,  and  seat]  :  to  seat  anew. 

RESECTION,  n.  re-sek'shun  [re,  again,  and  section] : 
the  act  of  cutting  or  paring  off.  Resection  (or  Exci- 
sion) of  a  joint  :  surgical  operation  in  which  the  diseased 
i)one  of  a  joint  is  cut  out,  instead  of  cutting  off  the  whole 
jimb.  Dr.  Druitt,  in  The  Surgeon's  Vade-mecum,  remarks, 
that  *  it  seems  to  be  established  that  excision  is  on  the 
whole  safer  than  amputation ;  less  violence  is  done  to 
the  body,  fewer  great  arteries  and  nerves  are  injured, 
and,  what  is  of  more  consequence,  fewer  large  veins  are 
divided,  and  as  the  articular  end  of  the  bone  only  is 
sawn  off,  and  the  medullary  canal  not  touched,  there  is 
less  chance  of  pyaemia.  Lastly,  the  patient  is  left  with 
an  imperfect  limb,  it  is  true,  but  with  one  which,  in 
moet  cases,  is  highly  useful.'  The  operation  has  been 
performed  on  the  ankle-joint,  the  elbow,  hip-joint,  knee 
and  shoulder.  There  was  long  discussion  among 
surgeons  as  to  applying  this  operation  to  the  knee-joint. 
The  operation  was  performed  first  in  1762 ;  and  to  1830, 
there  are  records  of  19  cases,  of  which  11  died.  1830-50 
the  operation  was  never  performed,  and  was  generally  con- 
demned; but  1850  it  was  revived  by  Prof.  Fergusson,  and 
is  now  frequent.  *  The  cases,'  says  Dr.  Druitt,  *  in  which 
it  ought  to  be  performed  are,  generally  speaking,  such 
cases  of  injury  or  disease  as  would  otherwise  be  submit- 
ted to  amputation.  The  object  of  the  operation  is  to  pro- 
duce a  firm  and  useful  limb,  slightly  shortened,  and  with 
entire  bony  union  or  fibrous  union,  admitting  of  some 
small  degree  of  motion  at  the  situation  of  the  joint.  But 
all  cases  are  not  suitable  for  excision ;  and  those  cases 
are  unsuitable  and  better  adapted  for  amputation  in 
which  either  the  quantity  of  the  diseased  bone  is  very 
great  (for  then  the  case  will  probably  not  do  well,  or,  if 


RESEDA — RESENT, 
it  proceed  to  recovery,  and  the  patient  be  young,  the 
future  growth  of  the  limb  will  be  prevented),  or  the 
quality  of  the  disease  may  be  such  as  experience  has 
shown  to  be  incompatible  with  the  exudation  of  healthy 
material  of  repair.'  In  at  least  50  per  cent.,  the  opera- 
tion results  in  a  good  useful  leg.  It  must  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  surgery. — See  Prof. 
Fergusson's  Lectures  on  Conservative  Surgery;  Buck's 
Reference  Handbook  of  the  Med.  Sciences,  N.  Y.,  1889. 

RESEDA,  n.  reseda  [L.  reseda,  the  mignonette — from 
resedo,  I  calm  or  appease,  so  called  from  its  supposed 
virtues  as  an  external  application] :  genus  of  favorite 
flowering  plants  known  as  mignonette,  ord.  Resedacece. 
Resedacece,  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  mostly 
herbaceous ;  having  alternate  leaves ;  terminal  spikes  of 
hermaphrodite  irregular  flowers ;  the  calyx  of  4-7  un- 
equal segments;  the  corolla  of  4-7  petals,  alternate 
with  the  segments  of  the  calyx,  the  lower  petals  entire, 
the  upper  much  cut;  the  stamens  10-30,  inserted  on 
a  fleshy  receptacle ;  the  germen  free,  one-celled ;  the 
fruit  a  many-seeded  capsule,  three-horned,  and  often 
open  at  the  apex,  so  as  to  expose  the  seeds,  which  are 
kidney-shaped.  There  are  about  40  known  species, 
mostly  natives  of  Europe  and  w.  Asia,  and  mostly 
mere  weeds.  Weld  (q.v.),  otherwise  called  Dyer's 
mignonette,  and  common  Mignonette  (q.v.),  are  the 
noticeable  species. 

RESEEK,  v.  re-sekf  [re,  again,  and  seek] :  to  seek  again. 

RESEIZE,  v.  re-sez'  :  to  seize  a  second  time-  Reseiz- 
UEE,  n.  re-sezh'ur,  the  act  of  seizing  again. 

RESELL,  v.  re-seV  [re,  again,  and  sell] :  to  sell  again 
what  has  been  bought  or  sold. 

RESEMBLE,  v.  re-zem'bl  [OF.  resembler— from  L.  re, 
again;  simulare,  to  make  like — from  similis,  like:  F. 
ressembler] :  to  be  like ;  to  possess  similar  external  form 
or  structure;  to  possess  like  or  similar  qualities;  in 
OE.,  to  liken.  Resem'bling,  imp.  Resembled,  pp. 
-bid.  Resem'blance,  n.  -Mans,  likeness ;  state  of  having 
similar  external  form  or  structure;  image;  similarity. — 
Syn.  of  *  resemblance  * :  likeness ;  representation ;  image ; 
similarity;  similitude;  semblance. 

RESEND,  v.  re-send" :  to  send  again  or  back. 

RESENT,  v.  re-zent'  [F.  ressentir ;  It.  risentire,  to 
resent — from  L.  re,  again ;  sentire,  to  feel] :  to  have  a 
deep  sense  of;  to  take  ill;  to  consider  as  an  injury  or  an 
affront;  to  be  somewhat  provoked  at.  Resenting, 
imp.  Resent'ed,  pp.  Resent'er,  n.  -eV,  one  who 
resents.  Resent'ment,  n.  -ment  [F.  ressentiment] :  the 
feeling  of  anger  or  irritation  caused  by  a  sense  of  injury 
or  insult ;  anger ;  prolonged  anger.  Resentful,  a.  -fnlf 
easily  provoked  to  anger,  and  retaining  it  long.  Re- 
sent'fully,  ad.  -li. — Syn.  of  4  resentment ' :  irritation; 
anger;  vexation;  displeasure;  grudg  ;  wrath;  rage; 
fury ;  indignation ;  choler ;  gall ;  ire. 


RESERVATION. 
RESERVATION,  Mental  [Lat.  reservatio  or  restrictio 
mentalis] :  act  of  reserving  or  holding  back  some  word 
or  clause  necessary  to  convey  fully  the  meaning  really 
intended  by  the  speaker.  It  differs  from  equivocation 
(Lat.  equivocatio  or  amphibolia)  in  this,  that  in  the  latter 
the  words  employed,  though  doubtful,  and  perhaps  not 
fitted  naturally  to  convey  the  real  meaning  of  the  speaker, 
are  yet,  absolutely  speaking,  and  without  the  addition  of 
any  further  word  or  clause,  susceptible  of  that  meaning. 
Thus,  an  example  of  an  equivocation  would  be :  *  I  did 
not  write  this  libel,'  meaning,  *  I  did  not  perform  the 
mechanical  operation  of  writing  it  with  a  pen,'  though  I 
had  really  composed  and  issued  it.  A  mental  R,  might 
be  involved  in  the  same  words,  if  one  were  to  say:  'I 
did  not  write  this  libel/  mentally  withholding  the  word 
'  to-day,' though  he  had  written  it  '  yesterday,'  or  on 
some  earlier  day.  Few  questions*  in  casuistry  have 
excited  more  controversy,  or  have  been  the  subject  of 
fiercer  recrimination,  than  that  of  the  lawfulness  of 
equivocation  and  mental  R.  In  the  celebrated  Letters  of 
Pascal  (q.v.)  against  the  Jesuits,  it  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent,  and  as  he  used  it,  the  most  effective  topics; 
and  Pascal's  charges  against  the  Jesuit  casuistry  of 
that  day  have  been  repeated  in  almost  every  popular 
controversy  on  the  subject  since.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  mental  R.,  differing  from  each  other,  and 
all  differing  from  equivocation  under  its  several  forms. 
But  as  regards  the  morality  of  the  subject,  all  the  forms 
of  language  calculated  to  deceive  may  be  classed 
together,  and  may  be  treated  according  to  the  same 
common  principles.  Mental  R.  is  of  two  kinds,  purely 
mental  and  not  purely  mental.  By  the  former  is  meant  a 
mental  R.  which  cannot  be  detected,  whether  in  the 
words  themselves  or  in  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
are  spoken.  Of  this  kind,  would  be  the  mental  reser- 
vation implied  if  a  person,  on  being  asked  if  he  had 
seen  A.  B.  (whom  he  really  had  just  seen  walking  by), 
were  to  reply:  *I  have  not  seen  him,'  meaning  'riding 
on  horseback.9  A  *  not  purely  mental'  R.  is  that  which, 
though  not  naturally  implied  or  contained  in  the  words, 
may  nevertheless  be  inferred  or  suspected,  either  from 
them  or  from  the  circumstances  in  which  they  are  used. 
Of  this  kind  would  be  the  mental  R.  of  a  servant,  in 
giving  the  ordinary  answer  to  a  visitor's  inquiry  for  his 
master:  «  Not  at  home,'  though  his  master  were  really 
in  the  house ;  or  that  of  a  confessor,  who,  in  a  country 
where  the  privileges  of  the  secret  of  the  confessional 
are  known  and  admitted,  on  being  asked  whether  a 
certain  person  had  committed  a  crime,  which  the  con- 
fessor knew  from  his  confession  that  he  had  committed, 
should  answer:  'I  do  not  know,'  meaning  *  outside  of 
the  confessional.'  And,  in  general,  all  such  doubtful 
forms,  whether  of  mental  R.  or  of  equivocation,  may  be 
divided  into  discoverable  and  undiscoverable.  Much, 
though  certainly  not  all,  the  odium  against  the  casuists 
for  their  teaching  on  this  head,  has  arisen  from  the  con- 


RESERVATION, 
fusion  of  their  views  as  to  these  two  classes  of  mental 
R. ;  and  the  witty  ingenuity  with  which  Pascal  mixed 
examples  of  both,  and  applied  to  one  what  was  really 
said  of  the  other,  did  more  to  damage  the  theological, 
reputation  of  his  adversaries,  as  a  school,  than  any  of 
the  genuine  really  objectionable  decisions  which  he 
eited  from  the  writings  of  individual  divines.  Mental 
R.  has  formed  a  subject  of  discussion  for  Prot.  as  well 
as  Rom.  Cath.  divines;  but  without  entering  into  a 
detailed  history  of  this  branch  of  casuistry,  we  state 
briefly  the  chief  principles  on  which  the  decisions  of 
the  most  approved  writers,  especially  of  the  Rom.  Cath. 
school,  are  founded. 

First,  '  purely  mental'  reservations,  and  'absolutely 
imdiscoverable'  equivocations,  are  held  to  be  in  all 
3ases  unlawful,  such  forms  of  speech  being  actually  and 
only  falsehoods;  inasmuch  as  they  have  but  one  real 
sense,  which  is  not  the  sense  intended  by  the  person 
who  uses  them,  and  hence  can  serve  only  to  deceive. 
This  doctrine  is  held  by  all  sound  Rom.  Cath.  casuists, 
and  the  contradictory  doctrine  is  expressly  condemned 
by  Pope  Innocent  XI.  (Propp.  26,  27).  On  the  contrary, 
mental  reservations  •  not  purely  mental,  and  'discover- 
able '  equivocations,  are  held  to  be  not  inconsistent  with 
truth;  and,  in  certain  circumstances,  when  there  is 
necessity  or  weighty  reason  for  resorting  to  them,  allow- 
able. For  the  absolute  admissibility  of  the  expedient 
of  mental  R.  and  of  equivocation  in  such  circumstances, 
casuists  allege  Scriptural  precedent  from  Gen.  xx.  12; 
Matt.  xi.  14;  Acts  xxiii.  6;  and  other  passages ;  and  the 
principles  on  which  their  use,  in  such  case,  is  defended, 
are  (1),  that  there  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  circum- 
stances justification,  and  even  necessity,  for  not  mak- 
ing known  the  whole  truth ;  (2)  that  the  mental  R.  in 
the  case  supposed  does  not  amount  to  more  than  a  mere 
withholding  the  entire  truth,  inasmuch  as  what  is  stated  is 
true,  and  the  real  meaning  of  the  speaker  is  contained  in 
it,  and  discoverable  from  it ;  and  the  false  construction 
put  on  it  by  the  hearer,  though  permitted  through  neces- 
sity or  grave  reason  by  the  speaker,  is  not  positively  put 
forward  by  him.  A  historical  example  of  such  equivo- 
cation or  R.  is  in  the  well-known  answer  of  St.  Athana- 
sius to  the  question  of  the  party  in  pursuit  of  him,  and 
who,  overtaking  him,  but  not  knowing  his  person, 
asked  what  way  Athanasius  had  gone :  He  is  not  far  off, 
replied  Athanasius,  and  the  party  passed  on  in  pursuit. 
A  less  easily  discoverable  equivocation  is  ascribed  to 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  who,  when  a  gang  of  robbers  in 
pursuit  of  a  traveller  asked  him  whether  he  had  seen 
the  traveller  pass  by,  put  his  hand  up  the  sleeve  of  his 
habit,  and  replied  :  '  He  did  not  pass  this  way,'  meaning, 
'  up  his  sleeve.'  And  an  ordinary  example  of  discover- 
able mental  R.  is  that  of  a  person  who,  being  asked  by 
one  to  whom  he  could  not  with  safety  give  a  refusal, 
whether  he  has  any  money,  should  reply :  '  No,'  mean- 
ing, '  none  to  lend  to  you.'  Iu  order*  however,  to  justify 


RESERVATIONS. 


the  use  of  these  devices  of  speech,  casuists  require  that 
there  shall  be  some  grave  and  urgent  reason  on  the 
speaker's  part;  e.g.,  the  necessity  of  keeping  a  state 
secret,  or  a  secret  of  the  confessional,  or  of  a  profes- 
sional character,  or  even  the  confidence  intrusted  by  a 
friend,  or  the  ordinary  and  fitting  privacy  requisite  for 
the  comfort  and  security  of  domestic  life,  and  for  the 
peaceful  intercourse  of  society;  and  that  the  concealed 
sense  of  the  form  of  speech  employed,  though  it  may  be 
actually  undiscovered,  and  even  unlikely  to  be  discovered, 
may  yet  be,  in  all  the  circumstances,  really  discoverable. 
On  these  two  leading  theoretical  principles,  the  majority 
of  casuists  are  agreed.  But  a  wide  field  for  practical 
discussion  lies  between  them,  in  the  variety  of  senses 
which  may  be  attached  to  the  phrases  mot  purely  men- 
tal' and  'discoverable;'  and  it  is  in  the  practical  inter- 
pretation of  these  terms  that  some  of  the  casuists  have 
found  scope  for  introduction  of  the  lax  decisions  which 
have  brought  odium  on  casuistry.  Much  of  this  odium 
has  fallen  upon  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits,  to  such  a  de- 
gree, that  their  name  has  been  popularly  associated  with 
the  worst  forms  of  the  practice  of  mental  R. :  see 
Jesuits:  Pascal. 

RESERVATIONS,  Indian:  when  the  settlers  from 
Europe  came  to  realize  that  the  Indians  had  human 
rights,  and  ought  not  to  be  enslaved  or  exterminated,  the 
rule  was  generally  adopted  of  confining  the  tribes  to 
reservations,  both  for  their  own  protection  from  unprin- 
cipled whites,  and  for  the  security  of  the  white  popula- 
tion. New  York,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode 
Island  and  other  States  enforced  this  policy  in  the 
colonial  period  and  after  independence,  and  the  United 
States  government  has  carried  it  out  from  an  early  date. 
Southern  tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi  were  removed  to 
the  Indian  Territory,  designated  by  solemn  pledge  of  the 
National  government  as  a  permanent  home  for  their 
race,  and  there  some  of  the  tribes  have  achieved  a  high 
degree  of  civilization,  and  gained  considerable  wealth. 
Other  tribes,  chiefly  from  the  Southwest,  have  been  gath- 
ered into  the  Indian  Territory,  but  large  Indian  reserva- 
tions, mainly  of  Sioux,  are  still  maintained  in  the 
Northwest,  and  altogether  the  various  tribal  reservations 
in  the  different  States  and  Territories  number  about 
185.  The  reservations  are  carefully  guarded  against  in- 
trusion by  unscrupulous  whites,  and  provision  is  made 
for  the  intellectual  and  physical  welfare  of  the  Indians, 
and  for  leading  them  to  adopt  civilized  methods  of  self 
support,  instead  of  depending  on  the  chase,  which  now 
offers  only  the  most  precarious  returns,  or  on  govern- 
ment aid,  which,  however,  is  not  withdrawn  under  any 
circumstances  while  an  Indian  is  in  need  of  it. 


KESERVATUM  ECCLESIASTICUM — RESERVE. 

RESERVA'TUM  ECCLESIAS'TICUM :  a  provision  of 
the  religious  Peace  of  Westphalia,  celebrated  in  German 
history.  By  this  clause  of  the  treaty  of  Westphalia 
(1549),  it  was  enacted  that  if  the  holder  of  any  ecclesias- 
tical dignity,  or  of  any  territorial  jurisdiction  or  prop- 
erty annexed  to  such  ecclesiastical  dignity,  should 
change  his  religion,  the  dignity,  territorial  jurisdiction, 
or  property  held  by  him,  should  not  be  thereby  alienated 
from  the  church  from  which  he  seceded,  but  should  be 
still  4  reserved '  for  that  church,  and  for  the  legitimate 
successors  of  the  seceder.  It  was  chiefly  out  of  the 
disputes  regarding  the  violations  of  the  R.  E.  that  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  arose. 

RESERVE,  n.  re-zer€  [F.  reserves — from  L.  reservdre, 
to  reserve— from  re,  back ;  servo,  I  keep  :  It.  riservare] : 
something  kept  in  store  for  future  use;  in  mil.,  a  body 
of  troops  kept  in  the  rear  of  an  army  in  action  to  give 
support  where  required,  or  to  meet  any  contingency  (see 
Reserve,  in  Milit.) :  a  laying  up  and  keeping  for  a  future 
time ;  reservation  or  exception,  as,  a  sale  by  auction 
without  reserve;  something  concealed  in  the  mind;  cau- 
tion or  restraint  in  personal  behavior;  shyness;  in  OE., 
exception;  prohibition;  exception  in  favor:  V.  to  keep 
in  store  for  future  use ;  to  withhold  from  present  use  for 
another  purpose;  to  retain;  to  keep.  Reserving,  imp. 
Reserved7,  pp.  -zervd' :  Adj.  restrained;  shy;  modest; 
not  frank  and  open.  Reserv'edly,  ad.  -ed-li.  Reserv'- 
edness  n.  -ed  nes,  the  state  of  being  reserved ;  want  of 
frankness  or  openness.  Reserv'er  n.  -eV,  one  who 
reserves.  Reservation,  n.  rez'er-va'shun  [P.— L.] :  the 
act  of  reserving  or  keeping  back;  state  of  being  kept  in 
reserve;  concealment  in  the  mind  (see  Reservation, 
Mental):  exception  in  favor;  something  reserved:  in 
law,  term  used  in  lease,  also  in  grants  of  a  less  estate 
than  the  fee-simple,  signifying  the  part  not  given  away ; 
used  also  in  reference  to  rent,  denoting  a  rent  out  of  the 
premises  which  is  reserved  by  the  landlord  for  himself 
(see  Rent).  In  OE.,  state  of  being  treasured  up;  cus- 
tody. In  reserve,  in  keeping  for  other  or  future  use; 
in  store.— Syn.  of  *  reserve,  n.':  retention;  limitation; 
reservation;  coldness;  shyness;  modesty;  backward- 
ness ;  restraint ;  caution. 

RESERVE',  in  Military  and  Naval  Affairs:  term 
with  several  meanings.  In  a  battle,  the  R.  is  a  body  of 
troops  held  in  the  rear,  generally  out  of  Are,  and  kept  fresh, 
that  they  may  intervene  with  decisive  force  at  any  point 
where  yielding  troops  require  support,  or  an  advantage 
gained  needs  powerful  following  up. — The  R.  of  ammuni- 
tion is  a  magazine  of  warlike  stores,  situated  between 
an  army  and  its  base  of  operations,  sufficiently  retired 
from  the  front  to  be  safe  from  sudden  raids  of  the 
enemy,  and  at  the  same  time  advanced  enough  to  allow 
of  the  supply  actually  in  .the  field  being  speedily  re- 
plenished. 

The  R.  of  a  nation  is  that  force  on  which  the  national 


HE  SERVE — RESERVED  CASES. 

defense  is  thrown,  when  its  regular  armies  have  failed 
in  securing  its  safety.  This  reserve  may  be  the  levee  en 
masse  of  the  whole  adult  male  population,  or  it  may  con- 
sist of  a  smaller  section  of  the  people  duly  trained  to 
arms.  The  latter  is  the  preferable  system,  when  the 
arms  of  scientific  modern  warfare  are  to  be  brought  into 
action.  In  different  countries,  the  reserves  are  organ- 
ized on  very  different  principles.  In  Great  Britain,  they 
comprise  the  army  reserve,  the  enrolled  pensioners — 
both  of  which  consist  of  soldiers  who  have  served  in  the 
army — the  militia,  yeomanry,  volunteers,  and  trained 
constabulary.  The  numbers  of  the  reserve  forces  pro- 
vided for  in  the  army  estimates  1902-03,  were  as  follows: 
Reserves,  80,000;  Militia  Reserves  (new),  50,000; 
Militia,  131,737;  Militia  of  Channel  Islands,  Malta  and 
Bermuda,  6,002;  Yeomanry,  35,164;  Volunteers,  346,769 ; 
Total,  669,672. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  officially  no  army  reserve 
under  direct  control  of  the  war  department;  but  the 
militia  or  national  guard  of  the  different  states  under 
the  immediate  control  of  the  governors,  constitutes  an 
effective  force  which  may  be  called  into  the  general  ser- 
vice by  the  respective  governors  on  the  order  of  the 
president.  This  force  aggregated  (1903)  96,808  inf.; 
'4,952  cav.;  6,671  artil.;  total,  183,596,  with  1,791  com- 
missioned officers.  The  number  of  men  available  for 
military  duty  was  8,727,500. 

The  reserves  of  all  grades  in  foreign  navies  aggregate: 
Austria,  7,500;  France,  150,000;  Germany,  34,000;  Great 
Britain,  55,000;  Italy,  14,000;  Netherlands,  3,500;  Rus- 
sia, 22,000;  Spain,  6,700;  and  Sweden  and  Norway, 
3,000-1,100. — In  the  United  States,  congress  passed  a 
bill,  1891,  authorizing  the  organization  of  a  naval  militia 
in  the  seaboard  states,  the  whole  to  form  a  national 
naval  reserve;  and  in  1903,  this  was  organized  in  16 
states  and  the  district  of  Columbia,  with  433  officers  and 
4,447  men.  See  Naval  Reserve:  also  Armies:  Navies, 
Modern:  Volunteers:  Militia:  War  Services:  Yeo- 
manry. 

RESERVED  CASES,  in  the  canon  law  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  certain  sins  the  power  of  absolving 
from  which  is  reserved  to  the  ecclesiastical  superior  him- 
self— the  pope,  the  bishop,  the  ruler  of  a  monastery  or 
other  religious  house.  The  *  faculties '  conferred  regu- 
larly on  priests  who  administer  the  sacrament  of  Pen- 
ance do  not  extend  to  reserved  cases,  and  the  penitent 
must  sue  personally  or  through  an  intermediary  for  ab- 
solution by  the  pope,  bishop  or  other  superior  to  whom 
the  case  is"  reserved.  Bishops  have  the  right  to  limit  the 
absolving  power  of  those"  who  under  them  have  cure  of 
souls,  but  in  the  United  States  this  right  is  seldom  ex- 
ercised, and  the  (  faculties '  accorded  in  this  country  to 
rectors  of  churches  and  other  confcssaru  is  practically 
as  large  as  that  possessed  by  the  ordinaries  themselves. 


RESEEVOIB. 

RESERVOIR,  n.  rez'er-vwmvr'  [F.  reservoir,  a  reservoir 
— from  mid.  L.  reservatdrium,  a  storehouse — from  L.  re, 
again ;  servo,  I  keep  or  preserve]  :  receptacle  for  storing 
water  for  any  purpose,  but  chiefly  for  supply  of  towns, 
driving  machinery,  feeding  canals,  irrigation,  or  some 
process  of  manufactures.  Generally,  every  water- 
works' establishment,  for  the  supply  of  a  town,  requires 
to  construct  one  or  more  reservoirs  for  providing  com- 
pensation to  the  mills  situated  on  the  stream,  for  the 
water  abstracted  from  any  of  its  feeders. 

The  most  advantageous  position  for  a  storage  E.  is 
that  where  there  is  a  narrow  gorge  in  a  valley  widening 
out  upward  into  a  flat  expanse,  thereby  enabling  a  com- 
paratively small  dam  or  embankment  formed  in  the 
gorge  to  impound  a  large  body  of  water;  but  in  many 
cases  where  there  is  no  such  choice,  the  embankment 
may  necessarily  be  placed  across  a  wide  part  of  a  valley 
which  narrows  as  it  ascends,  thereby  requiring  a  great 
embankment,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water  im- 
pounded. Sometimes  reservoirs  have  to  be  formed  on 
fiattish  ground  affording  no  great  natural  facilities  for 
storing  water;  and  in  such  cases  they  may  require  to  be 
embanked  wholly  or  nearly  around.  Where  a  R.  must 
be  constructed  on  perfectly  level  ground,  the  excavation 
must  be  calculated  to  be  exactly  equal  to  the  embanking. 
The  worst  possible  situation  for  a  store  reservoir  is  on 
the  slope  of  a  hill. 

In  many  cases,  natural  lakes  are  used  as  reservoirs, 
means  being  adopted  for  raising  or  lowering  the  surface 
of  the  water,  the  difference  between  the  lowest  and  the 
highest  level  of  the  lake's  surface,  multiplied  by  its  area, 
being  the  measure  of  the  available  storage.  The  ca« 
pacity  of  a  R.  necessary  for  making  nearly  the  whole 
water  of  a  district  available  for  use,  depends  much  on 
the  climate.  Where  droughts  are  of  long  continuance, 
its  capacity  requires  to  be  proportionally  large. 

As  illustrative  of  the  very  different  facilities  afforded 
by  different  sites  for  storing  water,  an  instance  occurs 
of  two  reservoirs  of  the  Edinburgh  Water  Trust,  whereof 


SLUICE  SHAFT 


Fig.  1.— Elevation  of  Reservoir. 

one  with  an  embankment  containing  175,000  cubic  yards 
of  earthwork  impounds  only  17  millions  of  cubic  feet  of 
water;  while  another,  with  an  embankment  of  53,000 
cubic  yards,  impounds  85  millions  of  cubic  feet,  there 
being  a  single  embankment  across  a  valley  in  both  cases. 
Generally,  the  structure  for  impounding  water  is  an 


RESERVOIR. 

earthwork  embankment,  with  a  slope  toward  the  water 
of  3  or  4  horizontal  to  1  perpendicular,  a  breadth  across 
the  top  of  6  to  12  ft.,  the  height  being  from  4  to  7  ft. 
above  the  water,  and  an  outside  ^lope  of  2  to  2J  hori- 
zontal to  1  perpendicular.  The  earthwork  ought  to  be 
formed  in  thin  layers  well  rammed,  and  to  have  a  puddle- 
wall  of  good  well-worked  ^lay  in  the  centre,  the  founda- 
tion of  the  puddle  bein^  a  trench  dug  down  to  impervious 
rock  or  clay.  Th<*  face  toward  the  water  requires  to  be 
protected  by  stones;  and  when  a  R.  is  large,  those 
stones  must  be  f  pitched  ' — i.e.,  regularly  set  by  hand— » 


GANGWAY  &  SLUICE  SHAF1 


Fig.  2.— Transverse  Section  of  Reservoir. 


so  as  to  be  able  to  resist  the  lash  of  the  wave.  In  all 
cases,  there  is  imperatively  required  a  waste-weir,  to 
allow  flood-waters  to  escape  without  risk  of  overflowing 
the  dam.  The  weir  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  placed  on 
the  solid  ground  ;  and  if  it  can  be  cut  through  solid  rock, 
that  is  best,  and  saves  great  expense  for  masonry.  The 
width  of  the  waste-weir  must  be  regulated  by  the  catch- 
ment or  extent  of  gathering-ground  of  the  R.,  and  by 
the  rainfall  of  the  district;  but  for  a  given  catchment 
and  rainfall,  a  R.  having  a  small  area  ought  to  have  a 
larger  waste-weir  than  one  having  a  larger  area,  as  the 
latter  would  allow  flood-water  to  accumulate  without 
rising  to  so  high  a  level  as  in  the  former.  Generally, 
however,  12  to  20  ft.  length  of  waste-weir  may  suffice 
for  a  sq.  m.  of  catchment.  In  some  cases,  dams  across 
gorges,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  reservoirs,  are  con- 
structed of  walls  of  heavy  masonry,  instead  of  earth- 
work embankments.  Those  across  rivers  for  diverting 
the  water  into  mill-lades,  and  for  retaining  the  water 
which  would  otherwise  be  wasted  at  meal-hours,  are 
constructed  generally  of  stone,  but  sometimes  of  timber 
or  iron. 

The  word  dam  is  sometimes  used  incorrectly  to  in- 
dicate a  R.  ^r  sheet  of  water,  instead  of  the  structure 
used  to  form  the  R.,  which  is  its  proper  meaning.  A 
R.  requires  a  sufficient  outlet  at  the  bottom  by  means 
of  a  tuniiel,  culvert,  or  iron  pipes  provided  with  suitable 
sluices,  and  these  ought  properly  to  be  so  arranged  as 
that  access  can  be  had  to  them  even  when  the  R.  is  full. 

Most  of  the  disasters  from  the  bursting  of  reservoirs 
have  arisen  from  lack  of  sufficient  waste-weirs,  which 
occasions,  the  embankments  to  be  overtopped  by  tho 
water,  and  the  outer  slope  to  be  washed  away,  so  as  to 


RESET— RESIANT. 
deprive  the  puddle-wall  of  its  support;  but  some 
accidents  have  occurred  from  the  outlet  beiug  by  a  wooden 
box  or  trough  through  the  embankment,  and  that  being 
neglected  and  allowed  to  get  rotten. — The  bursting  of 
some  reservoirs  occurs  from  the  embankment  sinking 
to,  and  being  allowed  to  remain  at,  a  level  actually 
below  that  of  the  waste-weir,  so  that  the  embankment 
is  overtopped ;  and  the  bursting  of  others  is  due  to  a 
landslip  under  the  embankment.  For  the  most  disas- 
trous and  destructive  instance  on  record  of  the  bursting 
of  a  R.,  see  Johnstown  (Penn.). 

Distributing  reservoirs  for  towns,  used  chiefly  for 
storing  the  surplus  water  during  the  night,  which  other- 
wise might  mostly  go  to  waste,  ought  to  hold  at  least 
half  a  day's  supply,  and  ought  to  be  placed  high  enough 
to  command  the  highest  parts  of  the  town.  They  are 
usually  built  of  masonry  or  brickwork,  but  are  some- 
times made  of  cast  iron,  and  now  of  boiler-plate — in 
which  last  case  they  are  best  ot  circular  form.  In  India 
and  in  s.  Europe,  where  long  droughts  prevail,  immense 
reservoirs  have  been  constructed  for  supplying  water 
for  irrigation. 

RESET,  v.  re-set'  [OF.  recete,  recepte,  something  re- 
ceived (see  Receipt)]  :  in  Scotch  law,  to  receive  stolen 
goods:  N.  the  offense  of  receiving  and  keeping  stolen 
goods.  Reset'ter,  n.  -ter,  one  who  receives  stolen 
goods. 

RESET,  v.  reset'  [re,  again,  and  set] :  to  set  again,  as 
a  diamond ;  among  printers,  to  set  over  again. 

RESETTLE,  v.  re-setfl  [re,  again,  and  settle] :  to  settle 
again.    Resettlement,  n.  a  second  or  new  settlement. 

RESHAPE,  v.  re-shap'  [re,  again,  and  shape] :  to  shape 
again. 

RESHD :  see  Rasht. 

RESHID'  PASHA'  (Mus'tapha  Meh'emed):  see 
Re7>shxd  Pasha. 

RESH1P,  v.  re-ship'  [re,  again,  and  ship] :  to  ship  a 
second  time;  to  ship  again  for  another  place  what  has 
been  imported.  Reship'ment,  n.  the  act  of  shipping 
igain ;  goods  reloaded  and  sent  to  another  port. 

RESIANT,  a.  rez'i-ant  [Norm.  F.reseant,  dwelling— from 
mid.  L.  resians,  dwelling  in  a  place :  L.  res'idens  or 
residen'tem,  residing  (see  Reside)]:  in  OE.,  resident; 
present  in  a  place.  Res'iance,  n.  -i-ans,  in  OE.t  resi- 
dence ;  dwelling ;  abode. 


BESIDE—RESIGN. 
BESIDE,  v.  re-zld'  [F.  resider — from  L.  residere,  to 
remain,  to  abide— from  re,  again ;  seded,  I  sit  ;  It. 
risedere]  :  to  continue  in  a  place  as  an  inhabitant ;  to 
abide;  to  live;  to  dwell.  Residing,  imp.  Resided, 
pp.  Residue,  n.  -er,  one  who  resides  in  a  particular 
place.  Resident,  a.  rez'i-dent  [F.—  from  L.  res'idens  or 
residen'tem,  remaining,  abiding] :  dwelling  or  abiding  in 
a  place :  N.  one  who  resides  or  dwells  in  a  place ;  an  in- 
habitant ;  a  public  minister  residing  at  a  foreign  court. 
Residence,  n.  -dens  [F.< — L.]  :  act  of  residing;  place 
where  one  resides ;  home ;  an  abode ;  a  mansion  ;  also 
Residency,  n.  -den-si,  an  abode ;  the  official  dwelling  of  a 
government  officer  in  India.  Res'iden'tial,  a.  -den'shdl, 
having  actual  possession ;  related  or  pertaining  to  resi- 
dence or  residents.  Residentiary,  a.  -sher-i,  residen- 
tial :  N.  one  who  keeps  a  certain  residence,  as  the  canon 
of  a  cathedral. — Syn.  of  *  reside  ' :  to  remain ;  live ;  dwell ; 
abide;  domicile;  inhabit;  sojourn;  domiciliate;  stay; 
house. 

RESIDUE,  n.  rez'i-du  [F.  rcsidu — from  L.  resid'uum,, 
a  remainder— from  re,  back ;  seded,  I  sit :  It.  residuo] : 
that  which  remains  after  the  greater  part  has  been  taken 
or  separated ;  the  rest;  the  remainder;  the  remainder  of 
an  estate  after  payment  of  debts  and  legacies.  Re- 
sidual, a.  re-zid'u-al,  remaining  after  the  greater  part 
has  been  taken.  Resid'uary,  a.  -er-%,  pertaining  to  the 
residue ;  that  takes  the  residue  or  remainder  of  an  estate 
after  paying  debts  and  legacies ;  entitled  to  the  residue, 
as  a  residuary  legatee :  if  the  debts  and  the  express  lega- 
cies exhaust  all  the  funds,  the  residuary  legacy  is  worth 
nothing.  Resid'uum,  n.  -um,  the  residue ;  the  remainder : 
plu.  Resid'ua,  -a. — Syn.  of  '  residue  ' :  remainder;  rest; 
remnant ;  balance. 

RESIGN,  v.  re-sin'  [re,  again,  and  sign] :  to  sign  again. 

RESIGN,  v.  re-zin'  [F.  resigner — from  L.  resigndre,  to 
resign — from  re,  back ;  signdre,  to  mark,  to  sign — from 
signum,  a  mark :  It.  risegnare]  :  to  give  up,  as  a  claim  or 
an  office;  to  yield  into  the  hands  of  another;  to  submit 
without  resistance  or  murmuring;  to  yield,  as  the  will; 
to  submit ;  to  quit ;  to  forsake.  Resigning,  imp.  Re- 
signed', pp.  -zlndf :  Adj.  calmly  submitting  to  the  will 
of  God.  Resign'edly,  ad.  -ed-li.  Resign'er,  n.  -er> 
one  who  resigns.  Resignation,  n.  rez'ig-nd'shun  [F. — 
L.] :  the  act  of  yielding  or  giving  up;  habitual  submis- 
sion to  the  will  of  God  ;  submission  ;  patience. — Syn.  of 
♦resign':  to  surrender;  abdicate;  relinquish;  submit; 
leave ;  quit ;  forsake  ;  forego ;  renounce ;  abandon ; — of 
*  resignation  ' :  endurance ;  patience ;  fortitude ;  acquies- 
cence ;  surrender ;  submission ;  relinquishment ;  renun- 
ciation ;  abdication ;  abandonment. 


RESILE — RESINS. 

RESILE,  v.  re-ziV  [F.  resiiier,  to  cancel — from  L, 
resillre,  to  leap  or  spring  back — from  re,  back ;  saHd,  I 
leap  or  spring] :  to  start  back ;  to  cancel ;  to  withdraw 
from,  as  an  agreement.  Resil'ing,  imp.  Resiled7,  pp. 
-zlldf.  Resilient,  a.  re-zlVi-ent,  leaping  or  starting 
back ;  rebounding.  Resilience,  -ens,  the  act  of  spring- 
ing back  or  rebounding;  also  Resiliency,  n.  -en-si. 

RESIN,  n.  rez'in  [F.  resine,  rosin — from  L.  reslna;  Gr. 
rhetine,  resin  :  It.  resina] :  brittle  substance  which  exudes 
from  many  trees,  especially  from  firs  and  pines,  usually 
of  yellowish  or  amber  color,  more  or  less  transparent ; 
the  commonest  resin,  forming  the  remains  of  the  still 
after  distilling  turpentine,  is  usually  called  rosin  (see 
Resins).  Resinate,  n.  rez%n-at,  general  name  for  the 
salts  of  the  acids  obtained  from  turpentine — viz.,  the 
sylvates,  the  pinates,  and  the  pimarates.  Their  general 
formulae  are  C20H29MO2  and  C40H58MO4.  Res'iny,  a. 
4,  partaking  of  the  qualities  of  resin.  Res'inous,  a.  -us, 
containing  or  yielding  resin ;  possessing  the  properties 
of  resin.  Res'inotjsly,  ad.  41.  Res'inousness,  n.  -nes, 
the  quality  of  being  resinous.  Minebal  resins,  pitchy 
or  resinous  substances,  as  asphalt,  amber,  retinite,  etc. 
Resinous  electricity,  electricity  which  is  excited  by 
rubbing  bodies  of  the  resinous  kind— called  also  negative, 
and  opposed  to  vitreous  or  positive  electricity.  Res'ino- 
elec'tric,  a.  exhibiting  negative  electricity.  Res'inif'- 
erous,  a.  -if'er-us  [L.  fero,  I  produce]  :  producing  resin. 
Res'inieorm,  a.  -i-fawrm  [L.  forma,  shape]  :  having  the 
form  of  resin. 

RESINA,  ra-se'na :  town  of  s.  Italy,  province  of 
Naples,  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  and  facing  the  sea.  R. 
is  built  on  the  site  of  ancient  Herculaneum.  Exquisite 
fruits  are  grown,  and  the  famous  Lacrimal  Christi  wine 
is  made  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  surrounded  by  country 
houses,  and  is  a  place  of  recreation  for  the  Neapolitans, 
on  account  of  its  salubrity.  The  ascent  of  Mount 
Vesuvius  is  begun  at  R. — Pop.  13,626. 

RESINITE,  n.  rezTxn-lt:  see  Retinite. 

RES'INS :  class  of  natural  vegetable  products  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  They  are 
closely  allied  to  the  essential  oils,  all  of  which,  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  absorb  oxygen,  and  finally  become 
converted  into  substances  having  the  characters  of 
resin;  and  in  most  cases  they  are  obtained  from  the 
plants  which  yield  them,  mixed  with  and  dissolved  in  a 
corresponding  essential  oil.  Like  the  natural  oils,  the 
natural  resins  are  usually  mixtures  of  two  or  more 
distinct  resins,  which  admit  of  separation  by  their  un- 
equal solubility  in  different  fluids. 

The  following  are  the  general  characters  of  this  class 
of  compounds.  At  ordinary  temperatures,  they  are 
solid,  translucent,  and  mostly  colored,  though  some  are 
colorless  and  transparent.  Some  are  devoid  of  odor, 
while  others  give  an  aromatic  fragrance  from  the  ad- 
mixture of  an  essential  oil.    In  their  crude  state,  they 


RESINS. 

never  crystallize,  but  are  amorphous  and  brittle,  break- 
ing with  conchoidal  fracture;  when  pure,  several  of 
them  may  be  obtained  in  crystalline  form.  They  are 
readily  melted  by  heat,  and  are  inflammable,  burning 
with  white,  smoky  flame.  They  are  usually  described  as 
non-volatile,  but  it  has  been  shown  that  common  resin 
may  be  distilled  in  a  current  of  superheated  steam. 
They  are  insoluble  in  water;  but  dissolve  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  the  essential  and  fixed  oils.  They  are  in- 
sulators or  non-conductors  of  electricity,  and  become 
negatively  electric  by  friction.  Many  possess  acid 
properties,  in  which  case  their  alcoholic  solutions  redden 
litmus.  These  R.  combine  with  the  alkalies,  and  form 
frothy  soap-like  solutions  in  alkaline  lyes.  The  resin- 
ous soaps  thus  formed  differ  from  ordinary  soap  in  not 
being  precipitated  by  chloride  of  sodium. 

The  R.  are  divisible  into  the  hard  resins,  the  soft 
resins,  and  the  gum  resins. — The  hard  R.  are  at  ordinary 
temperatures  solid  and  brittle;  they  are  easily  pulver- 
ized, and  contain  little  or  no  essential  oil.  Under  this 
head  are  included  copal,  the  varieties  of  lac,  mastic,  and 
sandarac,  and  the  R.  of  benzoin  (commonly  called 
gum  benzoin),  jalap,  guaiacum,  etc. — The  soft  R.  admit 
of  being  molded  by  the  hand,  and  some  are  viscous  and 
semi-fluid,  and  are  termed  balsams.  They  consist  es- 
sentially of  solutions  of  hard  R.  in  essential  oils,  or  ad- 
mixtures of  the  two.  They  become  oxidized  and  hard- 
ened by  exposure  to  the  air  into  the  first  class  of  R. 
Under  this  head  are  placed  turpentine,  storax,  balsam 
of  copaiba,  and  the  balsams  of  Canada,  Peru,  and  Tolu. 
—The  gum  R.  are  the  milky  juices  of  certain  plants 
solidified  by  exposure  to  the  air.  They  consist  of  a 
mixture  of  R.  and  essential  oils  with  considerable  pro- 
portion of  gum ;  and  on  this  account,  when  rubbed  up 
with  water,  they  yield  a  turbid  or  milky  fluid  from  the 
dissolved  gum,  retaining  the  resin  and  oil  in  suspension, 
and  are  only  partly  soluble  in  alcohol.  Some  of  them, 
e.g.,  ammoniacum,  asafetida,  euphorbium,  galbanum, 
gamboge,  myrrh,  olibanum,  etc.,  are  valuable  medicinal 
agents ;  while  others,  e.g.,  caoutchouc  (or  India-rubber) 
and  gutta-percha,  are  of  great  value  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures. 

The  R.  are  very  widely  diffused  throughout  the  vege- 
table kingdom ;  but  certain  families  of  plants  are  espe- 
cially rich  in  them.  They  are  obtained  usually  by  making 
incisions  into  the  wood  of  the  trees  which  produce  them ; 
Dut  sometimes  they  exude  spontaneously,  and  in  other 
cases  they  must  be  extracted  from  the  wood  by  boiling 
alcohol.  The  crude  R.  are  separated  from  the  essential 
oils  with  which  they  are  usually  mixed  by  distillation 
with  water,  the  resin  remaining  while  the  oil  and  water 
pass  off;  and  from  the  gummy  and  mucilaginous  matters 
by  alcohol,  which  dissolves  out  the  pure  R.,  which  can 
be  precipitated  from  their  alcoholic  solution  by  addition 
of  water.  The  R.  are  extensively  used  in  medicine; 
and  in  addition  to  the  almost  innumerable  applications 


RESINS. 


of  caoutchouc  and  gutta-percha,  various  R.  are  of  service 
in  preparation  of  varnishes,  soaps,  pigments,  artificial 
light  (resin-gas),  etc. 

Various  fossil  R.  are  known,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant is  amber.  Some  chemists  place  bitumen  and 
asphalt  among  this  class;  and  among  the  fossil  R. 
described  by  mineralogists  are  Fichtelite,  Hartite, 
Idrialite,  Ozocerite,  Scheererite,  Xyloretin,  etc. 

The  common  resin,  or  rosin,  of  commerce  exudes  in 
semi-fluid  state  from  several  species  of  pine,  especially 
Pinus  tceda,  P.  mitis,  P.  palustris,  and  P.  rigida  of  N. 
America,  P.  pinaster,  P.pinea,  and  P.  Laricio  of  s.  Europe, 
and  P.  sylvestris  ol'.n.  Europe.  The  process  of  collecting 
it  is  simple  :  a  longitudinal  slice  of  the  bark  and  wood 


(A,  fig.  1),  about  a  ft.  m  length,  is  taken  off  by  means  of 
an  ax  with  a  curved  blade  (fig.  2) ;  and  at  the  bottom 
of  the  groove  thus  made,  a  small  piece  of  bent  wood  or 
thin  metal,  as  tin  or  zinc,  is  driven  into  a  curved  cut, 
made  by  one  blow  of  the  ax  (B,  fig.  1) ;  this  forms  a 
sort  of  spout,  which  catches  the  liquid  resin  as  it  runs 
from  the  wound,  and  guides  it  into  a  small  pot,  made  of 
common  clay  burned.  At  certain  periods,  these  pots  are 
emptied,  and  their  contents  put  into  casks,  for  transport 
to  the  distilleries,  where  the  volatile  essential  oil  is 
removed  from  the  resin.  The  resin  thus  procured  is 
much  used  in  manufacture  of  common  yellow  soap,  also 
for  sizing  paper  and  various  other  purposes,  including 
preparation  of  ointments  and  plasters  in  pharmacy. 

The  other  R.  most  generally  known  and  used  in  Amer- 
ica and  Europe  are  Anime  (q.v.),  Copal  (q.v.),  Dammar 
(q.v.),  Mastic  (q.v.),  Sandarac  (q.v.),  Frankincense 
(q.v.),  Lac  (q.v.).  In  addition,  many  are  of  essential 
service  in  other  countries ;  as  the  Piney  Resin  or  Dhoop, 
from  Valeria  indica ;  Black  Dammar,  from  Canarium 
strictum ;  Saul  Resin,  or  Dammar  Batu,  from  Shorea 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


BESIST— RESOLUTION. 
robusta— all   serving  many  useful  purposes  in  India. 
China,  Japan,  and  other  Asiatic  countries.    The  forests 
of  S.  America  furnish  many  others. 

RESIST,,  v.  re-zis?  [F.  resister — from  L.  resistere,  to 
resist,  to  oppose — from  re,  back  or  again ;  sisto,  I  stand  : 
It.  resistere] :  to  act  in  opposition  to ;  to  strive  or  act 
against ;  to  withstand  ;  to  make  opposition  :  N.  a  sort  of 
paste  or  mixture  to  preserve  portions  of  white  color  in 
print-dyeing.  Resisting,  imp.  Resisted,  pp.  Re- 
sist'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  resists.  Resistible,  a.  -i-bl, 
that  may  be  resisted.  Resist'ibly,  ad.  -bli.  Resist'- 
ibleness,  n.  -bl-nes,  or  Resist'ibil'ity,  n.  -bffitrft,  the 
quality  of  being  resistible.  Resistance,  n.  -ans  [F. — 
L.j  :  opposition ;  hindrance;  quality  of  not  yielding  to 
force;  the  powers  by  which  motion  in  a  body  is  dimin- 
ished or  destroyed.  Resistant,  a.  -ant  [F.—L.] :  mak- 
ing resistance  :  N.  one  who  or  that  which  resists.  Re- 
sist'less,  a.  -les,  that  cannot  be  effectually  opposed  or 
resisted.  Resist'lessly,  ad.  -II.  Resist'lessness,  n. 
-nes,  the  state  of  being  resistless. — Syn.  of  «  resist ' :  to 
oppose ;  withstand ;  thwart ;  hinder;  check;  baffle;  dis- 
appoint. 

RESISTANCE  OF  FLUTDS:  see  Hydrostatics: 

Atmosphere. 

RES  JUDICATA,  rez ju-di-kafta,  in  Law:  the  subject- 
matter  of  an  action  already  decided  by  a  court  of  com- 
petent jurisdiction  :  in  such  a  case,  a  plea  setting  up  the 
res  judicata  is  sufficient  defense;  but  the  suit  in  the  for- 
*mer  case  must  have  been  between  the  same  parties. 

RESOLUBLE,  a.  rez'o-16-bl  [re,  back  or  again,  and  solu- 
ble :  F.  resoluble — from  mid.  L.  resolufbilis,  resolvable — 
from  L.  resolvere,  to  resolve  (see  Resolve)]  :  that  may 
be  melted  or  dissolved. 

RESOLUTE,  a.  rez'6-lot  [Sp.  resoluto ;  It.  risoluto  ;  F. 
resolu,  resolute,  bold — from  L.  re,  back;  solutus,  loosed; 
solvere,  to  loose]  :  determined  ;  decided ;  characterized  by 
firmness  and  constancy  in  pursuing  a  purpose;  un- 
daunted: N.  in  OE.,  a  determined  person;  one  deter- 
minedly bent  on  a  purpose.  Res'olutely,  ad.  -U,  firmly ; 
constantly;  steadily.  Resoluteness,  n.  -wes,  the  qual- 
ity of  being  resolute  in  a  fixed  purpose;  unshaken  firm- 
ness.— Syn.  of  'resolute  ' :  determined  ;  decided ;  steady ; 
steadfast;  fixed;  firm;  bold;  unshaken;  persevering; 
constant. 

RESOLUTION,  n.  re^'d-lo'shun  [F.  resolution — from 
mid.  L.  resolutionem  (see  Resolute)]  :  fixed  determi- 
nation ;  steadiness  or  fixedness  of  purpose ;  constancy  in 
execution  ;  firmness ;  a  formal  proposition  brought  be- 
fore a  public  body  for  discussion  and  adoption.  Reso- 
lu'tioner,  n.  -er,  one  who  joins  in  the  declaration  of 
others;  one  of  a  party  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  the 
17th  c— -  Syn.  of  'resolution':  decision;  firmness;  re- 
solvedness;  fortitude;  steadfastness;  purpose;  resolve; 
p  e :  s  e  v  e  r  an  c  -    b  o  1J  u  c 


BESOLUTION. 
[RESOLUTION,  n.  rez'd-lo'shun  [L.  resolutu?,  enervated, 
relaxed — from  re,  back  ;  solutus,  loosed  ;  solvere,  to  loose]  : 
the  act  or  process  of  disentangling  or  overcoming  dif- 
ficulties; the  process  of  separating  the  component  parts 
of  bodies;  analysis;  in  med.,  the  dispersion  or  disappear- 
ance of  a  tumor  or  inflammatory  part;  in  math.,  solu- 
tion; in  dyn.,  the  estimation  of  the  various  forces  acting 
together  at  one  point;  a  term  frequently  used  as  the 
opposite  of  Composition— as,  the  resolution  and  composi- 
tion of  forces  (see  Composition):  in  music  (see  below). 
Note. — The  two  preceding  titles  are  Identical  in  their 
etymology.  Kesolution,  *  fixed  determination,'  sig- 
nifies primarily,  *  the  state  of  being  let  loose  or  free 
from  restraint.' — Syn.  :  separation;  analysis;  dissolu- 
tion ;  disentanglement. 

KESOLU'TION,  in  Music:  the  passing  from  a  discord 
into  a  concord  ;  descent  by  a  tone  or  a  semitone  of  the 
discord  heard  in  the  preceding  harmony,  as  the  mode 
requires.  In  the  progression  of  chords  in  a  musical 
composition,  there  are  certain  chords  that  require  to  be 
followed  by  certain  others,  or,  as  it  is  called,  resolved 
into  them;  otherwise,  a  sense  of  incompleteness  is  left 
on  the  ear.  Thus  the  chord  of  the  dominant  seventh 
must  be  resolved  by  the  tonic  harmony,  the  major  third 
ascending  a  semitone  to  the  key-note,  and  the  seventh 
descending  one  degree  to  the  third  of  the  key : 


9— o,  u 

 &  7-5— 

4 

 o-  C2_ 

 &  g 

— &  Q  

— 

 G  &  

— &— 

—-<£>-,  

o 

t*  — - 

— — - 

23"  " 

 G>  

— ©  J 

The  diminished  triad  is  similarly  resolved,  and  all 
chords  immediately  derived  from  the  dominant  har- 
mony. The  chord  of  the  added  ninth  is  resolved  by 
descendiag  a  second  to  the  fifth  of  the  tonic  : 


RESOLVE— RESORT. 
KESOLvE,  v.  re-zolv'  [L.  resolvere,  to  separate,  to  un- 
fasten— from  re,  back ;  solvo,  I  loose :  It.  risolvere] :  to 
reduce  to  simple  parts  or  first  principles;  to  analyze;  to 
clear  of  difficulties ;  to  explain ;  to  determine  in  one's 
own  mind  ;  to  fix  in  a  determination ;  to  decide ;  to  pur- 
pose ;  to  constitute  by  vote  or  formal  declaration ;  in 
med.,  to  disperse  or  scatter,  as  a  tumor;  in  OE.,  to  in- 
form ;  to  free  from  difficulty  or  doubt ;  to  settle  in  an 
opinion :  N.  fixed  purpose  of  mind ;  determination. 
Resolv'ing,  imp.  Resolved',  pp,  -zolvd':  Adj.  fixed 
or  determined  in  purpose.  Resolv'er,  n.  -er,  one  who 
resolves.  Resolvable,  a.  -d-bi,  capable  of  being  re- 
solved ;  that  may  be  reduced  to  first  principles.  Resolv'- 
abil'ity,  n.  -bil'i-ti,  capability  of  being  resolved.  Re- 
solvedly, ad.  -ed-li.  Resolv'edness,  -nes,  fixedness  of 
purpose;  firmness.  Resolv'ent,  a.  ~ent,  in  med.,  hav- 
ing the  power  to  dissolve  or  scatter,  as  a  tumor :  N.  a 
medicine  which  dissolves  a  tumor.  To  kesolve  a 
nebula,  in  astron.,  to  cause  a  nebula  by  a  powerful  in- 
strument to  appear  separated  into  distinct  stars. — Syn. 
of  *  resolve,  v.' :  to  analyze ;  explain ;  solve ;  disentangle ; 
unravel ;  conclude ;  purpose  ;  decide ;  determine ;  fix ;  con- 
firm ;  melt ;  dissolve ;  disperse ;  reduce ;  constitute ; 
form ;  decree. 

RESONANT,  a.  rez'd-nant  [F.  resonnant,  resounding — 
from  L.  resonans  or  resonan'tem,  resounding  or  re-echo- 
ing— from  re,  back ;  sono,  I  sound  :  It.  risonanle,  resound- 
ing] :  returning  sound ;  echoing  back.  Resonantly, 
ad.  ~h.  Resonance,  n.  -nans,  the  returning  or  prolon- 
gation of  sound,  as  by  the  air  acting  on  the  bodies  of 
stringed  instruments.  Resonator,  n.  rez'o-ndt-er,  instru- 
ment invented  by  Helmholz  for  facilitating  analysis  of 
compound  sounds.  When  fitted  to  one  ear,  the  other  be- 
ing stopped,  tones  above  or  below  the  pitch  of  the  resona- 
tor will  be  imperfectly  heard:  but  a  note  corresponding  to 
the  peculiar  note  of  the  resonator  will  be  intensified. 

RESORCIN,  rez-awr'sln  [resin,  and  orcin  :  crystal- 
line chemical  compound,  formula)  C6H602  or  C6H4(OH)2. 
It  is  homologous  with  orcin,  C7K802,  hence  its  name. 
R.  is  produced  by  the  action  of  potassium  hydrate  on  various 
resins,  especially  ammoniacum,  and  also  synthetically.  It 
is  in  triclinic  crystals,  colorless,  but  becoming  pinkish  on 
exposure  to  air,  very  soluble  in  water.  R.  is  a  valuable 
antiseptic;  irritant  only  in  strong  solutions  applied  to  mu- 
cous membranes  or  abrasions. 

RESORT,  v.  re-zort'  [F.  ressortir,  to  go  forth  again — 
from  re,  again;  sortir,  to  go  out:  mid.  L.  resortlre,  to  be 
subject  to  a  tribunal,  to  appeal — from  L.  re,  again;  sors 
or  sortem,  a  lot :  also  referred  to  L.  re,  again ;  surgere,  to 
rise] :  to  repair;  to  apply;  to  betake  one's  self;  to  have 
recourse ;  to  frequent ;  in  OE.,  to  fall  back:  N.  act  of 
resorting;  a  place  much  frequented;  concourse.  Re- 
sort'ing,  imp.  Resort'ed,  pp.  Resort'er,  n.  -er,  one 
who  resorts.  Last  resort,  final  tribunal;  that  from 
which  there  is  no  appeal ;  final  means. 


RESOUND— RESPECT. 


RESOUND,  v.  re-sownd'  [re,  again,  and  sound] :  to 
sound  again. 

RESOUND,  v.  re-zownd'  [L.  resondre,  to  resound — 
from  re,  back  or  again;  sondre,  to  sound:  It.  risonare: 
F.  resonner]  :  to  send  back  sound;  to  echo;  to  reverber- 
ate; to  praise  or  celebrate  by  the  sound  of  the  voice  or 
an  instrument;  to  spread  the  fame  of;  to  be  sent  back, 
as  sound;  to  be  much  and  loudly  praised:  N.  the  return 
of  sound;  an  echo.  Resound'ing,  imp.:  N.  the  act  of 
sounding  back.    Resound'ed,  pp. 

RESOURCE,  n.  re-sors'  [F.  ressource,  resource — from 
L.  re,  again ;  surgere,  to  rise  ( see  Source  )  ]  :  any  source 
of  aid  or  support;  any  person  or  object  which  may  be 
resorted  to  for  assistance,  safety,  or  supply;  an  expe- 
dient; a  contrivance.  Resourc'es,  n.  plu.  -ez,  available 
means;  property;  funds.  Resource'less,  a.  -les,  desti- 
tute of  resources. — Syn.  of  '  resource  ' :  expedient ; 
device;  contrivance;  means;  resort. 

RESPECT,  v.  re-spekt'  [F.  respecter,  to  respect — from 
L.  respectdre,  to  look  back,  to  respect ;  respectus,  respect, 
regard — from  re,  back  or  again;  specto,  specie,  I  look  at, 
I  behold:  It.  rispettare]  :  to  regard;  to  view  or  consider 
with  some  degree  of  reverence;  to  esteem  for  worth  or 
superiority:  N.  that  estimation  or  honor  in  which  men 
hold  the  good  qualities  of  others;  deference;  partial 
regard;  undue  bias;  in  Scrip.,  good-will  or  favor;  in 
OE.,  regard;  attention;  reverend  character;  considera- 
tion; motive.  Respects',  n.  plu.  -spekts',  deferential 
good  wishes;  complimentary  regards.  Respecting,  imp. 
Respect'ed,  pp.  Respect'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  respects. 
Respecting,  prep,  re-spekt  'in  g,  with  relation  or  regard 
to;  regarding.  Respect'less,  a.  -les,  having  no  respect; 
without  regard.  Respect'able,  a.  -d-bl  [F. — L.]  :  de- 
serving respect;  worthy  of  esteem  and  honor;  mod- 
erately excellent;  not  mean;  ordinary.  Respect'ably, 
ad.  -bit.  Respect'abil'ity,  n.  -bil'i-ti,  the  state  of  being 
respectable;  the  qualities  in  character  which  command 
respect.  Respectful,  a.  -fid,  marked  by  outward  civil- 
ity; deferential;  courteous;  civil.  Respect'fully,  ad. 
-It.  Respectful'ness,  n.  -nes,  the  quality  of  being  re- 
spectful. Respective,  a.  re-spekt'iv,  having  relation  to 
a  particular  person  or  thing;  not  absolute;  belonging  to 
each,  as  their  respective  abodes;  in  OE.,  worthy  of  rev- 
erence. Respecting,  or  Respect'ant,  in  her.,  position 
of  two  animals  borne  face  to  face;  but  beasts  of  prey 
rampant  when  so  borne  are  said  to  be  rampant  com- 
batant. Respectively,  ad.  -II,  as  each  belongs  to  each; 
particularly;  relatively;  not  absolutely;  in  OE.,  par- 
tially; with  great  reverence.  In  respect  of,  or  in  re- 
spect to,  in  relation  to;  with  regard  to. — Syn.  of 
'  respect,  v.' :  to  esteem ;  honor ;  revere ;  venerate ;  re- 
gard;— of  '  respect,  n.' :  consideration;  estimation;  defer- 
ence; attention;  regard. 


RESPIRATION. 


RESPIRATION:  act  of  inhalation  and  exhalation. 
Its  object,  its  organs,  and  its  process,  are  here  to  be 
considered. — The  two  great  objects  of  respiration  or 
breathing  are:  first,  introduction  into  the  system  of 
oxygen,  by  which  the  products  resulting  from  the  disin- 
tegration or  breaking  up  of  the  muscular,  nervous,  and 
other  tissues  of  the  body  are  converted  into  compounds 
easily  eliminated  or  removed  by  the  excreting  organs 
( as  the  kidneys,  lungs,  skin,  etc. )  ;  and,  secondly,  re- 
moval of  the  most  noxious  and,  consequently,  the  most 
important  of  these  products,  carbonic  acid,  through 
special  respiratory  organs,  which,  in  most  air-breathing 
animals,  except  insects,  are  lungs;  while  in  water- 
breathing  animals,  excepting  those  very  low  in  the  scale 
of  organization,  they  take  the  form  of  branchice  or  gills. 
In  all  the  vertebrated  animals,  excepting  in  fishes,  and 
in  the  amphibians  during  their  young  state,  the  respira- 
tory organs  are  more  or  less  complicated  internal  air- 
sacs,  communicating  through  the  throat  with  the  exter- 
nal atmosphere.  The  simplest  known  form  in  which  the 
Lungs  or  internal  air-sacs  exist  is  as  a  pair  of  elastic 
membranous  bags  close  beneath  the  vertebral  column, 
communicating  with  the  surrounding  atmosphere  by  a 
tube  known  as  the  windpipe,  or  trachea,  which  opens 
through  the  larnyx,  or  organ  of  voice,  into  the  throat. 
These  bags  are  lined  by  a  delicate,  thin,  and  moist 
membrane,  called  a  mucous  membrane,  embedded  in 
and  partly  beneath  which  is  a  vascular  network,  through 
which  all  the  blood  in  the  animal's  body  is  in  turn 
driven  by  the  heart.  The  moist  partition  between  the 
blood  in  this  network  and  the  air  in  the  interior  of  the 
lungs  is  so  thin,  that  after  having  (by  its  moisture)  dis- 
solved the  oxygen  of  the  air,  it  permits  of  its  passage 
into  the  moving  current  of  blood,  while  through  the 
same  agencies  carbonic  acid  simultaneously  passes  in 
an  opposite  direction  from  the  blood  into  the  air.  To 
complete  the  apparatus,  there  are  certain  muscles  under 
whose  action  the  bags  are  emptied  of  their  vitiated  con- 
tents, and  refilled  with  pure  air.  Such  are  the  respira- 
tory organs  as  they  occur  in  that  remarkable  animal, 
the  Proteus  anguinus,  found  in  the  dark  caves  of  Carin- 
thia,  and  belonging  to  the  order  Amphipneusta,  referred 
to  above.  In  the  more  highly  organized  animals  and  in 
man,  we  find  these  elementary  essential  parts  compli- 
cated and  modified  in  great  variety  of  ways.  Confining 
our  present  view  to  the  respiratory  process  in  man  and 
mammals,  we  may  consider  the  anatomical  details 
under  three  different  heads.  First,  There  must  be#  a 
special  respiratory  organ — the  lungs — affording  by  its 
internal  arrangement  an  immense  extent  of  internal 
surface,  covered  by  vascular  network,  through  which 
the   blood   flows   'in   innumerable   minute  streamlets, 


BESPIRATION. 
separated  by  only  an  extremely  thin  membrane  from  the 
atmospheric  air  that  has  been  inhaled;  secondly,  There 
must  be  such  an  arrangement  of  the  circulating  system 
that  fresh  blood  may  be  perpetually  driven  from  the 
right  side  of  the  heart  through  the  lungs,  and  onward 
to  the  left  side  of  the  heart;  thirdly,  There  must  be  ar- 
rangements for  the  frequent  and  regular  change  of  the 
air  contained  in  the  lungs.  These  three  points  will  be 
considered  in  the  above  order. 

A  sufficiently  large  internal  aerating  surface  might  of 
course  be  obtained  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  air-bags 
themselves,  but  this  would  involve  an  increase  of  size 
in  the  animal.  In  examining  the  lungs  of  different 
animals,  two  plans  are  observed  for  increasing  the 
internal  surface  without  increasing  the  total  bulk 
of  the  lungs.  According  to  one  plan,  the  internal 
surface-  is,  as  it  were,  molded  into  cells,  separated 
laterally  by  partitions,  somewhat  like  the  cells  seen 
in  a  section  of  honeycomb,  or  more  like  the  appear- 
ance presented  by  the  second  or  honeycomb  stomach  of 
ruminating  animals ;  according  to  the  other  plan  enor- 
mous multitudes  of  little  lung-sacs  partitioned,  as  will 
be  presently  shown,  in  their  interior,  are  clustered  round 
the  ultimate  branch  of  a  common  air-tube,  which  com- 
municates with  all  of  them.  If  we  can  conceive  a  bunch 
Df  grapes  with  its  stem  and  all  its  minute  branches,  and 
5he  grapes  attached  to  the  ends  of  these  branches  com- 
pletely hollow,  we  get  a  good  idea  of  this  second  plan, 
except  so  far  as  the  partitioning  of  the  terminal  cells 
(the  grapes  in  the  illustration)  is 
concerned.  By  the  former  method, 
which  occurs  in  amphibians  and 
reptiles,  the  lung-sacs  are  merely 
rendered  more  cellular  in  their  in- 
terior; while,  by  the  latter  plan, 
compound  lungs  are  formed,  as  in 
birds,  and  in  mammals,  including 
man.  Hence  these  two  varieties  of 
lung-structure  correspond  to  the 
so-called  cold-blooded  and  warm- 
blooded animals  respectively.  In 
fig.  1,  representing  a  section  of  the 
lungs  of  the  frog  (magnified),  and  in 
Fig  !•  fig.  5  under  Reptil.es,  representing 

a  section  of  the  lungs  of  a  turtle  (diminished),  we  have 
illustrations  of  the  first  plan  (the  cellular  lung-sac); 
while  in  figs.  2  and  3  we  have  diagrammatic  illustrations 
of  the  human  lung.  Fig.  2  is  a  shaded  diagram  (copied 
from  Marshall's  series  of  Physiological  Diagrams),  to  show 
the  ramifications  of  the  air-tubes  in  the  human  lungs. 
L  is  an  outline  representing  the  left  lung;  T,  the  main 
air-tube — called  the  windpipe  or  trachea  (so  called  from 
the  Greek  word  tracheia,  rough,  and  similarly  termed  in 
Latin  the  Arteria  aspera,  though  not  an  artery  as  we  now 
employ  the  word) — descends  through  the  neck  from  the 
larynx  or  organ  of  voice  into  the  chest;  B  shows  the 


RESPIRATION, 
rignt  and  left  bronchi,  or  primary  divisions  into  which 
the  windpipe  separates,  one  for  each  lung.  Each  bron- 
chus enters  the  lung  at  the  so-called  root,  and  divides 
and  subdivides  into  smaller  branches,  which  never 
coalesce,  but  continue  separate,  like  the  branches  and 
twigs  of  a  tree.    These  are  the  bronchial  tubes  or  the 


Fte.2. 

bronchix  of  some  writers;  the  smallest  shown  in  this 

diagram,  b,  6,  undergo  many  further  subdivisions,  until 
(using  Marshall's  description)  *  at  length  they  form  an 
immense  number  of  minute  tubes,  not  more  than  ^  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  each  of 
which  ends  in  a  cluster  of  cells, 
or,  as  it  may  otherwise  be  de- 
scribed, opens  into  a  small 
membranous  sac,  a  little  wider 
than  itself,  having  a  cellular 
internal  surface  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  frog's  lung,  but 
of  course  on  a  microscopic 
scale.1  In  fig.  3  (also  from 
Marshall's  diagrams),  there  is 
a  representation,  magnified 
about  100  diameters,  of  three 
of  these  clusters  of  cells,  or 
little  lung-sacs,  from  the  hu- 
man lung.  In  this  figure,  b  is 
a  small  air-tube,  or  bronchial 
tube,  from  which  several  of  the  finest  or  ultimate  tubes 
proceed;  c  shows  the  outer  surface  of  one  of  the  lung- 
sacs,  or  lobules  as  they  are  commonly  termed ;  d,  the 


Fig.  3. 


BESPIRATION. 
inner  surface  of  another,  which  has  been  cut  open  to  show 
the  ultimate  recesses  of  the  lung  to  which  the  air  has  ac- 
cess— viz.,  the  air-cells.  According  to  Rossignol,  the  ulti- 
mate bronchial  ramifications  terminate  in  a  shape  re- 
sembling that  of  an  inverted  funnel, 
and  hence  he  applies  the  term,  infun- 
dibula  to  these  endings.  In  fig.  4 
(from  Rossignoi's  Memoir),  there  is  a 
representation  of  the  termination  of  b 
an  ultimate  bronchial  tube  in  the 
lung  of  a  dog:  a  represents  an  ulti-  ( 
mate  tube,  or  lobular  passage,  branch- 
ing  toward  the  infundibula;  b  is  the  Fig.  4. 
interior  of  one  of  the  seven  infundibula  shown  in 
the  figure;  while  c  represents  one  of  the  numerous 
septa  or  partitions  projecting  inward  on  the  infundibu- 
lar wall,  and  forming  the  air-cells.  According  to  Todd 
and  Bowman,  the  diameter  of  the  lobular  passages  is 
from  to  goo  °f  an  inch,  while  that  of  the  cells 
ranges  from  to  3l6  of  an  inch.  It  is  on  the  inner 
surface  of  these  air-cells  that  the  network  of  minute 
capillaries  is  spread  in  which  the  act  of  aeration  takes 
place.  EaJi  lobule  receives  air  through  its  own  bron- 
chial tube  alone,  and  consequently  th^re  is  no  direct 
communication  between  the  air-cells  of  adjacent  lobules. 
These  lobules  are  closely  compressed  on  one  another; 
and  collectively,  together  with  the  connective  tissue 
which  unites  them  to  one  another,  make  up  the  great 
mass  of  the  lungs.  To  such  an  extent  is  the  process  of 
subdivision  carried  out,  that,  according  to  calculation, 
the  lungs  of  an  adult  man  contain  at  least  600  millions 
of  these  air-cells.  It  is  because  of  the  air  included' in 
these  cells  that  the  pulmonary  tissue  has  a  soft  spongy 
feel,  and  crackles  when  compressed  between  the  fingers; 
and  for  the  same  reason,  the  lungs,  and  even  small 
portions  of  them,  even  after  strong  pressure,  float 
in  water,  it  being  extremely  difficult  to  drive  all  the 
air  out  of  the  cells.  The  lungs  (except  in  the  fetal 
state,  when  no  air  enters  them)  are  thus  the  lightest 
organs,  in  relation  to  their  size,  in  the  body.  Although 
their  bulk  is  so  great  that,  with  the  heart,  they  occupy 
almost  the  whole  cavity  of  the  chest,  they  weigh  only 
about  three  lbs.  and  a  half  in  men,  and  two  lbs.  and 
three-quarters  in  women.  Their  color  varies  at  different 
ages  :  at  birth,  they  are  of  pinkish  white  tint ;  in  adult 
life,  of  slate  color,  with  mottled  appearance ;  and  in  old 
age,  they  become  of  still  darker  tint.  The  polygonal 
markings  seen  on  the  surface  correspond  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  lobules  above  noticed.  Their  shape  is 
adapted  to  that  of  the  cavity  in  which  they  are  lodged, 
each  lung  being  conical  in  form,  with  its  apex  rising 
into  the  neck;  while  its  base,  broad  and  concave,  rests 
^>n  the  convex  surface  of  the  diaphragm ;  and  between 
the  two  lungs  lie  the  heart  and  the  great  vessels  that 
proceed  from  it.    During  life  (except  in  certain  diseases, 


KESPIRATION. 

e.g ..,  Pericarditis,  q.v.),  the  inner  margins  of  the  lungs 
nearly  overlap  the  heart,  leaving  only  a  roundish  space, 
less  than  two  inches  in  diameter,  of  that  organ  un- 
covered, while  their  .lower  borders  extend  to  the  carti- 
lages of  the  ribs,  and  lit  into  the  angle  formed  between 
those  cartilages  and  the  diaphragm.  Each  lung  is  in- 
vested by  its  own  serous  membrane,  the  Pleura  (q.v.), 
which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  facilitating  the  move- 
ments which  the  lungs  undergo  in  the  act  of  respiration, 
and  of  suspending  each  lung  in  its  proper  position.  In 
the  latter  function,  the  pleura?  are  essentially  assisted 
by  the  great  air-tubes  and  blood-vessels,  which  collec- 
tively form  what  are  termed  the  roots  of  the  lungs. 

The  structure  of  the  air-tubes  and  the  lungs  them- 
selves next  requires  consideration.  Beginning  with  the 
upper  portion,  we  have  to  consider  the  trachea,  or  wind- 
pips,  which  in  the  human  subject  descends  in  the  middle 
line  from  the  Larynx  (q.v.)  to  the  level  of  the  third  dorsal 
vertebra,  where  it  divides  into  the 
right  and  left  bronchi  (fig.  2).  It  is 
kept  permanently  open  by  16  to  20 
cartilaginous  rings,  which  surround 
two-thirds  of  the  tube,  and  are  in- 
complete behind,  where  the  tube  is 
Fig.  5.  -A  separated  completed  by  the  same  fibrous  mem- 
Tracheal  Ring.  brane  which  covers  and  unites  the 
r  earti  hxWnous^  an  I  cartilaSes  m  front  and  on  the  sides. 
m  the  posterior  In  this  fibrous  membrane  are  numer- 
flattened  membra-  ous  tracheal  glands  (which  probably 
nous  portion.  furnish  much  of  the  vapor  of  the 
breath,  and  may  occasion  its  odor),  together  with  un- 
strlped  muscular  fibre,  to  which  the  term  trachealis 
muscle  has  been  given.  The  trachea  measures  about 
4c \  inches  in  length,  and  is  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  wide.  Its  mucous  membrane  is  continuous  through 
the  glottis  with  that  of  the  pharynx  or  throat,  and  is 
covered  with  ciliated  columnar  Epithelium  (q.v.).  Of 
the  bronchi,  the  right  is  wider,  shorter,  and  more  horr 
gontal  than  the  left.  Their  walls  are  composed  on  the 
same  plan  as  those  of  the  trachea.  Upon  entering  the 
lung,  each  bronchus  divides  as  above  described.  Thq 
walls  of  these  bronchial  tube*  become  thinner  as  the^ 
approach  the  air-cells.  The  cartilaginous  portions  which, 
in  the  primary  divisions  of  each  bronchus,  partially 
retained  the  annular  form,  become  gradually  reduced  t<\ 
mere  flakes,  and  finally  cease  in  tubes  of  \  or  ^  ot 
an  inch  in  diameter.  The  unstriped  muscular  fibres 
occurring  in  the  trachea  are  continued  downward  to  the 
minutest  tubes,  forming  a  very  thin  layer,  completely 
surrounding  the  canal,  and  the  ciliated  epithelium  ex- 
tends equally  far.  The  terminal  bronchial  tube  loses  its 
epithelium  and  muscular  coat  at  about  J  of  an  inch  from 
the  most  distant  air-cell  to  which  it  leads,  and  is  thus 
reduced  to  a  single  coat,  consisting  of  the  basement 
membrane  (see  Mucous  Membranes),  with  yellow  elastic 


HEsrnt.vTioN. 

fibres  blended  with  it.  Of  this  structure,  the  interiobulat 
passages  and  the  air-cells  are  composed. 

The  mode  in  which  the  blood  is  perpetually  changed 
in  the  lungs  next  demands  consideration.  The  venous 
or  impure  blood  collected  from  all  parts  of  the  body  in 
the  right  side  of  the  heart,  is  conveyed  to  the  lungs  by 
the  pulmonary  artery,  which  is  about  the  size  of  the 
aorta,  and,  like  that  vessel,  is  furnished  with  three  semi- 
lunar valves  at  its  origin,  which  prevent  the  blood  from 
regurgitating  into  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  (see 
Circulation).  The  pulmonary  artery  divides,  before 
entering  the  lungs,  into  a  right  and  a  left  branch,  which 
ramify  as  far  as  the  lobules  in  company  with  the  bron- 
chial tubes.  At  this  point,  they  distribute  themselves 
on  the  outside  of  the  lobules,  in  the  so-called  interlobular 
fissures,  and  penetrating  between  the  air-cells,  form  a 
capillary  network  on  and  in  the  walls  of  the  cells  and  of 
the  lobular  passages.  This  network  empties  its  blood, 
which  is  now  aerated,  into  minute  venous  radicles, 
which  converge  to  form  larger  veins,  and  these  finally 
form  the  four  pulmonary  veins,  which  discharge  their 
arterialized  blood  into  the  left  side  of  the  heart.  The  walls 
which  support  tne  capillary  net  work  of  the  lungs  are  (a3 
Todd  and  Bowman  observe)  '  for  the  most  part  much  too 
thin  to  enclose  the  capillaries  between  the  two  layers  of 
their  substance,  and  therefore  the  capillaries  project 
fairly  into  the  air  cells  by  a  great  part  of  their  circum- 
ference, being  adherent  to  the  wall  by  a  narrow  line 
only.  The  capillary  wall  is  thus  exposed  and  bare,  in 
contact  with  the  air  of  the  cell,  and  nothing  besides  the 
delicate  membrane  of  the  capillary  intervenes  between 
the  air  and  the  blood.  A  capillary  frequently  passes 
through  an  aperture  in  the  cell-wall,  so  as  first  to  project 
into  one  cell,  and  further  on  into  a  contiguous  one,  but 
never  becomes  altogether  free  from  the  wail.' — Phys. 
Anal.  II.  393.  The  diameter  of  these  capillaries  is  about 
looo  °f  an  inch,  which  is  comparatively  large,  and  ad- 
mits of  the  passage  of  blood  freely;  and  the  air  and 
the  blood  may  be  said  to  be  in  contact,  since  they  are 
separated  by  only  a  delicate  capillary  wall,  less  than 
20000  OI  an  inch  in  thickness.  If  the  rate  of  the  blood 
in  the  capillaries  be  taken  at  an  inch  and  three-quarters 
per  minute  (according  to  the  estimate  of  Valentin,  drawn 
from  observation  of  the  frog's  foot),  it  has  been  calculated 
that  the  blood  would  at  each  circuit  remain  in  contact 
*v»th  the  air  about  one  second  and  a  half.  Probably, 
however,  the  motion  of  the  blood  is  quicker  in  the  pul- 
monary capillaries  of  man  and  other  mammals  and  of 
birds  than  in  those  of  the  frog's  foot. 

In  addition  to  the  pulmonary  artery  and  pulmonary 
veins,  which  convey  the  blood  to  and  from  the  lungs  for 
the  purpose  of  aeration,  there  are  other  vessels,  known 
as  the  bronchial  vessels,  for  the  nutrition  of  the  lung 
itself,  the  distribution  of  which,  and  their  mode  of  com- 
munication with  the  pulmonary  vessels  above  described, 
have  been  subjects  of  much  discussion  ;  but  into  this  we 


RESPIRATION, 
need  not  enter.  The  lungs  are  supplied  with  nerves 
from  the  anterior  and  posterior  pulmonary  plexuses, 
lying  at  the  root  of  the  organ,  and  composed  of  filaments 
of  the  pneumogastric  and  sympathetic  nerves.  The  fila- 
ments from  these  plexuses  accompany  the  bronchial 
tubes,  in  which  they  are  finally  lost.  The  part  which 
these  nerves  act  in  the  respiratory  process  will  be  con- 
sidered after  a  description  of  the  movements  of  respiration, 
by  which  the  air  in  the  lungs  is  being  perpetually 
changed. 


Fig.  6. 


Diagrams  (by  Hutchinson)  showing  the  extent  of  antero- 
posterior movement  in  ordinary  and  in  forced  respiration 
in  male  and  female.  The  back  is  supposed  to  be  fixed,  in 
order  to  throw  forward  the  movement  as  much  as  possible. 
The  black  line  indicates,  by  its  two  margins,  the  limits  of 
ordinary  inspiration  and  expiration.  In  forced  inspiration, 
the  body  comes  up  to  the  dotted  line,  while  in  forced  expira- 
tion it  recedes  to  the  smallest  space  indicated. 

For  description  of  the  shape  and  framework  of  the 
chest,  see  Chest.  The  chest  (or  thorax,  as  it  is  termed 
by  anatomists)  is  so  constructed  as  to  be  capable  of  en- 
largement in  height  (vertically),  in  depth  (or  from  the 
front  backward),  and  in  width  (or  from  side  to  side).  Its 
height  is  increased  mainly  by  the  descent  of  the  dia- 
phragm, and  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  elevation  of  the 
ribs,-  and  the  widening  of  the  intercostal  spaces;  while 
its  depth  and  width  are  increased  by  the  elevation  of 
the  ribs,  which  carry  forward  and  elevate  the  breast- 
bone (or  sternum),  especially  at  its  lowest  end,  and  are 
slightly  rotated  on       imaginary  axis,  joining  their  ex- 


ftESPIKATIOK. 

tremities,  by  which  their  central  portion  is  raised,  and 
slightly  removed  from  the  mesial  plane  of  the  chest. 
It  is  only  in  forced  or  deep  inspiration  that  all  these 
means  of  enlarging  the  chest  are  called  into  play.  An 
ordinary  inspiration  is  attended  in  men  with  very  slight 
elevation  of  the  ribs  (about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch), 
while  in  women  the  elevation  is  much  greaier,  especially 
in  the  upper  ribs;  the  cause  of  this  difference  in  thV 
sexes  probably  lying  in  the  narrower  waist  of  the  female 
requiring  a  compensation  in  the  upper  part  of  the  chest. 
Beau  and  Maissiat  describe  three  varieties  of  ordinary 
R. :  1.  Abdominal,  or  that  effected  chiefly  by  the  dia- 
phragm, and  seen  in  the  motion  of  the  walls  of  the 
belly;  2.  Costo-inferior,  or  that  in  which  the  seven 
lower  ribs  are  observed  to  act;  3.  Costo-superior,  or 
that  effected  in  considerable  degree  by  the  upper  ribs. 
The  first  variety  occurs  in  infants  till  the  end  of  the 
third  year,  and  in  males  generally ;  the  second  in  boys 
after  the  age  of  three,  and  in  men  ;  and  the  third  in 
adult  females.  The  difference  between  the  depth  of  a 
forced  and  an  ordinary  inspiration  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying figures.  The  total  power  of  the  various 
respiratory  muscles  has  been  measured  by  several 
physiologists,  among  whom  Dr.  Hutchinson  deserve* 
special  notice.  He  finds,  as  the  average  of  1,500  ex 
periments,  that  the  power  of  expiration  is  nearly  one* 
third  stronger  than  that  of  inspiration ;  and  he  is  of 
opinion  that  when  the  expiratory  are  not  stronger  than 
the  inspiratory  muscles,  some  disease  is  present.  He 
tested  the  force  of  the  two  classes  of  respiratory 
muscles  by  causing  persons  to  make  the  most  powerful 
efforts  of  which  they  were  capable,  when  breathing 
through  the  nose  into  an  instrument  termed  a  spirom- 
eter; and  by  this  means  he  found  that  men  of  five  ft. 
seven  or  eight  inches  in  height  have  the  greatest  inspir- 
atory power,  it  being  equal,  on  an  average,  to  a  column 
of  mercury  of  2-75  inches,  while  their  expiratory  power 
was  equal  to  3-97  inches.  The  following  table  is  given 
by  him  as  exhibiting  the  range  through  which  these 
powers  may  vary  within  the  limits  of  health : 

Power  of  Power  of 

Inspiiation.  Expiration. 

1*5  inches  Weak  2*0  inches 

2*0      M  Ordinary  25 

4*5      "  Remarkable  5*8  " 

7  0     44  Very  extraordinary  10  0  " 

The  co-operation  of  the  resilience  of  the  lungs  and  th® 
elasticity  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  with  the  expiratory 
muscular  movement,  is  probably  the  cause  why  the  ex- 
piratory power,  as  tested  by  the  height  of  a  column  of 
mercury,  is  greater  than  the  inspiratory  power.  Dr„ 
Hutchinson  calculates  that  a  man  who  raises  three 
inches  of  mercury  by  an  effort  of  inspiration  exerts  a 
force  equal  to  1,000  lbs. ;  while  the  one  remarkable  case 


BESPIKATI01T. 
in  which  the  mercury  rose  to  seven  inches,  indicated  a 
force  of  2,200  lbs.,  or  nearly  two  tons. 

The  following  points  in  connection  with  the  respir- 
atory movements  require  notice.  Every  complete  act 
of  K.  is  divisible  into  four  parts — 1.  Inspiration;  2.  A 
short  pause,  not  always  observed ;  3.  Expiration ;  4.  A 
considerable  pause,  occupying,  according  to  Vierordt, 
about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  time  required  for  one  com- 
plete respiratory  act.  The  act  of  expiration  is  always 
more  prolonged  than  that  of  inspiration,  the  former 
being  to  the  latter  in  the  ratio  of  12: 10  in  adult  males; 
and  as  14:10  in  children,  women,  and  aged  persons„ 
The  number  of  respiratory  acts  performed  in  a  minute 
varies  at  different  ages.  According  to  Quetelet,  at 
birth  there  are  44  respirations  in  one  minute;  at5 years 
of  age,  26,  from  15  to  20  years  20;  from  20  to  25  years 
18-7;  from  25  to  30  years  16;  from  30  to  50  years  18-1: 
so  that  from  16  to  20  may  be  taken  as  the  ordinary 
range  for  healthy  adults,  though  Hutchinson  gives  the 
wide  range  of  6  to  40.  The  average  ratio  which  the 
number  of  respirations  bears  to  the  number  of  pulsa- 
tions in  a  given  time  is  about  1 :  4J,  and  if  there  is  any 
great  deviation  from  this  ratio,  there  is  probably  some 
obstruction  to  the  aeration  of  the  blood,  or  some  dis- 
order of  the  nervous  system.  Thus,  in  pneumonia  (or 
inflammation  of  the  lungs),  in  which  a  greater  or  less 
amount  of  pulmonary  tissue  is  unfitted  for  its  office,  the 
number  of  the  respirations  increases  in  a  more  rapid 
proportion  than  the  number  of  pulsations,  so  that  the 
ratio  becomes  as  1:3,  or  even  as  1:2.  In  hysteria,  a 
similar  or  even  greater  deviation  from  the  normal  ratio 
may  occur ;  and  Elliotson  records  a  case  in  which  the 
respiratory  movements  were  98,  or  even  106,  whilst  the 
pulse  was  104.  On  the  other  hand,  in  certain  typhoid 
conditions,  and  in  narcotic  poisoning,  the  respiratory 
acts  are  diminished  in  number;  the  ratio  of  respirations 
to  pulsations  being  as  1 :  6,  or  even  1  :  8. 

We  have  next  to  inquire  into  the  mode  in  which  the 
muscular  movements  of  &.  are  kept  up  by  nervous 
power.  *  There  can  be  no  doubt,*  says  Dr.  Carpenter, 
'  that  these  movements,  though  partly  under  the  control 
of  the  will,  are  essentially  M  automatic  "  in  their  nature. 
Their  chief  centres  consist  of  two  gauglia;  corre- 
sponding to  the  origins  of  the  pneumogastric  nerves, 
which  are  the  principal  excitor  nerves  which  convey 
the  stimulus  on  which  these  movements  are  depend- 
ent; while  from  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  medulla 
oblongata  and  spinalis  proceed  the  chief  motor  nerves 
by  which  they  are  carried  into  effect.  And  thus  it  hap- 
pens that  the  whole  of  the  encephalon  may  be  removed 
from  above,  and  the  spinal  cord  (as  far  up  as  the  origin 
of  the  phrenic  nerve)  from  below,  without  suspending 
the  most  essential  of  the  respiratory  movements. 
Principles  of  Human  Physiology  (6th  edit.,  1864,  p.  274). 
It  would  carry  us  far  beyond  our  assigned  limits  to 
notice  the  interesting  series  of  phenomena  that  follew 


RESPIRATION. 

the  division  or  irritation  of  the  various  branches  of  the 
pneumogastric  nerve;  but  it  may  be  noted  that  when 
the  trunks  of  this  nerve  are  divided  on  both  sides,  the 
respiratory  movements  still  go  on,  though  with  dimin- 
ished activity.  Hence,  there  must  be  other  excitors  to 
the  action  of  the  respiratory  muscles.  Among  these, 
the  nerves  distributed  to  the  general  surface,  partic- 
ularly to  the  face,  probably  perform  an  important  part; 
and  in  exciting  the  first  inspiration,  the  fifth  pair  seem 
the  principal  agent.  In  support  of  this  view,  Dr.  Car- 
penter adduces  the  well-known  fact,  that  the  first  in- 
spiratory effort  of  the  new-born  infant  is  most  vigor- 
ously performed  when  the  cool  external  air  comes  in 
contact  with  its  face.  Many  familiar  facts  demonstrate 
the  influence  of  the  superficial  nerves  on  the  respiratory 
system  in  the  adult  as  well  as  in  the  infant.  i  Every 
one/  to  use  Dr.  Carpenter's  words,  4  knows  that  the  first 
plunge  into  cold  water,  or  the  first  descent  of  the  stream 
of  the  shower-bath,  or  even  the  dashing  of  a  glass  of 
cold  water  in  the  face,  will  produce  inspiratory  efforts; 
and  this  fact  has  many  important  practical  applications. 
Thus,  in  the  treatment  of  asphyxia,  whether  congen- 
ital or  the  result  of  narcotic  poisoning,  drowning,  etc., 
the  alternate  application  of  cold  and  heat  is  found  to  be 
one  of  the  most  efficacious  means  of  restoring  the  respi- 
ratory movements;  and  a  paroxysm  of  hysterical  laugh- 
ter may  be  cut  short  by  dashing  a  glass  of  cold  water  in 
the  face.'  The  principal  motor  or  efferent  nerves  con- 
cerned in  bringing  out  the  respiratory  movements  are 
the  phrenic,  going  to  the  diaphragm ;  the  intercostal,  sup- 
plying the  intercostal  muscles;  the  facial  and  the  spinal 
accessory  nerves;  though,  as  above  mentioned,  the  su- 
perficial nerves  generally  exert  a  motor  or  efferent 
action. 

How  far  the  respiratory  movements  are  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  will,  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion. 
That,  in  their  ordinary  mode  of  performance,  they  are 
independent  of  the  will,  is  obvious  from  their  systematic 
occurrence  during  sleep,  in  cases  of  paralysis  in  which 
the  power  of  the  will  is  lost,  in  apoplexy,  etc.  At  the 
same  time,  universal  experience  teaches  us  that  these 
movements  are  partly,  but  not  entirely,  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  will.  We  can,  with  little  inconvenience,  sus- 
pend the  respiratory  actions  for  a  minute  or  even  longer 
if  we  have  previously  introduced  into  the  lungs  a  full 
supply  of  fresh  air ;  but  if  the  suspension  be  further  pro- 
longed, the  stimulus  conveyed  by  the  excitor  nerves  to 
the  nervous  centres  becomes  so  strong,  that  by  no  effort  of 
the  will  can  we  avoid  making  inspiratory  efforts.  It  is 
asserted  by  Bourdon,  eminent  French  physiologist,  in  Re- 
cherches  surle  Mecanisme  de  la  Respira  tion,  that  no  person 
ever  succeeded  in  committing  suicide  by  simply  holding 
Vol.  32  —  3 


RESPIKATION. 

the  breath,  but  that  such  persons  have  attained  their  ob  » 
ject  by  holding  the  face  under  water,  because  here  another 
set  of  muscles  is  called  into  play,  which  are  much  more 
under  the  control  of  the  will  tnan  those  of  respiration. 
If  we  seek  for  he  reason  why,  in  man  and  the  higher 
animals,  the  respiratory  actions  are  placed  under  direc- 
tion of  the  will,  it  may  probably  be  found  in  the  neces- 
sary physiological  connection  that  exists  between  them 
and  the  production  of  those  vocal  sounds  by  which  in- 
dividuals (men  or  animals)  can  communicate  their  feel- 
ings and  wishes  to  one  another. 

We  complete  the  subject  so  far  as  human  physiology 
ia  concerned,  by  noticing  (1)  the  greatest  quantity  of  air 
that  can  be  expelled  by  a  forcible  expiration ;  (2)  the 
total  quantity  that  passes  through  the  lungs  in  a  given 
time;  (3)  the  effects  of  R.  on  the  air;  and  (4)  the  effects 
of  suspension  or  deficiency  of  respiration. 

When  the  lungs  have  been  emptied  as  much  as  pos- 
sible of  air  by  the  most  powerful  expiratory  effort,  they 
still  contain  a  quantity  over  which  we  have  no  control, 
and  which  may  be  estimated  at  about  40  cubic  inches 
though  according  to  Hutchinson,  as  will  be  presently 
seen,  this  estimate  is  far  too  small  To  this  portion 
of  the  contents  of  the  lungs  the  term  Residual  Air 
is  applied.  In  addition  to  this  residual  air,  physi- 
ologists distinguish,  in  connection  with  the  respiratory 
process,  Supplemental  Air,  which  is  that  portion  which 
remains  in  the  chest  after  an  ordinary  gentle  expiration, 
but  which  may  be  displaced  at  will ;  Breathing  or  Tidal 
Air,  which  is  the  volume  displaced  by  the  constant  gentle 
inspiration  and  expiration  ;  and  Complemental  Air,  or  the 
quantity  which  can  be  inhaled  by  the  deepest  possible 
inspiration,  over  and  above  that  introduced  in  ordinary 
breathing.  The  greatest  volume  of  air  that  can  be  ex- 
pelled by  the  most  powerful  expiration,  which  is  obvi- 
ously the  sum  of  the  supplemental,  breathing,  and  com- 
plemental air,  is  designated  as  the  Vital  Capacity — a 
term  originally  introduced  by  Dr.  Hutchinson,  inventor 
of  the  spirometer,  who  found,  from  nearly  5,000  observa- 
tions, that  of  all  the  elements  or  factors  which  might  be 
supposed  to  influence  it,  height  alone  stood  in  a  definite 
and  constant  relation  to  it,  this  relation  being  expressed 
by  the  rule,  that,  « for  every  inch  of  stature  from  5  to  6 
ft.  8  additional  cubic  inches  of  air  (at  60°  Fahr.)  aro 
given  out  by  a  forced  expiration  after  a  full  inspiration.* 
Thus,  the  vital  capacity  for  a  man  from  5  ft.  to  5  ft.  1 
inch  being  174  cubic  inches  that  for  a  man  from  5  ft.  1 
inch  to  5  ft.  2  inches  is  182  cubic  inches;  and  so  on. 
With  regard  to  bodily  weight  as  a  factor,  Dr.  Hutchin« 
son  found,  that  *  when  the  man  exceeds  the  average 
weight  (at  each  height)  by  7  per  cent.,  the  vital  capacity 
decreases  1  cubic  inch  per  lb.  for  the  next  35  lbs.  above 
this  weight/  Age  and  muscular  development  do  not 
influence  the  result  so  much  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected. It  has  been  frequently  observed  that  the  vital 
capacitv  is  small  ?o  athletic  men.  and  that  it  has  bean 


RESPIBATTON. 

in  excess  in  persons  in  no  way  remarkable  for  physical 
power.  The  maximum  vital  capacity  met  with  by 
Dr.  Hutchinson  was  464 cubic  inches;  this  was  in  a  man 
7  ft.  high,  whose  weight  was  308  lbs. :  the  minimum  was 
46  cubic  inches,  in  the  case  of  a  d  warf  whose  height  was 
only  29  inches,  and  who  weighed  40  lbs. 

In  estimatiug  the  effects  of  the  respiratory  process  on 
the  air  which  passes  through  the  lungs,  we  adopt  the 
data  afforded  by  observations  of  Dr.  Edward  Smith, 
who  has  arranged  a  spirometer  by  which  the  quantit}^ 
of  air  inspired  may  be  registered  from  1  to  100,000  cubic 
inches,  and  therefore  for  any  period.  This  instrument, 
says  Dr.  Carpenter  (to  whom  Dr.  Smith  has  commu- 
nicated many  of  the  following  statements  for  insertion 
in  the  new  ed.  of  his  Human  Physiology),  '  he  has  used 
for  24  hours  without  intermission,  except  for  meals,  and 
he  has  ascertained  the  quantity  of  air  inspired  during 
sleep  and  in  almost  every  condition  met  with  during  the 
day.  From  numerous  experiments  upon  several  persons, 
each  extending  over  a  whole  day,  he  found  that  the 
average  depth  of  inspiration  was  33  6  cubic  inches  when 
at  rest ;  and  when  walking  at  1,  2,  3,  and  4  miles  an  hour, 
52,  60,  75,  and  91  cubic  inches,  and  even  107  cubic  inches 
when  working  the  tread-mill.  If  we  take  30  or  40  cubic 
inches  as  the  average  quantity  exchanged  at  each  B.,  we 
cannot  but  observe  how  small  a  proportion  it  bears  to 
the  entire  amount  which  the  lungs  usually  contain, 
for  the  "  residual  air"  which  cannot  be  expelled  is 
estimated  by  Dr.  Hutchinson  at  from  75  to  100  cubic 
inches;  and  the  "  supplemental  air,"  which  can  only  be 
expelled  by  a  forced  expiration,  is  about  as  much  more; 
the  sum  of  the  two  being  from  150  to  200  cubic  inches, 
or  from  5  to  7  times  the  "breathing  volume."  '  Now,  it 
is  obvious  that  if  no  provision  existed  for  mingling  the 
air  inspired  with  the  air  already  occupying  the  lungs, 
the  former  would  penetrate  no  further  than  the  larger 
air-passages,  and,  as  this  would  be  again  thrown  out  at 
the  next  expiration,  the  bulk  of  the  air  contained  in  the 
lungs  would  remain  altogether  without  renewal,  and 
the  expired  air  would  not  be  found  to  have  undergone 
any  change.  The  law  of  the  Diffusion  (q.v.)  of  Gases 
here  comes  into  action,  for  the  air  in  the  air-cells  and 
finer  tubes  being  charged  by  the  respiratory  process 
with  a  great  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  as  compared  with 
the  inspired  air  contained  in  the  larger  tubes,  a  diffu- 
sion of  the  carbonic  acid  necessarily  takes  placo  in  the 
outward  direction,  while  the  oxygen  from  the  air,  or  the 
air  itself,  similarly  diffuses  itself  in  an  opposite  direction, 
toward  and  into  the  air-cells  themselves. 

The  total  amount  of  air  which  passes  through  the 
lungs  in  24  hours  must  obviously  vary  with  the  extent 
and  frequency  of  the  respiratory  movements.  Dr. 
Smith  found  that  during  the  day  (6  a.m.  to  12  p.m.)  the 
average  quantity  of  air  inspired  by  several  persons  at 
rest  was  502  cubic  inches  per  minute,  or  a  total  of  542,- 
160  cubic  inches;  and  as  the  average  quantity  during 


BESPIBATION. 
the  night  was  about  400  inches  per  minute,  the  total 
daily  amount  was  686,000  cubic  inches.  This  quantity 
is  largely  increased  by  exertion,  and  Dr.  Smith  com- 
putes that  the  total  amount  actually  respired  by  the  un- 
occupied gentleman,  the  ordinary  tradesman,  and  the 
hard  working  laborer,  would  be  804,780,  1,065,840,  and 
1,568,390  cubic  inches  respectively. 

The  alterations  in  the  inspired  air  effected  by  R.  con- 
sist essentially  in  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the  oxy- 
gen, and  its  replacement  by  a  nearly  corresponding  bulk 
of  carbonic  acid.  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the 
expired  air  varies  inversely  with  the  number  of  respira- 
tions;  it  reaches  5-5  per  cent,  (or  more)  when  the  res- 
pirations are  only  6  in  the  minute,  while  it  falls  as  low 
as  about  2-6  per  cent,  when  the  respirations  are  96  in 
the  minute.  About  4*35  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  is, 
on  an  average,  added  to  the  air  in  ordinary  R.,  while 
about  4-782  per  cent,  of  oxygen  is  removed ;  the  actual 
diminution  of  bulk  of  the  expired  air  (after  the  removal 
of  the  moisture  obtained  from  the  lungs)  being  about 
of  its  volume.  Hence,  unless  where  there  is  free 
ventilation,  the  air  in  an  apartment  containing  men  or 
animals  must  soon  become  vitiated  by  containing  a 
great  excess  of  carbonic  acid  (for  ordinary  atmospheric 
air  contains  only  about  one  part  of  carbonic  acid  in 
2,500  parts),  and  a  deficiency  of  oxygen.  The  absolute 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  (consequently  of  carbon)  ex- 
haled in  24  hours  is  liable  to  great  variations,  caused 
by  the  temperature  and  moisture  of  the  air,  age,  sex, 
muscular  development,  the  nature  and  quantity  of  the 
food,  muscular  exercise,  sleep,  state  of  health,  etc. 
Dr.  Smith  calculates  that  an  adult  man  in  a  state  of 
rest  exhales  in  24  hours  an  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
equivalent  to  7-144  oz.  of  carbon;  and  he  estimates  that 
it  should  be  increased  to  8-68  and  11-7  oz.  for  the  non- 
iab'oring  and  laborious  classes  respectively,  at  their  or- 
dinary rate  of  exertion.  We  may  add  that  the  total 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  greatly  increased  by  external 
cold,  and  diminished  by  heat ;  that  it  is  increased  by  a 
moist,  and  diminished  by  a  dry  atmosphere ;  that  it  in- 
creases in  both  sexes  to  about  the  30th  year,  when  it 
remains  stationary  for  15  years,  after  which  it  dimin- 
ishes;  that  at  all  ages  beyond  8  years  it  is  greater  in 
males  than  in  females,  and  that  it  increases  during  preg- 
nancy;  that  it  is  greater  in  robust  than  in  slender  men, 
the  quantity  of  carbon  expired  per  diem  to  each  1  lb. 
of  bodily  weight  being  (according  to  Smith)  17-07,  17-51, 
and  17-99  grains  at  48,  39,  and  33  years  of  age  respect- 
ively; that  it  is  greatly  increased  by  eating  (see 
Muscle— Muscular  Tissue — Muscular  Force),  and  is 
diminished  by  fasting;  that  it  is  increased  by  mus- 
cular exertion  (Smith  found  that  when  walking  three 
m.  an  hour  he  excreted  2-6  more  carbonic  acid  than 
when  at  rest;  while  tread- wheel  labor  occasioned 
about  double  the  excretion  caused  by  walking);  that 
it  is  diminished  by  sleep;  and  that  it  is  increased 


RESPIRATION. 

in  the  exanthematous  fevers  (measles,  small-pox,  scar- 
latina, etc.),  and  in  chlorosis ;  while  it  is  diminished  in 
typhus  and  in  chronic  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  with  regard  to  the 
extent  to  which  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  is  affected  by  R. 
Usually  a  small  amount  of  this  gas  is  given  off,  but  the 
quantities  absorbed  and  exhaled  so  nearly  balance  each 
other,  that  its  special  action  on  the  organism  must  be 
very  slight,  further  than  as  being  a  diluter  of  the  oxygen, 
which  would  be  too  stimulating  if  breathed  in  a  pure 
state. — As  to  the  watery  vapor  with  which  the  exhaled 
air  is  saturated,  the  amount  exhaled  in  24  hours  may 
range  from  about  6  to  27  oz.,  its  usual  range  being  be- 
tween 7  and  11  oz.  It  is  not  pure  water,  but  holds  in 
solution  considerable  carbonic  acid  and  an  albuminous 
substance  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  which,  on  expos- 
ing the  fluid  to  an  elevated  temperature,  occasions  a 
very  evident  putrid  odor. 

For  the  diseases  of  the  lungs  an  J  other  respiratory 
organs,  see  Pneumonia  :  Pleurisy  :  Bronchitis  :  Con- 
sumption :  Tubercle:  also  Inflammation:  Conges- 
tion of  Blood  :  Hemoptysis  :  etc. 

RESPIRA'TION,  Artificial  :  a  requisite  in  all  cases 
of  suspended  animation,  from  drowning,  noxious  gases, 
chloroform,  etc.  It  may  be  performed  either  by  forc- 
ing air  into  the  lungs  by  means  of  a  pipe  passed  through 
the  mouth  or  the  nostril  into  the  glottis,  or  (which  is 
usually  preferable)  by  imitating  the  natural  expansion 
of  the  chest  by  muscular  effort,  as  by  the  methods  in- 
vented by  Dr.  Marshall  Hall  and  by  Dr.  Sylvester. 

The  best  mode  of  forcing  air  into  the  lungs  is  by  the 
use  of  a  small  pair  of  bellows,  with  the  nozzle  inserted 
in  one  of  the  patient's  nostrils.  The  air  should  be 
driven  into  the  lungs  with  extreme  gentleness,  the 
larynx  being  pressed  backward  against  the  spine,  so  that 
the  air  may  not  go  into  the  oesophagus  and  stomach. 
Gentle  but  firm  pressure  must  be  then  applied  to  the 
chest  to  expel  the  introduced  air,  and  fresh  air  again 
driven  in ;  and  this  process  of  introducing  and  expelling 
the  air  alternately  must  be  continued  until  either  natural 
respiratory  efforts  appear,  or  the  case  becomes  hopeless. 

In  the  article  Asphyxia,  it  is  stated  that  one  of  the 
best  methods  of  filling  the  lungs  of  an  asphyxiated  per- 
son with  fresh  air  is  that  of  Dr.  Marshall  HaJl.  Dr. 
Sylvester's  method  (The  True  Physiological  Method  of 
Restoring  Persons  Apparently  Drowned  or  Dead,  and  of  Re- 
suscitating Still-born  Children,—  London  1859)  is,  however, 
generally  regarded  as  decidedly  preferable  to  that  of  Dr. 
Marshall  Hall,  though  the  same  in  principle.  The  fol- 
lowing are  Dr.  Sylvester's  rules,  slightly  modified  by  a 
committee  whose  investigations  will  be  presently  noticed. 
The  patient  is  laid  on  his  back  on  a  plane,  inclined  a 
little  from  the  feet  upward;  the  shoulders  are  gently 
raised  by  a  firm  cushion  being  placed  under  them  ;  the 
tongue  is  brought  forward,  so  as  to  project  a  little  from 
the  side  of  the  mouth.    The  operator  then  grasps  tha 


EESPIKATION. 

patient's  arms  just  above  the  elbows,  and  raises  them 
till  they  nearly  meet  above  the  head.  This  action  im- 
itates inspiration.  The  patient's  arms  are  then  turned 
down,  and  firmly  pressed  for  a  moment  against  the  sides 
of  the  chest.  A  deep  expiration  is  thus  imitated ;  an<2 
these  two  sets  of  movements  should  be  persevering"^ 
continued  at  the  rate  of  about  15  times  iD  a  minute. 


Fig.  1. 

Special  reference  must  be  made  to  two  important 

documents  among  the  publications  on  this  subject.  The 
first  is  Reports  of  the  Scientific  Committee  on  Suspended 
Animation,  presented  to  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirur- 
gical  Society  of  London  1862,  July ;  and  when  it  is  stated 
that  this  report  was  signed  by  4  0.  J.  B.  Williams,  Chair* 


Fig.  2. 

man,  W.  S.  Kirkes,  George  Harley,  J.  B.  Sanderson,  0.  E. 
Brown-Sequard,  H.  Hyde  Salter,  E.  H.  Sieveking,  ai*$ 
W.  S.  Savory,  Honorary  Secretary,*  its  scientific  claims 
to  our  attention  are  undeniable.  The  following  are 
their  suggestions  in  relation  to  treatment :  1.  That  all 
obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air  to  and  from  the  lungs 
be  at  once,  so  far  as  is  practicable,  removed ;  that  th9 
mouth  and  nostrils,  e.g.,  be  cleansed  from  all  foreign 
matters  or  adherent  mucus.  2.  That  in  the  absence  of 
natural  respiration,  artificial  respiration  by  Dr.  Sylves- 
ter's method  (above  described)  should  be  employed.  3. 
That  if  no  natural  respiratory  efforts  supervene,  a  dash 
of  hot  water  (120°  F.)  or  cold  water  be  employed,  for 
the  purpose  of  exciting  respiratory  efforts.  4.  That  the 
temperature  of  the  body  be  maintained  by  friction,  warm 
blankets,  the  warm  bath,  etc.  [Whether  the  warm  bath 
is  serviceable  or  positively  hurtful  is,  however,  still  in 
quest ior.]    5,  Thflf  *u  the  case  of  drowning,  in  addition 


RESPIRATOR. 

to  the  foregoing  suggestions,  the  following  plan  mag 
in  the  first  instance,  be  practiced  :  Place  the  body  wit& 
the  face  downward,  and  hanging  a  little  over  the  edge 
« "j  a  table,  shutter,  or  board,  raised  at  an  angle  about  30°, 
o  Lhat  the  head  may  be  lower  than  the  feet.  Open  the 
mouth,  and  draw  the  tongue  forward.  Keep  the  body 
i'?  this  posture  for  a  few  seconds,  or  a  little  longer  if 
fluid  escapes.  The  escape  of  fluid  may  be  assisted  by 
pressing  once  or  twice  upon  the  back. 

The  other  document  is  Instructions  for  the  Restoration 
of  the  Apparently  Dead  from  Drowning,  issued  1864  by  '  The 
National  Lifeboat  Institution '  of  Great  Britain.  In  these 
Instructions  it  is  recommended  that  if  breathing  cannot 
be  excited  by  application  of  stimulants  to  the  nostrils, 
3r  by  dashing  water  on  the  face,  Marshall  Hall's  method 
should  bo  tried ;  and  that  if  this  do  not  prove  successful 
in  from  two  to  five  minutes,  Dr.  Sylvester's  method 
should  be  resorted  to. 

In  conclusion,  a  reference  must  be  made  to  Reports  of 
the  Scientific  Committee  [of  the  members  of  the  Royal  Med- 
ical and  Chirurgical  Society]  on  the  Uses  and  Effects  of 
Chloroform.  The  committee  decide  that  the  most  certain 
means  of  restoring  life  after  poisoning  with  anaesthetics 
is  by  artificial  respiration.  *  By  this  means,  resuscitate 
ing  may  generally  be  accomplished  after  natural  respira- 
tion has  ceased,  provided  the  heart  continue  to  act; 
tied  it  may  sometimes  be  effected  even  after  the  cessation 
of  the  heart's  action.  Galvanism  resuscitates  within 
the  same  limits  as  artificial  respiration ;  it  is,  however^ 
far  less  to  be  relied  on  in  equal  cases.  Galvanism  may 
be  used  in  addition  to  artificial  respiration ;  but  the  latter 
is  on  no  account  to  be  delayed  or  suspended,  in  order 
that  galvanism  may  be  tried.' — Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Medical  and  Chirurmcal  Society,  IV. 

RES'PTBATOR :  name  given  by  its  inventor,  Jeffreyss 
to  an  instrument  which  gives  warmth  to  the  air  drawn 
into  the  lungs  in  breathing.  It  is  attached  to  the  mouth 
and  is  composed  of  several  layers  of  very  fine  wire,  fixed 
so  near  together  that  the  exhaled  air  passing  through 
them  is  diffused  over  a  very  large  amount  of  surface,  its 
warmth  being  absorbed  by  the  metal,  which,  being  an 
excellent  conductor  of  heat,  freely  returns  it  to  the 
cold  air,  drawn  in  through  it  in  the  act  of  inspiration. 
Mr.  Jeffreys  considers  it  necessary  that  about  20  layers 
of  metal-work  should  be  used,  and,  in  order  to  make  tho 
instrument  as  light  and  compact  as  possible,  each  layer 
must  be  extremely  thin.  To  8  to  12  frames  of  sheet* 
silver,  layers  of  fine  wires  are  soldered  about  2  J6  of  an 
inch  apart,  and  these  wires  are  so  numerous  that  a 
large  respirator  of  high  power  contains  2,000  ft.  of  wire, 
divided  into  about  12,000  pieces,  and  soldered  to  the 
frames  at  more  than  80,000  points.  The  air  that  is  in° 
haled,  meeting  with  layers  of  wire  of  gradually  increas- 
ing heat,  is  raised  to  a  high  temperature.  The  whole 
wire-work  is  curved,  so  as  to  fit  closely  to  the  face,  and 
is  inclosed  in  a  border  or  case  of  soft  leather;  and  a» 


RESPIRATORY  sounds. 
outer  coat,  usually  of  a  very  fine  open  woolen  fabric,  ig 
added.  The  form  of  instrument  chiefly  used  is  fixed 
over  the  mouth,  and  is  named  The  Oral  Respirator.  For 
an  instrument  to  cover  both  mouth  and  nostrils,  the 
term  Orinasal  Respirator  is  used.  The  use  of  these  in- 
struments is  in  allowing  persons  with  delicate  lungs  to 
take  out-of-door  exercise  with  safety  and  advantage  in 
comparatively  severe  weather. — Tyndall  invented  a 
Smoke  Respirator  for  firemen  :  there  are  respirators  for 
keeping  out  dust  and  metal-filings  from  the  lungs  of 
factory  operatives :  and  respirators  containing  a  sponge 
soaked  with  creosote  or  carbolic  acid  for  excluding  or 
destroying  bacteria  germs. 

RESPIR'ATORY  SOUNDS :  sounds  proceeding  from 
the  lungs  or  the  bronchi.  They  are  of  the  greatest  im« 
portance  in  diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the  lungs.  They 
may  be  divided  into  (1)  those  directly  resulting  from  in- 
spiration and  expiration ;  (2)  those  of  the  voice,  includ- 
ing coughing. 

In  the  healthy  state  of  the  lungs,  two  distinct  sounds 
are  heard,  on  applying  the  ear,  either  directly  or  through 
intervention  of  the  stethoscope,  to  the  walls  of  the  chest 
— one  called  the  vesicular  sound,  because  it  is  supposed 
to  be  caused  by  the  passage  of  the  air  from  the  ultimate 
tubes  into  the  air-cells  or  vesicles ;  and  the  other  the 
bronchial  sound,  because  it  is  generated  in  the  bronchial 
tubes  by  the  air  moving  through  them. 

The  vesicular  sound,  known  also  as  the  respiratory 
murmur,  is  produced  mainly  during  inspiration ;  being 
very  faint,  and  sometimes  scarcely  perceptible  during 
expiration.  It  is  rather  a  rustle  than  a  murmur,  and 
has  been  compared  to  the  sighing  of  a  gentle  breeze 
among  leaves,  to  the  sound  made  in  the  deep  inspiration 
of  a  sleeping  person,  etc. ;  but  a  single  minute's  applica- 
tion of  the  ear  to  the  chest  of  a  healthy  person,  below  the 
collar-bone,  will  give  clearer  idea  of  its  true  nature  than 
any  mere  description  could  convey.  The  sound  is  more 
distinct  in  thin  than  in  fat  persons,  in  women  than  in 
men,  and  in  children  than  in  adults.  Indeed,  it  is  so  loud 
in  children  that  when  an  unusually  noisy  sound  is  heard 
in  an  adult,  it  is  said  to  be  puerile. — The  bronchial  sound 
has  a  blowing  character,  such  as  may  be  produced  by 
blowing  air  quickly  through  a  tube,  and  is  altogether 
distinct  from  the  former :  it  may  be  most  clearly  heard 
over  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  and  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  sternum  or  breast-bone. 

Such  are  the  R.  S.  in  the  healthy  lungs.  In  disease, 
any  change  which  tends  to  impair  the  respiratory  func- 
tion in  one  part  of  the  lungs  will  make  the  vesicular 
murmur  abnormally  weak  there,  and  abnormally  loud 
in  the  remainder;  and  there  are  other  changes,  besides 
a  mere  increase  or  decrease  of  intensity,  that  some- 
times occur,  into  which  we  have  no  space  to  enter.—. 
The  bronchial  sound  also  is  liable  to  morbid  alteration  ; 
e.g.,  it  may  be  heard  in  parts  of  the  chest  where  it 
18.  usually  inaudible,  in  consequence  of  condensation 


RESPIRE — BESPITE. 
of  the  surrounding  pulmonary  tissue,  or  from  dilatation 
of  the  tubes,  independently  of  condensation;  and  in 
violent  dyspnoea,  it  may  sometimes  be  heard  over  the 
whole  chest  without  any  change  of  structure.  These 
morbid  sounds  are  only  modifications  of  those  which 
occur  in  health. — There  are,  however,  other  sounds 
generated  by  disease  which  are  highly  important  in  diag- 
nosis :  these  are  termed  Rales  by  the  French,  and 
Rattles,  Sibilus,  Rhonchus,  etc.,  by  those  English  writers 
who  do  not  adopt  the  French  term.  They  may  be 
briefly  divided  into  the  dry  and  the  moist  rales,  the  former 
being  caused  by  the  passage  of  the  air  with  increased 
rapidity  through  narrowed  portions  of  the  bronchial 
tubes;  while  the  latter  are  formed  by  the  passage  of  air 
through  a  fluid  of  more  or  less  tenacity  in  the  bronchial 
tubes,  causing  the  formation  of  a  succession  of  bubbles* 
whose  bursting  occasions  the  sound. 

There  are  two  other  morbid  sounds  connected  with 
the  respiratory  system  which  should  be  noted — viz., 
metallic  tinkling  and  the  friction  ~<ound.  Metallic  tinkling 
is  a  quick  sharp  sound,  resf  /oling  that  produced  by 
striking  a  glass  vessel  with  a  pin  :  its  occurrence  affords 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  cavity  of  considerable  size, 
containing  air,  and  surrounded  by  firm  walls ;  but  how 
the  sound  is  produced  is  not  definitely  settled.  The 
friction  sound  is  produced  by  the  rubbing  together  of 
the  pulmonary  and  costal  pleurae  when  rough  from  in- 
flammatory action,  and  is  indicative  of  pleurisy. 

RESPIRE,  v.  re-spir'  [F.  respirer — from  L.  respirarS, 
to  respire — from  re,  back  or  again ;  spird,  I  breathe :  It. 
respirare] :  to  breathe  out ;  to  draw  air  into  the  lungs 
and  expel  it  again ;  to  take  breath,  hence  to  rest. 
Respir'ing,  imp.  Respired',  pp.  -spird'.  Respir'able, 
a.  -a-bl  [F. — L.]  :  fit  for  breathing  or  for  the  support  of 
animal  life.  Respir'ableness,  n.  -bl-nes,  or  Respir'- 
abii/ity,  n.  -bil'l-ti,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  respir- 
able.  Respiration,  n.  res-pi-ra'shun  [F. — L.] :  act  of 
breathing  (see  above) :  relief  from  toil.  Res'pirator, 
n.  ~ra-ter,  an  apparatus  for  covering  the  mouth,  which 
serves  to  warm  the  air  before  being  inhaled  into  the 
lungs.  Respir'atort,  a.  4er-i,  pert,  to  or  serving  for 
respiration. 

RESPITE,  n.  res'pit  [OF.  respit,  respite — from  L.  re- 
spectus,  regard,  consideration — from  re,  back  or  again; 
specid,  I  look :  F.  repit ;  It.  rispitto,  respite] :  delay,  as 
for  breathing;  pause;  interval;  temporary  suspension 
of  the  execution  of  the  capital  sentence  on  a  criminal ; 
a  reprieve :  V.  to  suspend ;  to  delay  for  a  time ;  to  relieve 
fcy  an  interval  of  rest.  Res'piting,  imp.  Respited, 
pp.— Syn.  of  « respite,  n.' :  a  stop;  interval;  pause' 
delay;  stay;  cessation;  reprieve. 


RESPLENDENT — BESS  AID  AK 
RESPLENDENT,  a.  re-splen'dent  [L.  resplew  dms  orv 
splenden'tem,  shining  brightly — from  re,  back  or  agair,, 
splendeo, (  shine] :  very  bright ;  having  a  beautiful  lustre; 
shining  with  brilliancy.    Resplen'dently,  ad.  -/i.  Re 
splen'dence,  n.  -dZns,  or  Resplendency,  n.  -den-si, 
brilliant  lustre;  vivid  brightness. 

RESPLIT,  v.  re-spUt  [re,  again,  and  split] :  to  split  or 

rend  a  second  time. 
RESPOND,  v.  respond'  [OF.  respondre — from  L.  re- 

spondere,  to  answer  or  reply — from  re,  back  or  again ; 
sponded,  I  promise  solemnly :  It.  rispondere  :  F.  repondre] : 
to  answer;  to  rejoin;  to  reply:  N.  in  Gothic  arch.,  a 
half-pier  attached  to  a  wall  and  supporting  an  arch,  etc. ; 
in  sacred  music,  a  short  anthem  interjected  in  some 
service.  Responding,  imp.  Responded,  pp.  Re- 
spondent, a.  -enl,  that  answers  to  demand  or  expecta- 
tion :  N.  one  who  replies :  in  law,  one  who  answers ;  the 
party  against  whom  another  party  presents  a  petition 
to  a  court  which  requires  to  be  answered.  Respon- 
dentia, n.  re'&pdn-den'shi-a,  a  contract  by  which  a  loan  is 
effected  by  a  bond  on  the  security  of  the  freight  of  a 
ship ;  money  borrowed  on  the  ship  itself  is  termed 
bottomry.  Such  loans  are  resorted  to  by  the  master  of  a 
ship  only  in  critical  circumstances,  to  raise  money  for 
saving  ship  or  cargo  for  benefit  of  all  concerned. 

RESPONSE,  n.  re-spans'  [OF.  response,  a  response — 
from  L.  responsum,  an  answer  or  reply— from  re,  back; 
sponded,  I  promise  solemnly :  It.  risponso ;  F.  reponse]  :  a 
reply  or  answer;  an  oracular  answer;  the  answer  of  th  * 
people  in  certain  parts  of  Divine  service;  rejomdei 
Responsible,  a.  re-spdn'si-blx  answerable ;  accountable 
amenable.  Responsibly,  ad.  -bU.  Respon'sibleness 
n.  -bl-nes.  Responsibility,  n.  -bll'l-ti,  state  of  being 
accountable  or  answerable.  Respon'sive,  a  slv,  making 
answer;  correspondent.  Respon'sively,  ad.  -It.  Re- 
sponsiveness, n.  -nes,  the  state  of  being  responsive. 
Respon'sions,  n.  plu.  -shunz,  the  first  examination  which 
students  at  Oxford  undergo  before  they  can  take  any  de- 
gree— familiarly  calle  I  *  Smalls.'  ResponSory,  a.  -ser-i, 
containing  or  making  answer:  N.  [L.  responsorium, 
a  response]  short  sentence,  generally  a  verse  or  portion 
of  verse  from  Scriptui^,  assigned  in  church  services,  to 
be  uttered  by  the  pe'  pie  responsively  to  the  priest. 
Besponsories  are  appended  to  lessons,  to  chapters,  and 
to  versicies,  in  coir  non  with  which  they  are  either 
chanted  or  simply  repeated,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  service.  They  are  found  in  all  ancient  liturgies 
and  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer :  in  the  latter  the 
Dame  is  Response. 

RESSAIDAR,  n.  res'a-dar',  or  Ressaldak,  res'al-dar 
[Hind. — from  Ar.  reis,  a  chief]  :  a  native  officer  in  a  na- 
tive cavalry  regiment  of  India,  in  command  of  a  squad- 
ron. Ressalah,  n.  res' a -ld\  a  squadron  of  Indian  native 
cavalry. 


EE  ST. 


REST,  n.  rest  [AS.  rest  or  rcest,  repose.  J)an.  '.niSw. 
mst ;  Ger.  rast ;  OHG.  rasta ;  Dut.  rust,  ease,  quiet]- 
a  state  free  from  motion  or  disturbance ;  quiet ;  repose . 
sleep ;  final  sleep ;  death ;  cessation  from  mental  or  phys- 
ical labor ;  place  of  repose ;  the  grave ;  that  on  which  a 
thing  leans  for  support ;  trust ;  peace :  in  music,  a  pause 
in  sound,  or  the  mark  to  indicate  it  (see  below) :  in  her., 
a  charge,  called  sometimes  organ-rest :  V.  to  lay  or 
place  at  rest ;  to  cease  from  action  or  motion  of  any 
kind ;  to  be  tranquil ;  to  be  at  peace ;  to  recline ;  to  be  in 
a  state  of  repose  or  slumber ;  to  sleep  the  final  sleep ;  to 
lean  on ;  to  trust  or  rely.  Rest'ing,  imp.  Rest'ed,  pp. 
Rest'ful,  a.  in  OE.,  quiet;  being  at  rest.  Restless, 
a.  -les,  not  still ;  unquiet ;  disturbed ;  sleepless ;  unset- 
tled; roving.  Restlessly,  ad.  -tt.  Restlessness,  n. 
-nes,  the  quality  or  state  of  being  restless;  uneasiness; 
want  of  sleep.  Rest-house,  in  East  Indies,  an  empty 
house  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers.  Rest-har- 
row, a  common  leguminous  weed  with  strong  fibrous 
roots ;  Ononis  arven'sis.  Resting-place,  a  place  to  rest 
at.  To  kest  with,  to  be  in  the  power  of ;  to  depend 
upon. — Syn.  of  '  rest,  n.' :  sleep ;  repose ;  peacefulness ; 
stillness ;  cessation ;  quiet ;  tranquillity ;  peace ;  support ; 
interval;  pause;  intermission;  stop;  stay;  slumber; 
ease ;  quietness ; — of  4  rest,  v.* :  to  sleep ;  slumber ;  die ; 
cease ;  be  still ;  acquiesce ;  lean ;  recline ; — of  *  restless  ' : 
unquiet;  disquieted;  unsettled;  roving;  wandering;  un- 
easy ;  disturbed ;  sleepless ;  agitated ;  anxious. 

REST,  n.  rest  [F.  rester,  to  remain ;  reste,  a  remainder 
— from  L.  restart,  to  remain — from  re,  back ;  stare,  to 
stand :  It.  restare,  to  leave  an  overplus] :  that  which 
remains,  or  may  remain,  after  the  separation  of  a  part^ 
remnant ;  remainder ;  overplus ;  residue ;  others ;  a  sur- 
plus fund  held  in  reserve  by  a  bank  or  a  public  company 
in  order  to  equalize  the  dividends,  should  the  profits 
made  in  any  one  year  fall  below  the  amount  required 
for  paying  the  usual  dividend  to  the  shareholders :  V. 
in  OE.,  to  be  left ;  to  remain.  Resting  owing  [F.  en 
reste,  in  arrear]  :  in  Scots  law,  remaining  due  ;  indebted, 


BEST— REST-HARBOW. 
REST,  in  Music  :  interval  of  silence  in  the  course  of  a 
movement  between  one  sound  and  another ;  its  duration, 
like  that  of  a  note,  is  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  char- 
acter representing  it. 


8emlbre>e.  Minim.     Crotchet.     Qna?er.  Semiquaver. 


Deml-aemt> 
quaver. 


Semi-deml-      Two  Four  Six  Elgfn 

•emlquaver.  Semibreves.  Semibreves.  Semibrevet.  8emibreTe». 


For  rests  of  still  longer  duration,  it  is  now  usual  to 
draw  one  or  two  oblique  lines  across  the  staff, 
and  write  on  them  in  figures  the  number  of  measures 
during  which  the  voice  or  instrument  is  to  be  silent. 

Thus,  ,  in  common  time,  denotes  a  rest  of  13 

semibreves.  A  rest,  like  a  note,  may  be  prolonged  by 
one  or  more  dots. 

BESTANT,  a.  res'tant  [L.  restans  or  restan'tem,  remain- 
ing— from  restare,  to  remain :  F.  restant] :  in  boL,  remain- 
ing, as  foot-stalks  after  the  fructification  has  fallen  off. 

RESTATE,  v.  re-stat'  [re,  again,  and  state] :  to  state 
anew. 

RESTAURANT,  n.  res'tb-rang  [F.  restaurant — from 
restaurer,  to  restore,  to  re-establish — from  L.  restaurdre, 
to  restore] :  an  eating-house ;  a  place  for  the  sale  of  re- 
freshments. Restatjbateub,  n.  ros-Wra-te? ',  an  eating- 
house  keeper ;  one  who  keeps  a  place  for  the  sale  of 
refreshments. 

RESTEM,  v.  re-8t$mf  [re,  back,  and  stem] :  to  force  back 
against  the  current. 

BEST'-HABBOW  (Ononis):  genus  of  plants  of  nat. 
order  Leguminosm,  sub-order  Papilionacece;  having  a  5-cleft 
bell-shaped  calyx,  the  standard  of  the  corolla  large  and 
striated,  the  keel  beaked,  the  pod  turgid  and  few-seeded. 
There  are  many  species,natives  chiefly  of  Europe, and  gen- 
erally herbaceous  or  half-shrubby. — The  Common  R.-Ho 
(O.  arvensis)  is  abundant  in  pastures  and  by  waysides  in 
Britain.  Its  lower  leaves  have  three  leaflets,  the  upper  are 
simple ;  the  flowers  are  axillary  and  rose-colored,  or  occa- 
sionally white.  The  plant  is  half-shrubby,  with  somewhat 
spiny  stems ;  viscid ;  and  its  smell  strong  and  unpleasant. 
The  roots  are  tough  and  woody,  whence  its  name.  It  is 
sometimes  a  troublesome  weed,  but  only  in  neglected 
pastures,  and  disappears  before  careful  cultivation. 


RESTlACEiE— RESTIVE. 

BESTIACEiE,  res-ii-a'se-e :  natural  order  of  endog- 
enous plants,  nearly  allied  to  Cyperacece,  natives  mostly 
of  the  s.  hemisphere,  and  abounding  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  in  Australia.  They  are  herbaceous,  or 
sometimes  half-shrubby ;  have  simple  stems  and  narrow- 
leaves  ;  and  are  hard,  wiry,  and  rush-like.  They  have 
generally  a  creeping  root-stock.  The  flowers  are  in 
heads  or  spikes,  generally  unisexual,  with  2-6  glumes, 
sometimes  with  none ;  two  or  three  stamens,  an  ovary 
with  1-3  cells,  one  ovule  in  each  cell,  the  fruit  a  capsule 
or  nut.  Restio  teetotum  is  much  used  for  thatching  houses 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Wildenowia  teres  is  used  for 
making  baskets  and  brooms. 

RESTIFF,  a.  res'tif  [OF.  restif ;  F.  retif  restive]:  an 
OE.  spelling  of  Restive.  Res'tifeness,  n.  -nes,  for 
Restiveness.    See  Restive. 

RESTIFORM,  a.  res'ti-fawrm  [L.  restis,  a  cord ;  forma 
shape] :  like  a  cord ;  rope-shaped, 

RESTIGOUCHE,  res-ti-gosh' :  one  of  the  n.  counties 
of  New  Brunswick,  adjoining  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs  and 
Quebec ;  area  nearly  3,000  sq.  m.  The  R.  river  passes 
through  it  and  forms  a  portion  of  the  boundary  between 
New  Brunswick  and  Quebec.  The  river  is  about  200  m. 
in  length  and  for  about  24  m.  from  its  mouth  is  a  tidal 
estuary,  navigable  for  the  largest  ships  18  m.  The  main 
river,  formed  of  five  head  streams,  flows  through  a 
mountainous  region  with  many  fertile  valleys.  The 
fishing  interest  is  of  considerable  importance,  and 
attracts  sportsmen  from  a  distance.  Large  quantities 
of  lumber  are  exported. 

RESTIPULATE,  v.  rerstip-u-lat  [re,  again,  and  stipulate] : 
to  stipulate  anew.  Re'stipula'tioh,  n.  a  new  or  second 
stipulation. 

RESTITUTION,  n.  rZs'Ci-tu'shnn  [F.  restitution  •  Sp.  res- 
iitucion,  restitution — from  L.  restitutio" »,  a  restoration—* 
from  re,  back ;  statuo,  I  put  or  place ;  sto,  I  stand] :  act  of 
making  good  any  loss,  damage,  or  injury;  the  restora- 
tion of  something  lost  or  taken  away ;  amends ;  repara- 
tion :  in  Scotch  law,  obligation  of  the  purchaser  of  a  mov« 
able,  which  really  belongs  to  a  third  party,  to  deliver 
it  up  to  such  real  owner  without  claiming  repayment  of 
price  (see  Repetition). — Syn.  :  restoration ;  reparation ; 
indemnification ;  return ;  compensation ;  amends. 

RESTIVE,  a.  res'tiv  [OF.  restif,  restive,  stubborn :  F. 
retif — from  L.  restore,  to  stand  still,  to  withstand :  It. 
restio] :  restless  and  unwilling  to  stir,  or  only  moving 
backward,  as  a  horse;  obstinate  in  refusing  to  move 
forward ;  impatient  under  restraint  or  opposition ;  stub- 
born; recalcitrant;  uneasy;  in  OE.,  being  at  rest;  being 
less  in  motion.  Res'tively,  ad.  -li.  Res'tiveness,  n. 
-nes,  obstinacy  or  unwillingness  to  move  forward;  obsti* 
nate  unwillingness  or  impatience.  Resty,  a,  res  ti,  rest 
ive ;  in  OE.  spelled  Restief. 


RESTORA  TION — RESTORE. 

RESTORATION,  The,  in  English  History :  resump- 
tion of  monarchical  govt.,  on  the  accession  of  Charles II., 
2600,  May  29,  after  an  interval  of  11  years,  from  1649, 
Jan.  30,  when  Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  during  which  the 
govt,  of  Great  Britain  was  republican.  The  R.  was 
appointed  by  various  statutes  to  be  observed  as  a  festival 
in  the  Church  of  England,  with  special  religious  services ; 
but  its  observance  was  abolished  1859. 

RESTORA'TIONIST :  believer  in  only  a  temporary 
future  punishment — an  old  doctrine  under  a  new  name. 
It  has  found  advocates  at  all  times  since  the  days  of 
Origen  (q.v.).  One  of  the  most  remarkable  doctrines  of 
that  Father  was  his  belief  of  a  general  apokatastasis,  or 
*  restoration '  of  all  things,  in  which,  after  a  purgation 
proportioned  to  the  various  moral  conditions  of  their 
souls  at  the  time  of  death,  all  men,  however  wicked,  and 
all  the  evil  angels,  even  Lucifer  himself,  would  be  re- 
stored to  holiness  and  to  the  favor  of  God,  and  reunited 
to  Hint  in  heaven.  This  doctrine  was  condemned  at  the 
time,  and  has  since  been  repeatedly  rejected  by  the 
churches  of  the  East  as  well  as  of  the  West.  Restora- 
tionism  has  been  renewed  in  more  than  one  form  since 
the  Reformation  by  various  classes,  who  have  taken  the 
name  Universalists  (q.v.).  The  particular  title  of  Res- 
torationists  was  given  in  America  to  the  followers  of 
Hosea  Ballou  (q.v.),  wTho,  in  addition  to  the  tenet 
above  explained,  preached  that  all  retribution  is  confined 
to  this  life ;  and  who,  though  he  denied  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  yet  taught  that  at  the  resurrection  all  men 
will  be  admitted  to  everlasting  happiness. 

RESTORE,  v.  re-stor'  [F.  restaur  er,  to  restore — from 
L.  restaurare,  to  make  to  stand  again,  to  restore :  It.  res- 
taurare]  :  to  replace ;  to  give  or  bring  back  that  which 
has  been  lost  or  unjustly  taken  away ;  to  bring  back  to 
its  former  state ;  to  rebuild ;  to  renew :  N.  in  OE.y  resto- 
ration. Restoring,  imp.  Restored,  pp.  re-stdrd'. 
Restor'able,  a.  -a-bl,  capable  of  being  brought  to  a 
former  condition.  Restor'ableness,  n.  -nee,  the  quality 
or  state  of  being  restorable.  Restoration,  n.  res'td-ra'- 
shun,  the  act  of  restoring  or 'replacing ;  renewal;  re- 
covery ;  restitution ;  reparation  (see  Restoration, 
The).  Res'tora'tionist,  n.  -shun-lsl  (see  above).  Re- 
storative, a.  re-stor' a-tiv,  having  power  to  restore  or 
renew,  as  health  and  vigor:  N.  a  medicine  efficacious 
in  recruiting  the  vital  powers.  Restor'atively,  ad.  -fo. 
Restor'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  restores. — Syn.  of  '  restore  '  : 
to  recover  ;  replace  ;  renew  ;  renovate  ;  reinstate  ;  re- 
establish ;  return  ;  revive  ;  recover  ;  refund  ;  repay  ;  re- 
pair ;  heal  ;  cure. 


RESTRAIN — RESUME. 

RESTRAIN,  v.  r&stran'  [OF.  restraindre  ;  F.  restreindre, 
to  restrict — from  L.  restringere,  to  check,  to  restrain — ■ 
from  re,  back ;  stringo,  I  draw  tight :  It.  restringere] :  to 
hold  back ;  to  bind  fast ;  to  curb ;  to  repress ;  to  limit ; 
to  abridge.  Restraining,  imp.  Restrained,  pp.  re- 
s'rand'.  Restrain'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  restrains.  Re- 
strain'able,  a.  -a-bl,  capable  of  being  restrained.  Re- 
strain'ment,  n.  -merit,  the  act  of  restraining.  Restrain'- 
edly,  ad.  -ed-Vi.  Restraint7,  n.  -strant\  the  act  oL 
restraining ;  abridgment  of  liberty ;  restriction ;  hin 
drance  of  will ;  repression ;  that  which  restrains. — Syn. 
of  '  restrain  ' :  to  withhold ;  keep  in;  repress ;  suppress , 
hinder ;  abridge ;  hold  in;  limit;  confine;  check;  stop; 
curb ;  coerce ;  restrict ;— of  '  restraint ' :  abridgment ;  prc« 
nibition;  limitation;  restriction;  repression ;  hindrance [ 
check ;  stop ;  curb ;  coercion ;  confinement. 

RESTRENGTHEN,  v.  re-strength'n  [re,  again,  anG 
strengthen]  :  to  strengthen  anew. 

RESTRICT,  v.  re-strikt'  [L.  restrictus,  confined,  re 
stricted — from  re,  back;  stringere,  to  draw  tight  (sg* 
Restrain)]  :  to  keep  back  within  certain  limits;  to  civ. 
cumseribe ;  to  limit.  Restricting,  imp.  Restrict'eh, 
pp.  limited ;  confined  to  bounds.  Restriction,  n.  ri> 
strik'shun  [F. — L.]  :  limitation;  restraint;  that  which 
restricts.  Restrictive,  a.  -iv,  having  the  quality  of 
limiting,  or  expressing  limitation;  imposing  restraint. 
Restrict'ivedy,  ad.  -Ui. — Syn.  of  6  restrict '  °.  to  restrain  ; 
curb;  confine;  coerce;  limit;  bound;  cwumscribe ; 
repress. 

RESTY :  see  under  Restive. 

RESUBJECT,  v.  re'sub-jekt'  [re,  again,  and  subject] :  to 
subject  a  second  time.  Re'subjec'ticn,  n.  a  second 
subjection. 

RESUBLIME,  v.  re'sub-llm'  [re,  again,  and  sublime] :  to 
sublime  again.  Resub';lima'tion,  n.  a  second  sublima- 
tion. 

RESULT,  v.  re-zultf  [F.  resulter,  to  result — from  L,  re- 
sult are,  to  spring  back — from  re,  back-,  salio,  I  leap:  It. 
resultare] :  to  follow  or  have  origin,  as  a  consequence, 
from  facts,  arguments,  thought,  etc.;  to  spring;  to 
arise;  to  originate;  to  issue;  to  ensue:  N.  that  which 
proceeds  from  a  given  state  of  facts,  etc. ;  consequence; 
inference;  decision;  issue.  Resulting,  imp.  Re- 
sulted, pp.  Resultant,  d,  -ant,  in  dyn.,  a  force  which 
results  from  the  composition  or  putting  together  of  two 
or  more  forces  acting  on  the  same  point :  Adj.  that 
arises  from  combination.  Result'less,  a.  -les,  without 
result. — Syn.  of  1  result,  n.':  consequence;  effect;  issue; 
event ;  conclusion ;  inference ;— of  *  result,  v.* :  to  spring; 
proceed;  arise;  ensue;  terminate. 

RESUME,  n.  ra-zo'ma  [F.  resume,  a  summary ;  resumer, 
to  sum  up  (see  Resume)]  :  a  summing  up;  a  condensed 
statement ;  a  summary ;  a  recapitulation. 


RESUME-  RESURRECTION. 

RESUME,  v.  re-zum'  [L.  resumere,  to  take  back, 
resume— from  re,  again  ;  sumo,  I  take  :  Sp.  resumir  ;  F. 
resumer] :  to  take  back  that  which  has  been  given  or 
taken  away;  to  proceed  or  take  up  again  after  interrup- 
tion; to  begin  again;  to  take  again.  Resuming,  imp. 
Resumed7,  pp.  -zumd'.  Resum'able,  a.  -a-bl,  that  may 
be  taken  back  or  up  again.  Resumption,  n.  -zump'shun 
[L.  resumptus,  resumed]  :  the  act  of  taking  back  or  taking 
again.    Resumptive,  a.  -tlv,  taking  back  or  again. 

RESUMMON,  v.  re-sum'mon  [re,  again,  and  summon] : 
to  summon  or  call  again. 

RESUMPTION  :  see  under  Resume. 

■3ESUPINATE,  a.  re-su'pi-ndt  (L.  resupinatus,  bent  or 
.urned  back— from  re,  back  cr  again;  supino,  I  bend 
backward  ;  suplnus,  lying  on  the  back] :  in  bot.,  so  turned 
or  twisted  that  the  parts  naturally  the  undermost 
become  the  uppermost,  and  vice  versa.  Besupine,  a. 
res'u~pln',  lying  on  the  back. 

RESUPPLT,  v.  r?sup-pli'  [re,  again,  and  supply] :  to 
supply  again. 

RESUEOENT,  a.  re  seYjent  [L.  resur'gem  or  resurrjen'* 
tern,  rising  or  appearing  again — from  re,  again,  surgerS, 
to  rise] :  rising  again,  as  from  the  dead ,  swelling  up. 

RESURRECTION,  n.  rez'ewek'skun  [F.  resurrection— 
from  L.  resurrectlonem,  resurrection — from  resurrec  tust 
risen  again— from  re,  again;  surgere,  to  rise:  It.  resur* 
rezione]  ;  a  rising  again  from  the  dead ;  the  rising  of  the 
dead  from  the  grave  at  the  general  judgment  (see  Res- 
urrection, Tins'* :  a  moral  revival,  as  from  a  state  of 
ignorance  or  degradation.  Res'urrec'tionist,  n.  -%st,  a 
despoiler  of  graves  for  purposes  of  dissection. 

RESURRECTION,'  The:  the  rising  from  the  dead  of 
the  human  body  in  the  future  life.  We  find  dim  hints 
of  this  doctrine  in  different  religions,  especially  in  later 
Judaism,  but  the  doctrine  is  peculiarly  Christian.  In  the 
earlier  Hebrew  Scriptures,  the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms, 
the  earlier  prophecies,  there  is  no  distinct  reference  to 
it.  It  is  supposed  to  be  alluded  to  in  Is.  xxvi.  19,  and 
in  Ezek.  xxxvii.,  in  the  well-known  chapter  as  to  the  re- 
vival of  dry  bones  in  the  valley  of  vision ;  and  in  Daniel 
xii.  2,  there  is  the  distinct  affirmation  that  *  many  that 
sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake,  some  to  ever- 
lasting life,  and  some  to  shame  and  everlasting  con- 
tempt.' There  is  also  a  well-known  passage  in  Job 
(xix.  25-27)  which  has  been  usually  considered  to  refer 
to  the  R.  of  the  body.  A  large  school  of  recent  criticism 
denies  the  validity  of  this  reference ;  but  this  denial  has 
called  forth  stronger  argument  in  defense  of  the  refer- 
ence. In  the  later  Judaism  the  tenet  of  the  R.  appears, 
and  in  the  time  of  Christ  it  had  become  a  formal  doctrine 
of  the  Pharisees.  The  general  body  of  the  Jewish  people 
also  seem  to  have  believed  it.  The  Sadducees  alone 
disputed  it  (Matt.  xxii.  23,  sq. ;  Luke  xx.  27,  sq. ;  Acts 
xxiii.  6-8).    It  appears,  in  fact,  to  have  become  bound 


BESTJBVE1. 

&p  iii  i£ie  Jev  ibh  mind  with  the  idea  of  a  future  Jife,  so 
tha*,  an  argument  which  proved  the  one  proved  the  other ; 
and  the  Sadducees  not  merely  denied  the  distinctive  idea 
of  the  E.j  but  further  denied  the  existence  of  any  *  angel 
or  spirit.' 

It  remained  for  Christ  and  his  apostles  to  reveal 
clearly  the  R.  of  man— soul  and  body — and  to  connect  it 
with  the  fact  of  Christ's  own  R.  as  its  special  evidence  and 
pledge.  The  following  may  be  stated  as  the  main  points 
involved  in  the  doctrine  as  it  appears  in  the  New  Test. : 
1.  The  R.  is  ascribed  to  Christ  himself ;  it  will  complete 
his  work  of  redemption  for  the  human  race  (John  v.  21 ; 
I  C-r.  xv.  22,  sq. ;  I  Thess.  iv.  14;  Rev.  i.  18).  2.  All 
the  lead  will  be  raised  indiscriminately  to  receive  judg- 
ment according  to  their  works,  *  they  that  have  done 
good,  unto  the  resurrection  of  life;  and  they  that  have 
done  evil,  unto  the  resurrection  of  condemnation'  (John 
v.  21-29 ;  I  Cor.  xv.  22 ;  Rev.  xx.  11).  3.  The  R.  will  be 
at  4  the  last  day/  by  which  seems  to  be  meant  the  close 
of  the  present  world  (John  vi.  39,  40;  xi.  24;  I  Thess. 
iv.  15).  4.  The  great  event  is  represented  as  ushered  in 
by  the  sound  of  a  trumpet — i.e.,  by  a  mighty  call  heard 
by  the  whole  race  of  man — a  representation  used  prob- 
ably in  view  of  the  Jewish  practice  of  convening  great 
assemblies  by  sound  of  trumpet  (I  Cor.  xv.  52 ;  I  Thess. 
iv.  16).  5.  As  to  the  character  of  the  change  through 
which  men's  bodies  are  raised  after  the  lapse  of  ages, 
with  their  identity  preserved,  nothing  is  distinctly  made 
known ;  the  fact  is  abundantly  and  most  positively  de- 
clared, but  the  mode — like  other  points  of  curious  philo- 
sophical inquiry  concerning  revealed  facts — is  not  in  any 
way  even  remotely  indicated.  The  impossibility  of  such 
a  change  was  evidently  a  subject  of  argument  in  the 
primitive  Christian  age,  and  the  apostle  Paul  argues  in 
its  favor  with  majestic  force  (I  Cor.  xv.  32,  sq.)  from 
common  occurrences  scarcely  less  mysterious  in  the  nat- 
ural world.  It  is  not  professed,  however,  that  such 
occurrences  explain  the  R. :  the  apostle  designs  rather  to 
silence  cavils,  and  to  invigorate  faith  by  freeing  the 
doctrine  from  prejudices  which  ignorance  tended  to 
attach  to  it.  Arguing  from  God's  infinite  power  as  dis- 
played in  the  processes  of  creation,  he  would,  as  it  were, 
press  the  question  which  he  asks  elsewhere :  *  Why 
should  it  be  thought  a  thing  incredible  with  you  that 
God  should  raise  the  dead  ? '  (Acts  xxvi.  8),  rather  than 
attempt  any  explanation,  of  which  the  subject  does  not 
really  admit  in  the  present  limited  capacity  of  the  human 
mind.  And  this  is  the  spirit  in  which  this  sublime  fact 
of  the  R.  of  man — body  and  soul— -is  to  be  contemplated. 
Its  mode— involving  the  nature  of  matter,  which  is  not  yet 
ascertained  by  any  science,  but  only  conjectured  in  op- 
posing theories,  involving  also  the  still  unkno  vn  rela- 
tions of  matter  and  spirit — necessarily  transcends  our 
present  intelligence. 

RESURVEY,  v.  re'ser-va'  [re,  again,  and  survey] :  to 
3krv©y  a  second  time. 


RESUSCITATE— RETAIN  ek. 

RESUSCITATE,  v.  re-sus'si-tdt  [L.  resuscitahis,  roused 
again,  revived — from  re,  again  ;  suscltdre,  to  raise — from 
sub,  under;  citdre,  to  rouse:  It.  risuscttare :  F.  ressus- 
citer\  :  to  recover  from  apparent  death ;  to  revivify ;  to 
revive ;  to  come  to  life  again.  Resuscitating,  imp. 
Resus'citated,  pp.  Resus'citator,  n.  -ter,  one  who 
resuscitates.  Resus'citable,  a.  -td-bl^  that  may  be 
recovered  from  apparent  death.  Resus'cita'tion,  n. 
-ta'shun,  the  act  of  reviving  from  a  state  of  apparent 
death.    Resus'citative,  a.  -tativ,  revivifying. 

RET,  v.  ret  [Ger.  rosten,  to  steep :  Dut.  rotten,  to  rot, 
to  putrefy :  a  modification  of  rot,  Sw.  rota,  to  rot  or 
putrefy] :  to  destroy  by  rotting.  To  ret  flax,  to  steep 
it  in  water  in  order  to  separate  the  fibre  by  incipient 
rotting.  Renting,  imp.  Retted,  pp.  Ret'tery,  n. 
-ter-i,  a  place  or  factory  for  preparing  flax.  . 

RETAIL,  v.  re-tdV  [F.  retaille,  a  shred  or  small  piece 
cut  from  a  thing — from  re,  again;  tailler,  to  cut;  taille,  a 
slitting — from  L.  taled,  a  thin  rod,  a  cutting]  :  to  sell  in 
small  quantities ;  to  sell  at  second-hand ;  to  relate  in 
broken  parts,  as  a  story :  N.  re'tdl,  the  sale  of  goods  in 
small  quantities ;  opposite  of  wholesale.  Retaii/ing, 
imp.  Retailed',  pp.  -tdla".  Retail'er,  n.  -er,  one  who 
retails;  one  who  sells  in  small  quantities.  Retaii/- 
ment,  n.  -ment,  the  act  of  retailing. 

RETAIN,  v.  re-tan'  [F.  retenir — from  L.  retinere,  to 
keep  back,  to  restrain — -from  re,  back;  teneo,  I  hold:  It 
ritenere] :  to  hold  or  keep  in  possession ;  to  keep ;  to 
keep  back ;  to  hold  from  escape ;  not  to  lose  or  lay 
aside ;  to  keep  in  pay ;  to  engage  by  a  fee  paid.  Re- 
taining, imp.  Retained',  pp.  ~tdnd\  Retain'er,  n. 
-er,  an  attendant ;  a  servant ;  a  hanger-on :  in  law  (see 
below).  Retainable,  a.  ~a-bl,  capable  of  being  re- 
tained.— Syn.  of  'retain':  to  hold;  restrain;  keep; 
detain;  preserve;  hire;  withhold;  continue. 

RETAIN'ER,  in  Law  :  act  of  engaging  an  attorney  01 
counsel  to  attend  to  a  certain  suit  or  case.  The  R.  is  gen- 
erally a  precautionary  measure  resorted  to  only  in  the 
case  of  eminent  counsel,  the  effect  being  to  prevent  the 
other  party  from  securing  the  services  of  such  counsel ; 
iM*\  this  is  considered  a  prudent  precaution  in  most 
cases  of  importance.  The  retaining  fee,  often  large,  k 
also  sometimes  called  a  retainer. 


RETAINING  WALL. 
RETAINING  WALL  :  wall  built  to  retain  earth,  sand, 
or  other  incoherent  substances  in  positions  and  forms 
which  otherwise  they  could  not  maintain.  These  sub- 
stances, if  left  to  themselves,  will  not  stand  with  verti- 
cal sides,  but  will  fall  down  till  they  assume  a  certain 
slope.  The  angle  which  this  slope  makes  with  the  hori- 
zontal is  called  the  '  angle  of  repose.'  This  angle  varies 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  material ;  e.g.,  that  of 
moist  soil  is  about  45°,  while  fine  sand  assumes  an  angle 
of  about  30°. 

In  fig.  1,  E  represents  a  section  of  a  mass  of  earth, 


O  6 

Fig.  l. 


which  it  is  desired  to  retain  by  means  of  the  wll  AB01X 

If  we  draw  BG  from  B  at  the  angle  of  repose,  it  is  evi- 
dent, from  what  has  been  said,  that  the  prism  ABG  is 
kept  in  position  by  the  retaining  wall;  and  if  ihe  earth 
began  to  give  way,  it  would  do  so  by  slipping  on  some 
lice  BF.  The  wedge-shaped  piece  ABF,  which  has  the 
greatest  tendency  to  separate  itself  from  the  rest  of  the 
mass,  is  called  the  '  prism  of  greatest  pressure ; '  and  the 
retaining  wall  ABCD  must  be  made  of  sufficient  weight 
and  thickness  to  prop  it  up  and  resist  its  tendency  to 
slide.  The  line  BF  is  found  to  bisect  the  angle  ABG. 
In  estimating  the  requisite  thickness  of  the  wall,  it 
must  be  taken  into  account  that  the  wall  may  give  way 
in  various  manners ;  it  may  be  overturned,  or  it  may 
slide  as  a  whole  along  its  base  DB,  or  the  upper  parts 
may  give  way,  while  the  base  remains.  From  these  data, 
mathematical  formulas  have  been  worked  out,  which 
determine  the  thickness  requisite  for  different  situa- 
tions and  materials,  such  as  that  given  by  Poncelet  for 
ordinary  materials  and  within  ordinary  limits : 

x  =  -285(H  +  h). 
Where  H,  the  height  of  the  wall,  and  h,  the  additional 
height  of  the  bank  above  the  top  of  the  wall,  being  given, 
x,  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  can  be  found. 

These  formulas,  however,  are  of  little  practical  value, 
on  account  of  the  varying  nature  of  the  data  on  which 
they  are  founded,  and  of  the  excess  of  strength  requisite 
in  all  such  constructions,  to  allow  for  causes  of  failure, 
which  cannot  be  foreseen  or  provided  xor  in  the  caleu- 


RETAINING  WALL, 
lations.    Practical  experience  is  found  to  be  the  only 
safe  guide  in  all  such  considerations. 

Figs.  2,  3,  and  4  represent  sections  of  forms  of  re- 
taining walls  in  common  use. 
Figs.  2  and  3  are  used  in  retain- 
ing earthworks,  while  fig.  4  is  a 
common  form  of  dock-wall. 

In  that  shown  by  fig.  2,  the  ' 
thickness  at  the  top  is  2  to  3  ft. ; 
the  back  is  vertical,  and  the 
f  ronl  is  sloped  out  1  ft.  for  every 
8  ft.  in  height ;  so  that  the  thick- 
ness increases  with  the  height, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  press- 
ure of  the  earth,  which  it  is  re- 
quired to  resist.  The  foundation 
is  of  large  stones,  extending  be- 
yond the  sides  of  the  wall,  so  as  to  distribute  the  press- 
ure on  as  large  a  surface  as  possible.  It  is  also  sunk 
2  or  3  ft.  below  the  adjoining  surface,  to  resist  its 
tendency  to  slip  on  its  base.  At  its  back  are  placed 
counterforts,  C,  which  are  built  up  with  the  wall,  and 
are  about  3  ft.  long  by  2J  ft.  wide,  8  to  10  ft.  apart. 
These  counterforts  stiffen  the  wall  like  ribs ;  they  put 
its  centre  of  gravity  further  back,  and  so  resist  the 
tendency  to  heeling  or  over- 
turning ;  they  also  act  advanta- 
geously in  dividing  the  earth, 
and  so  diminishing  the  length 
of  the  mass,  which  can  act  to- 
gether against  the  wall.  This 
form  is  very  simple  in  con- 
struction. 

The  form  of  wall  in  fig.  3  is 
that  which  requires  least  ma- 
terial; it  also,  on  account  of 
its  thinness,  dries  and  consol- 
idates rapidly,  but  is  not  so 
easily  built  as  that  shown  in 
fig.  2. 

The  dock-wall  in  fig.  4  is 
made  much  heavier  than  the 
simple  pressure  of  the  earth  behind  it  would  require ; 
for  it  has  many  strains  to  bear  of  exceptional  character 
due  to  its  situation ;  such  are  the  machinery  and  goods 
deposited  on  the  quays,  and  the  possible  accident  of  the 
dock  being  suddenly  emptied  of  water,  while  the  earth 
behind  the  wall  is  full  of  water. 

In  the  construction  of  a  retaining  wall,  a  great  desid- 
eratum is,  that  the  earth  behind  it  be  well  drained; 
for  if  water  b  3  allowed  to  accumulate  behind  the  wall,  the 
earth  becomes  semi-fluid,  in  which  state  it  gives  a  very 
much  increased  pressure.  For  this  purpose,  holes  are 
left  through  the  wall  called  '  weeping-holes ; '  these  1 
holes  are  about  9  inches  high  and  2  inches  wide,  and  are 
gene  raj  ly  placed  about  1  for  every  36  sg.  ft.  of  wall.  Also 


RETAKE — KETCH, 
stores  without  mortar  are  frequently  built  up  behind 
the  wail,  so  forming  an  open  stratum,  into  which  the 


water  drains,  and  is  thence  carried  off  through  the 
weeping-holes. 

BETAKE,  v.  re-laK  [re,  again,  and  take] :  to  take 
again ;  to  recapture. 

RETALIATE,  v.  re-taVx-ai  [mid.  L.  retatiatus,  retal- 
iated— from  L.  re,  back;  tdlio,  retaliation — from  talis, 
such,  like  :  F.  talion,  a  pain  or  requital  equal  to  the  harm 
done,  tit  for  tat] :  to  return  by  giving  like  for  like,  in  an 
ill  sense;  to  requite  or  pay  back  with  the  like.  Retal- 
iating, imp.  Retaliated,  pp.  Retai/ia'tion,  n.  -a'- 
shun,  the  return  of  like  for  like;  retribution.  Retai/ia- 
tive,  a.  -a-tiv,  or  Retaliatory,  a.  -a-ter-x,  returning  like 
for  like. — Syn.  of  *  retaliation  ' :  reprisal ;  retribution ; 
requital,  repayment;  punishment;  revenge. 

RETARD,  v.  re-tard'  [F.  relarder,  to  delay ;  retard, 
delay — from  L.  retarddre,  to  impede,  to  retard — from  re, 
back  or  again ;  tarddre,  to  make  slow— from  tardus, 
slow:  It.  ritardare]:  to  impede;  to  hinder;  to  render 
slower:  N.  in  OE.,  retardation;  delay.  Retarding, 
imp.  Retarded,  pp.  Retard'er,  n.  -er,  he  or  that 
which  retards.  Retard'ment,  n.  -ment,  or  Retarda- 
tion, n.  reflar-dd'shun  [F. — L.]  :  the  act  of  lessening  the 
velocity  of  motion ;  hindrance.  Retard  of  the  tide, 
the  interval  between  the  transit  of  the  moon  at  which  a 
tide  originates  and  the  appearance  of  the  tide  itself. 
Retardation  of  mean  solar  time,  the  change  of  the 
mean  sun's  right  ascension  in  a  sidereal  day,  by  which 
he  appears  to  hang  back,  as  it  were,  in  his  diurnal  rev- 
olution.—Syn.  of  *  retard,  v.*:  to  hinder;  obstruct;  pro* 
crastinate?  defer;  impede;  detain;  delay. 

RETCH,  v.  rech  [AS.  hrazcan  ;  Icel.  hrwkja,  to  retch : 
Norw.  rwkja,  to  hawk,  to  spit :  Dut.  rachelen,  to  cough : 
It.  recere,  to  vomit:  Gael,  ruchd,  to  grunt,  to  belch] :  to 
make  an  effort  to  vomit ;  to  strain ;  to  heave  at  th@ 
stomach.   J&btch'ing,  imp.   Retchei>,  pp.  rechL 


Fig.  4. 


RETE — RETENTION  OF  UKINE. 
RETE,  n.  re'te  [L.,  rete,  a  net,  a  snare] :  a  net;  net* 
work.  Retecious,  a.  re-te'shus,  resembling  network. 
Reticle,  n.  ret'i-kl,  a  small  net.  Rete  mirab'ile,  mir- 
ab'v-U  [L.,  a  wonderful  net] :  in  anat.,  a  complicated 
anastomosis  of  blood-vessels.  Rete  mucosum,  mu-W- 
zum  [L.,  a  mucous  net]  :  in  anat.,  the  soft  underlay er  of 
the  epidermis  or  scarfskin,  which  gives  the  color  to  the 
skin. 

RETELL,  v.  re-teT  [re,  agaNi,  and  tell] :  to  tell  again. 

RETENE,  n.  ret'en :  a  resinous  body  of  the  anthracene 
series,  polymeric  with  benzine. 

RETENTION,  n.  re-ten'shun  [F.  retention — from  L.  re- 
ientidnem,  a  holding  back — from  re,  back ;  tened,  I  hold : 
It.  ritenzione\ :  act  or  power  of  retaining,  as  in  the 
memory ;  the  memory :  undue  withholding  of  some  nat- 
ural discharge;  restraint;  reserve.  Retentis,  u  re- 
tentls,  things  retained.  Reten'tive,  a.  -iiv,  ha\  *ug 
power  to  retain,  as  in  the  memory.  Reten'tively,  «.  d. 
-Zl.  Reten'tiveness,  n.  -nes,  the  quality  of  being  re- 
tentive. To  be  kept  in  retentis,  to  be  kept  among 
things  retained  or  reserved  for  some  future  purpose. 

RETENTION  OF  U'RINE  :  lack  of  power  to  discharge 
the  urine  from  the  bladder:  it  must  be  distinguished 
from  a  far  more  serious  affection  known  as  suppression 
of  urine,  in  which  also  no  urine  is  passed  because  in  this 
case  there  is  none  in  the  bladder.  R.  may  arise  either 
from  change  of  structure  of  the  parts  concerned  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  urine,  or  from  mere  disordered  function 
unaccompanied  by  change :  the  former  causes  are  termed 
organic,  the  latter  functional. 

Among  chief  organic  causes  are:  1.  Permanent  strict- 
ure of  the  Urethra  (q.Vo).  2.  Contraction  of  the  Urethra, 
in  consequence  of  a  blow  on  the  perinsBum,  or  other  ex- 
ternal injury.  3.  Tumors  within  the  urethra.  4.  For- 
eign bodies  in  the  urethra,  as  calculi,  clots  of  blood,  or 
mucus,  etc.,  which  have  entered  it  from  the  bladder,  or 
fragments  of  bougies,  etc.,  introduced  from  without. 
5.  Enlargement  of  the  prostate  gland,  especially  in  aged 
men.  The  treatment  in  R.  from  these  causes  must  be 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  surgeon. 

The  principal  functional  causes  are :  1.  Spasm  of  the 
urethra,  often  termed  spasmodic  stricture.  2.  Lack  of 
power  in  the  muscular  coat  of  the  bladder  and  urethra. 
Spasm  of  the  urethra  is  most  likely  to  occur  in  those 
who  have  a  slight  permanent  stricture,  or  a  urethra 
irritable  from  other  causes.  The  spasm  usually  follows 
exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  but  it  may  be  excited  by  piles 
or  other  sources  of  irritation  in  the  lower  bowel,  or  by 
the  use  of  cantharides  either  taken  internally  as  a 
medicine,  or  absorbed  from  blisters  applied  to  the  skin. 
The  patient  finds  himseif  unable  to  pass  his  water, 
though  he  has  a  great  desire  and  makes  strong  efforts 
to  do  so.  The  bladder  soon  becomes  so  distended  that 
it  can  be  felt  as  a  tense  round  tumor  a'30ve  the  pubes. 
It  relief  be  not  speedily  afforded,  the  bladder  may  burst 


RETENTION  OF  URINE. 

and  discharge  its  contents  into  the  peritoneal  cavity 
in  which  case  death  rapidly  ensues ;  or  the  urethra 
behind  the  stricture  gives  way,  and  the  urine  is  extrav- 
asated  into  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  adjacent  parts — a 
condition  which,  if  not  promptly  relieved  by  surgical 
interference,  is  likely  to  be  followed  by  gangrene, 
typhoid  symptoms,  and  death.  If  the  symptoms  are 
not  very  severe,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  old  per- 
manent stricture,  a  hot  bath,  combined  with  administra- 
tion of  the  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron,  in  doses  of  ten 
minims,  taken  every  ten  minutes  in  thin  gruel  or  in 
barley-water,  will  often  give  relief.  Sometimes  a  full 
opiate  administered  by  the  mouth,  or  preferably  as  an 
enema,  or  the  inhalation  of  a  few  whiffs  of  chloroform, 
will,  by  allaying  the  spasmodic  action,  give  immediate 
relief.  If  these  means  fail,  surgical  assistance  must  be 
at  once  procured,  and  the  bladder  evacuated  by  a 
catheter — an  operation  often  requiring  very  delicate  ma- 
nipulation. If  these  means  fail,  which  happens  only 
when  the  spasm  is  associated  with  old-standing  disease 
of  the  urethra,  the  surgeon  must  either  puncture  the 
bladder  through  the  rectum,  or  above  the  pubes,  or 
make  an  incision  into  the  urethra  either  at  or  behind 
the  seat  of  the  stricture. 

Paralysis  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  bladder  may 
arise  from  the  debility  of  old  age,  from  the  depressed 
state  of  the  nervous  system  in  fevers  of  the  typhoid 
type,  from  injury  or  disease  of  the  head  or  spine,  and 
from  various  other  causes.  In  temporary  form,  it  is 
often  a  result  of  overdistention  of  the  bladder  from 
stricture  or  prostatic  disease,  and  it  sometimes  occurs 
in  the  case  of  nervous  sedentary  persons,  if  they  have 
allowed  rather  more  than  the  usual  time  to  elapse  with- 
out evacuating  the  bladder.  It  should  be  generally 
known  that  R.  from  paralysis  is  sometimes  accompanied 
with  dribbling  away  of  the  water,  so  that  the  retention 
might  at  first  sight  be  mistaken  for  incontinence  of  urine. 
On  examination,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  the  blad- 
der is  abnormally  distended,  and  "Cannot  be  evacuated 
by  the  act  and  will  of  the  patient.  In  these  cases,  the 
urine  must  for  a  time  be  regularly  drawn  away  by  the 
catheter.  General  tonics,  such  as  the  cold  bath  (some- 
times preferably  the  sitz-bath)  and  chalybeates,  must 
be  given  to  improve  the  general  health ;  while  medi- 
cines supposed  to  act  locally  on  the  mucous  coat  of  the 
bladder,  or  on  the  spinal  cord,  must  be  simultaneously 
administered. — A  peculiar  form  of  retention  sometimes 
occurs  in  women  of  hysterical  temperament,  in  which 
the  will  rather  than  the  power  is  at  fault :  the  treat- 
ment should  be  directed  toward  the  general  hysterical 
tendency,  rather  than  to  this  special  manifestation  of  it. 


RETEPORA— RETICULE. 

RETEPORA,  n.  plu.  re'te-pd-ra  [L.  rete,  a  net;  porus, 

ft  pore]  :  genus  of  Bryozoa  which 
have  their  cell-pores  arranged  in  ' 
net-like   order.     Retepore,  n. 
re'te-por,  one  of  the  Retepora. 

RETFORD,  ret'ferd,  East  :  small 
municipal  borough  and  market- 
town,  county  of  Notts,  England, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Idle, 
affluent  of  the  Trent,138  m.  n.n.w. 
of  London  by  the  Great  Northern 
railway.  West  R.,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  and  connected  Retepora  cellulosa. 
with  East  R.  by  a  strong  bridge  of  five  arches,  is  a  more 
modern  and  much  smaller  town. — Tanning,  coach-mak- 
ing, and  paper-making  are  carried  on,  and  there  are 
several  iron-foundries.  Pop.  of  municipal  borough 
(1881)  9,748;  (1891)  10,603. 

RETHEL,  reh-tel':  town  of  France,  dept.  of  Ardennes, 
prettily  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aisne.  Woolen 
and  other  manufactures  are  carried  on.    Pop.  8,000. 

RETIARIUS,  n.  re-tl-afri-us  [L. — from  rete,  a  net] :  in 
Rom.  antiq.,  a  gladiator  who  wore  only  a  short  tunic  and 
carried  a  trident  and  net :  with  these,  he  endeavored 
to  entangle  and  dispatch  his  adversary,  who  was  armed 
with  a  helmet,  a  shield,  and  a  sword. 

RETIARY,  n.  re'sK%-er%  [L.  re&drms,  one  who  fights  by 
using  a  net,  a  kind  of  gladiator — from  %  ete,  a  net] :  one 
of  the  class  of  spiders  which  spin  webs  to  catch  their 
prey :  Adj.  net-like.  Retiari^,  n.  plu.  re'shi-U'ri-e,  the 
systematic  name  for  the  class. 

RETICENCE,  n.  ret'i-sens,  or  Ret'icency,  n.  -si  [F. 
reticence — from  L.  reticentia — from  reticens  or  reticen'tem, 
keeping  silence — from  re9  back  or  again;  taceo,  I  am 
silent :  It.  reticenza,  concealment] :  concealment  by  si- 
lence.   Reticent,  a.  -sent,  silent ;  reserved ;  taciturn. 

RETICULARIA,  n.  re-tik-u-la'ri-a  :  name  proposed  by 
Dr.  Carpenter,  1862,  and  now  generally  adopted  to  des- 
ignate those  Protozoa,  such  as  the  Foraminifera,  in 
which  the  pseudopodia  run  into  one  another  and  form  a 
network. 

RETICULE,  n.  ret%-kul  [F.  reticule,  a  reticule— from  L. 
reticulum,  a  small  net — from  rete,  a  net] :  a  lady's  work- 
bag  ;  a  small  bag  for  carrying  in  the  hand ;  in  a  telescope, 
a  network  of  fine  spiders'  threads,  or  of  wires  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles,  and  dividing  the  field  of  view 
into  a  series  of  small  equal  squares.  Reticular,  a.  rS 
tWu-ler,  having  the  form  of  a  small  net ;  having  inter- 
stices like  network.  Retic'ulate,  a.  -lat,  resembling 
network;  in  arch.,  formed  of  diamond-shaped  stones, 
or  square  stones  laid  diagonally  ;  in  zool.  or  hot.,  having 
distinct  veins  or  lines  crossing  like  network :  V.  to  form 
into  a  structure  of  veins  or  lines  crossing  each  other  as  in 
network.  Retic'ulating,  imp.  running  into  meshes.  Rfl- 


RETIFORM— RETINERVIS. 
TXc'ulated,  a.  -la-ted.  Retic'uea'tion,  n.  -la-shun,  any 
organization  resembling  network ;  that  which  is  retic- 
ulated. Retic'ulum,  n.  -lum,  the  second  or  honey- 
combed cavity  in  the  compound  stomach  of  ruminant 
animals;  in  anat,  an  extremely  delicate  network  of 
tissue  supporting  the  proper  nervous  substance  in  the 
brain  and  the  spinal  cord;  in  hot.,  the  debris  of  crossed 
fibres  about  the  base  of  the  petioles  in  palms. 


Reticulated  Work  (Roman).  Reticulated  Moldings. 

RETIFORM,  a.  ret'i-fawrm  [L.  rete,  a  net;  forma, 
shape]  :  having  the  structure  or  form  of  a  net. 

RETIMO,  ra-te'mb :  seaport  town  of  the  island  of  Crete, 
on  its  n.  coast,  35  m.  w.  from  Candia.  The  neighbor- 
hood  is  productive  of  oil  and  wine.  Pop.  about  6,000,  of 
whom  two-thirds  are  Turks,  and  the  rest  Greeks. 

RETINA,  n.  ret'i-na  [L.  rete,  a  net]  :  one  of  the  coats 
of  the  eye,  containing  the  sensory  nerve-endings  which 
receive  the  impressions  resulting  in  the  sense  of  vision 
(see  Eye).  Retinal,  a.  ret'\-/ial,  of  or  pert,  to  tha 
retina0  Ret'ini'tis,  n.  -nl'tis  [His,  denoting  inflamma- 
tion] :  inflammation  of  the  retina,  Retinoscopy, 
retin-os'ko-pi  [Eng.  retina  ;  Gr.  shoped,  I  see]  :  examine 
tion  of  the  retina  of  the  eye.. 

RETINACULUM,  n.  ret%-nak'u-lum  [L.  retinaculum,  a 
holdfast,  a  band — from  retinere,  to  keep  back — from  re, 
back;tened,  I  hold]:  in  hot.,  the  viscid  disk  by  which 
the  pollen-masses  in  orchids  adhere  to  insect-visitors. 

RETIN ASPHALT,  n.  ret'ln-as-falt'  [Gr.  rhetine,  resin; 
asphaltos,  bitumen]  :  a  mineral  resin  found  in  the  coal 
strata ;  retinite. 

RETINERVIS,  a.  ret'i-ner'vis  [L.  rete,  a  net;  nervu89  a 
nerve] :  in  bot.,  having  reticulated  veins. 


BETINITE — RETIRED  LIST. 

REUNITE,  n.  rU'i-nlt  [Gr,  rhetine,  resin  or  rosin] : 
one  of  the  mineral  resins,  occurring  in  brown-coal  and 
peat  formations  in  roundish  irregular  lumps,  of  a  yel- 
lowish-brown color,  and  slightly  transparent  ;  also 
called  resinite  or  retinasphalt.  Retinoid,  a.  -noyd  [Gr. 
eidos,  form]  :  resin-like. 

RETINUE,  n.  retfi-nu  [OF.  retenue,  a  retinue :  F.  retenir, 
to  hold  land  of  a  superior :  L,  retined,  I  retain— from  re, 
back ;  tened,  I  hold] :  the  suite  or  attendants  of  a  person 
of  distinction,  chiefly  on  a  journey ;  a  train  of  persons. 

RETIRADE,  n.  ret'i-rad  [F. — from  retirer,  to  with- 
draw] :  in  fort.,  a  kind  of  retrenchment  in  the  body  of  a 
bastion  or  other  work  to  which  a  garrison  may  retreat 
to  prolong  a  defense.  It  usually  consists  of  two  faces,, 
which  make  a  re-entering  angle. 

RETIRE,  v.  re-iir'[F.  retirer,  to  drawback:  It.  tirare, 
to  draw,  to  pull :  Goth,  tairan,  to  tear,  in  the  sense  of 
any  violent  action] :  to  depart ;  to  withdraw ;  to  with- 
draw from  business  or  active  life ;  to  fall  back,  as  the 
tide  from  the  shore ;  in  mil.,  to  fall  back  a  short  distance, 
as  a  body  of  troops  in  the  field ;  to  take  up  and  pay  when 
due,  as  a  bill  of  exchange :  N.  in  mil.,  a  bugle-sound  in- 
timating to  skirmishers  that  they  are  to  fall  back ;  in 
OE. ,  a  retreat;  place  of  privacy.  Retiring,  imp.: 
Adj.  modest  ;  reserved.  Retired',  pp.  -tlrd' :  Adj. 
secluded  from  ublk  notice ;  private ;  secret ;  withdrawn. 
Retired'ly,  ad.  -tlrd'Vi.  Retired'ness,  n.  -nes,  a  state 
of  retirement;  solitude.  Retirement,  n.  re-tir'ment, 
state  of  being  withdrawn;  act  of  withdrawing  from 
active  life  or  from  public  notice ;  private  way  of  life ; 
secluded  residence ;  seclusion ;  departure.  Retired 
list,  a  list  of  officers  retired  from  the  public  service 
(see  below).  Retiring  pension  or  allowance,  a  pen- 
sion or  annuity  granted  to  a  person  on  his  withdrawal 
from  office  or  service. — Syn.  of  *  retire':  to  withdraw; 
depart;  retreat;  recede;  secede;  leave;  retrocede; — of 
'retirement':  departure;  retreat;  seclusion;  privacy; 
solitude ;  withdrawment ;  loneliness. 

RETIRED  LIST,  Army  and  Navy:  list  of  officer* 
who  have  been  retired  from  active  service  for  causes 
prescribed  by  the  govt.  In  the  United  States,  retire- 
ment is  compulsory,  or  voluntary,  or  special.  In  both 
army  and  navy,  officers  who  have  served  45  years  con- 
tinuously or  have  reached  the  age  of  62  years  are 
retired  compulsorily  by  act  of  congress.  In  the  army, 
an  officer  who  has  served  40  years,  or  30  years  continu- 
ously, or  has  lost  a  limb  in  the  line  of  duty,  or  is  in- 
capacitated  by  wounds,  sickness,  or  other  cause  arising 
from  milit.  service,  may  be  retired  on  his  own  applica- 
tion. Special  retirements  are  ordered  by  congress — viz., 
an  officer  of  distinction  who  has  resigned  his  commis- 
sion may  be  restored  to  the  active  list  and  immediately 
retired,  as  an  act  of  national  gratitude  for  services  ren- 
dered, or  for  the  purpose  of  affording  the  officer  an  in- 
come for  life.    In  the  navy,  officers  are  retired  for  in< 


RETOLD— RETORT, 
capacity  resulting  from  long  and  faithful  service,  from 
wounds  or  injuries  received  in  the  line  of  duty,  from 
sickness  or  exposure  therein,  or  from  other  incident  of 
service,  on  their  application.  All  officers,  in  both  arms 
of  the  service,  receive  retired  pay,  at  the  rate  of  75  per 
cent,  of  the  pay  received  at  the  time  of  retirement.  In 
addition  to  this  pay,  retired  army  officers  below  the  rank 
of  brig.gen.  (like  those  on  the  active  list)  receive  an  in- 
crease of  10  per  cent,  after  5  years'  service,  20  per  cent, 
after  10  years,  30  per  cent,  after  15  years,  and  40  per 
cent,  after  20  years ;  and  certain  naval  officers  retired 
on  present  rank  receive  the  percentage  of  pay  of  the 
next  highest  rank.  In  establishing  the  grades  of  gen. 
and  lieut.gen.  in  the  army  and  of  admiral  and  vice- 
admiral  in  the  navy,  congress  provided  that  on  retire- 
ment the  incumbents  should  receive  the  full  pay  of  the 
grades ;  and  as  a  special  compliment  to  JohnL.  Worden, 
commander  of  the  Monitor  in  her  fight  with  the  Merrimac, 
congress  authorized  his  retirement  on  the  full  sea-pay 
of  a  rear-admiral.  Retired  officers  of  the  army  and 
navy  are  not  again  employed  on  active  service  in  their 
respective  branches,  excepting  in  time  of  war,  or  under 
other  special  circumstances;  but  they  are  at  liberty  to 
hold  civil  offices  under  federal,  state,  and  municipal 
govts.,  and  draw  both  civil  and  retired  pay.  In  1890 
there  were  501  commissioned  officers  on  the  retired  list 
of  the  army,  and  395  (including  19  of  the  U.  S.  marine 
corps)  on  the  list  of  the  navy. — See  Pensions  and 
Pensioners  :  Discharge  :  Superannuation. 

RETOLD :  pp.  of  Retell,  which  see. 

RETORT,  v.  re-tort'  [L.  retortus,  twisted  or  bent  back 
— from  re,  back  or  again  ;  torqueo,  I  twist]  :  to  return  or 
throw  back,  as  in  reply  to  an  argument,  an  accusation, 
or  an  incivility;  to  make  a  severe  reply:  in  OE.,  to 
throw  back ;  to  rebound  :  N.  the  return  of  an  argument, 
censure,  or  incivility :  severe  reply ;  repartee :  round- 
ohaped  chemical  vessel  having  a  long  bent  neck;  an 
iron  or  fire-clay  cylinder  in  a  gaswork  for  charging  with 
coal  to  be  converted  into  gas;  a  distilling  apparatus 
(see  below).  Retort'ing,  imp. :  N.  act  of  throwing  back 
in  the  way  of  censure  or  incivility.  Retort'ed,  pp. 
Retort'ive,  a.  -iv,  containing  retort. 

RETORT':  vessel  used  by  chemists  for  distilling  or 
effecting  decomposition  by  the  aid  of  heat :  it  may  be 
of  glass,  earthenware,  or  metal,  according  to  its  purpose. 
Glass  retorts  are  most  common,  and  their  ordinary  form 
is  seen  in  the  figure.  They  may  be  employed  for  such 
products  as  require  no  extraordinary  degree  of  cold  for 
condensation  of  their  vapor — e.g., for  production  of  hydro- 
cyanic or  nitric  acid.  The  globular  vessel  in  which  the 
neck  of  the  R.  is  inserted  is  from  its  function  termed 
the  receiver.  Cold  may  be  applied  to  the  neck  of  the  R. 
— for  condensing  the  vapor — in  various  ways,  as  by  a 
cold  wet  cloth,  by  a  current  of  water,  or  by  a  special  ap- 
paratus known  as  Liebig's  Condenser.    In  the  accom- 


retouch — retrace. 

panying  figure  a  Liebig  Condenser  is  fitted  on  to  the 

f  k  *r  ^nSihe  bulb  of  the  into  which  the  matter 
to  be  distilled  is  inserted.  It  can  be  opened  or  closed 
at  trie  top  by  a  ground-glass  stopper.    Prom  the  bulb 


Liebig's  Condenser. 

the  neck  proceeds,  and  its  termination  is  seen  in  the 
receiver,  D.  The  condenser,  BB,  embraces  the  greater 
part  of  the  neck  of  the  R. :  it  consists  of  a  glass  tube, 
tapering  from  end  to  end,  fixed  in  the  centre  of  a  metal 
pipe,  provided  with  tubes,  so  arranged  that  a  current 
of  cold  water  may  circulate  through  the  apparatus.  By 
putting  a  few  pieces  of  ice  into  the  little  cistern,  E,  the 
temperature  of  this  water  may  be  kept  at  32°,  and  ex- 
tremely volatile  liquids  condensed. 

The  retort  may  be  heated  in  various  ways — as  by  a 
lamp  beneath,  or  by  placing  its  body  in  a  sand-bath,  or 
even  in  the  fire ;  in  the  last  case,  the  R.  is  usually  pro- 
tected by  a  coating  of  lute. 

In  ordinary  cases  requiring  higher  temperature  than 
glass  can  bear,  earthen  retorts  are  used ;  for  prepara- 
tion of  hydrofluoric  acid,  retorts  of  lead  are  employed  ; 
for  preparation  of  strong,  sulphuric  acid,  platinum 
is  the  best  material  for  the  R.  Iron  retorts  are  used  in 
the  laboratory  for  preparation  of  oxygen  from  black 
oxide  of  manganese,  and  some  other  processes ;  and  in 
gas-works,  for  destructive  distillation  of  coal. 

RETOUCH,  v.  re-tuch'  [re,  again,  and  touch :  F.  re- 
toucherto  retouch] :  to  improve,  as  a  painting,  by  new 
touches ;  to  go  over  a  work  of  art  a  second  time  in  order 
to  restore  a  faded  part,  or  to  add  portions  for  its  general 
mprovement :  N.  in  paint,  and  sculp.,  the  finishing  off, 
oy  some  slight  applications  of  the  master's  hands,  of  a 
completed  work. 

RETRACE,  v.  re-trds'  [re,  back  or  again,  and  trace :  F. 
retracer,  to  retrace]  :  to  go  back  by  the  same  path  or 
course;  to  renew  the  defaced  outline  of  a  drawing. 
Retra'cing,  imp.    Retraced,  pp.  re-trastf. 


BETBACT— RETREAT. 
BETRACT,  v.  re-trakf  [F.  retracter,  to  retract — from  L. 
retractus,  withdrawn — from  re,  back ;  tractus,  drawn ; 
traho,  I  draw :  Sp.  retractar]  :  to  recall,  as  something 
said  or  declared ;  to  take  back ;  to  withdraw ;  to  unsay ; 
to  recant.  Retract'ing,  imp.  Retracted,  pp. :  Adj. 
in  hot.,  bent  backward.  Retractable  or  -ibde,  a.  re- 
trakt'a-bl  or  4-62,  that  may  be  withdrawn  or  recalled; 
retractile.  Retraction,  n.  -shun  [F. — L.],  or  Re- 
tractation, n.  re'trak-td'shun,  act  of  withdrawing  some- 
thing advan«ed ;  a  withdrawal ;  a  declaration  of  change 
of  opinion ;  recantation.  Retractile,  a.  re-trakt%l,  that 
may  be  drawn  back.  Retract'ive,  a.  ~iv,  withdrawing ; 
taking  from :  N.  that  which  withdraws  or  takes  from. 
Retract'ively,  ad.  -U. — Sin.  of  *  retract':  to  abjure; 
disown;  recant;  disavow;  recall;  withdraw;  revoke; 
unsay. 

RETRANSFORM,  v.  reftrans-faurm'  [re,  back  or  again, 
and  transform] :  to  transform  anew ;  to  change  back 
anew. 

RETRANSLATE,  v.  re'trans-latf  [re,  again,  and  trans- 
late] :  to  translate  anew. 

RETRAXIT,  n.  re-trakslt  [L.  retraxit,  he  has  with- 
drawn ;  retrahere,  to  withdraw  (see  Retract)]  :  in  law, 
the  withdrawing  or  open  renunciation  of  a  suit  in 
court  by  the  plaintiff. 

RETREAD,  v.  re-tredf  [re,  and  tread] :  to  tread  again. 

RETREAT,  v.  re-tret'  [F.  retraite,  retreat — from  L.  re- 
tractus, withdrawn — from  re,  back  or  again ;  trahere,  to 
draw] :  to  withdraw  for  safety  or  seclusion ;  to  retire 
from  any  position  or  place;  in  mil.,  to  retire  before  an 
enemy  (see  below) :  N.  act  of  retiring ;  retirement ; 
seclusion ;  place  of  safety  or  privacy ;  the  retiring  of  an 
army  before  an  enemy,  or  from  an  advanced  position ;  a 
military  or  naval  signal  either  by  drum  or  trumpet. 
Eetreat'ing,  imp. :  Adj.  moving  in  retreat ;  going 
back.  Retreat'ed,  pp. — Syn.  of  « retreat,  n.' :  retire- 
ment; withdrawment ;  departure;  solitude;  seclusion; 
shelter ;  refuge ;  asylum. 

RETREAT7,  in  Military  Language :  retrograde  move- 
ment of  a  force,  with  intention  of  avoiding  encounter 
with  a  hostile  body.  The  greatest  exertion  of  talent  is 
requisite  in  a  general  to  conduct  a  good  R.,  more  de- 
pending on  arrangement  and  coolness  than  even  in  the 
preliminaries  of  a  battle.  When  the  enemy  pursue,  if 
the  R.  is  not  to  degenerate  into  a  rout,  the  retreating 
army  must  be  covered  by  a  powerful  rear-guard,  which 
from  time  to  time  must  hold  the  pursuers  at  bay,  while 
the  artillery-train  and  baggage  pass  defiles,  cross 
streams,  and  overcome  other  special  obstacles.  A  strong 
R.  is  made  when  the  rear  is  formed  by  a  line  of  solid 
battalions,  of  which  alternate  masses  retreat,  while 
those  intervening  face  about  and  oppose  the  enemy,  and 
afterward  retreat  between  and  to  the  rear  of  those 
which  retreated  first. 


RETRENCH— RETRIEVER. 
RETRENCH,  v.  re-trensh'  [re,  back  or  again,  and 
trench :  F.  retrancher,  to  cut  off]  :  to  pare  away  ;  to  render 
less  or  smaller;  to  abridge;  curtail;  to  diminish  ex- 
penses. Retrenching,  imp.  Retrenched',  pp.  -trenshtf. 
Retrenchment,  n.  -mint,  the  act  of  lopping  off  or  re- 
moving what  is  superfluous ;  a  lessening ;  diminution  of 
expenses. 

RETRENCH 'MENT,  in  Fortification :  defensive  work, 
comprising  at  least  ditch  and  parapet  within  some  other 
work  of  a  fortress,  and  intended  as  a  place  of  retreat 
for  the  defenders,  whence  they  may  prolong  the  defense, 
or  capitulate  after  the  faces  of  the  work  itself  have 
fallen  into  the  enemy's  hands.  The  R.  resembles  the 
reduit,  except  that  it  is  almost  always  of  earth.  Re- 
trenchments are  made  in  ravelins,  and  the  re-entering 
places  d'armes  at  the  time  of  constructing  those  works. 
A  R.  is  thrown  across  the  gorge  of  a  redan  or  bastion,  or 
from  shoulder  to  shoulder,  when  it  is  apprehended  that 
the  salient  angle  will  fall  into  the  possession  of  the  be- 
siegers; these  retrenchments  are  usually  made  when 
wanted. 

RETRIBUTION,  n.  refri-bvfshun  [F.  retribution;  Sp. 
retribudon;  L.  retributwnem,  retribution — from  retributus, 
given  back,  restored — from  re,  back ;  tribuere,  to  give  or 
assign]  :  requital ;  retaliation  ;  reward  or  punishment 
suitable  to  the  action ;  the  rewards  or  punishment  of 
the  final  judgment.  Retributer,  n.  re-trWu-ter,  one 
who  makes  retribution.  Retributive,  a.  -tlv,  reward- 
ing or  punishing  according  to  action;  repaying;  also 
Retrib'utory,  a.  -ter-i.  Retrib'utively,  ad.  41. — Syn. 
of  '  retribution ' :  requital ;  retaliation ;  recompense ; 
repayment. 

RETRIEVE,  v.  re-treif  [F.  retrouver,  to  find  again — 
from  L.  re,  again ;  F.  trouver,  to  find :  It.  trovare,  to 
find] :  to  recover ;  to  regain ;  to  bring  back  from  loss  or 
injury  to  a  former  good  state.  Retrieving,  imp. 
Retrieved,  pp.  re-trevd'.  Retriev'er,  n.  -er,  one  who 
retrieves;  a  kind  of  sporting-dog  (see  below).  Re- 
triev'able,  a.  -a-bl,  that  may  be  recovered  or  regained. 
Retriev'ably,  ad.  -bli.  Retriev'ableness,  n.  -bl-nes, 
the  state  of  being  retrievable.  Retrieval,  n.  -al,  or 
Retrieve'ment,  n.  -ment,  act  of  retrieving. — Syn.  of 
1  retrieve  ' :  to  recover;  recruit ;  repair;  restore ;  regain. 

RETRIEVER :  dog  trained  specially  to  go  in  quest 
of  game  which  a  sportsman  has  shot,  and  particularly 
useful  in  fatiguing  ground  or  in  marshy  places.  The  R. 
is  generally  cross-bred ;  the  two  recognized  crosses 
being  that  between  the  Newfoundland  and  setter, 
which  has  the  coat  smooth* and  wavy,  and  that  between 
the  Newfoundland  and  water-spaniel,  which  has  the 
coat  curly.  The  favorite  color  is  black.  Spaniels, 
crosses  of  the  terrier  and  spaniel,  and  terriers  also  are 
used  as  retrievers ;  and  even  fox-hounds,  blood-hounds, 
and  setters.  The  training  requires  much  assiduity  and 
patience,  the  dog  being  at  first  apt  to  be  drawn  from 


RETRIM— RETROCESS. 
the  proper  quest  by  any  water-rat  or  other  creature 
that  presents  itself,  also  to  bite  the  game  too  hard, 
injuring  it.  A  thoroughly  trained  R.  therefore  com- 
mands a  high  price,  being  of  great  use  to  the  sports- 
man. A  high  degree  of  intelligence  is  requisite  in  a  R. ; 
it  is  very  often  the  attached  companion  of  its  master, 
and  an  inmate  of  the  house  rather  than  of  the  kennel, 


Retriever. 


RETRIM,  v.  r2-trim'  [re,  again  and  trim] :  to  trim 
again. 

RETRO-,  rVtrd  or  rltfrb  [L.] :  a  prefix  signifying  <  back- 
ward;  back.' 

RETRO  ACT,  v.  reftro-akt'  [L.  retro,  back ;  actus,  dpne 
or  acted — from  agere,  to  do] :  to  act  backward ;  to  act 
on  something  past  or  preceding.  Re'troac'tion,  n. 
-ak'shun  [F. — L.] :  action  on  something  past  or  preceding. 
Re'troac'tive,  a.  -ak'tiv  [F.  retroactif,  acting  on  the 
past]  :  affecting  what  is  past ;  retrospective. 

RETROCEDE,  v.  re'tro-sed'  [F.  retroceder,  in  law,  to 
make  over  again — from  L.  retro,  back;  cedere,  to  go  or 
move :  It.  retrocedere,  to  retrocede] :  to  go  back ;  to  cede 
or  grant  back.  Re'troce'ding,  imp.  Re'troce'ded, 
pp.  Re'troce'dent,  a.  -se'dent,  in  med.,  applied  to  dis- 
eases which  move  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  another, 
as  gout. 

RETROCESS,  v.  re'trd-ses'  [L.  retro,  back ;  cessus,  gone 
or  moved ;  cedere,  to  move :  F.  retroceder,  in  law,  to 
make  over  again]  :  in  Scots  law,  to  reinvest  a  man  in 
an  estate  again  by  a  reconveyance.  Retroces'sing, 
Reprocessed',  pp.  -sest' .  Retrocession,  n.  re'tro-sesh'un 
[F.  retrocession,  reconveyance]  :  a  moving  backward ; 
in  Scots  law,  the  act  of  reconveying  an  estate  to  a  for- 
mer owner. 


RETRODUCTION— RETROGRADE. 

RETRODUCTION,  n.  re'tro-duk'shun  [L.  retro,  back; 
ductus,  led  ;  ducere,  to  lead]  :  a  leading  or  bringing  back. 

RETROFLEX,  a.  reftro-fleks  [L.  retro,  backward; 
flcxus,  bent;  Jtecto,  I  bend]:  bent  backward;  in  bot., 
bent  this  way  and  that. 

RETROFRACT,  a.  re'trd-frakf,  or  Re'trofract'ed, 
a.  [L.  retro,  oackward ;  fractus,  broken ;  frangere,  to 
break]  :  in  bot.,  bent  backward,  and  appearing  as  if 
broken. 

RETROGRADE,  a.  re'tro-grad  or  ret'ro-grad  [F.  retro- 
qrade — from  L.  retrogrddi,  to  retrograde — from  retro, 
backward ;  grddus,  a  step :  It.  retrogrado]  :  going  or 
moving  backward;  apparently  moving  from  e.  to  w.,  as 
a  planet ;  declining  from  a  better  to  a  worse  state ;  in 
bot.,  applied  to  hairs  when  they  are  bent  back  or  down; 
in  OE.,  contrary;  opposite:  V.  to  go  or  move  backward. 
Re'trogra'ding,  imp.  Retrograded,  pp.  Re'tro- 
grada'tion,  n.  -dd'shun  [F. — L.]  :  the  act  of  going  or 
moving  backward. — Retrograde  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
motion  of  the  planets  and  comets  among  the  fixed  stars, 
when  they  appear  to  move  in  the  reverse  order  of  the 
signs  of  the  Zodiac  (q.v.).  All  the  planets  move  in  the 
same  direction  round  the  sun  ;  therefore  their  R.  motions 
must  be  due  to  their  motion  relative  to  the  earth.  In 
comets,  however,  we  have  instances  of  motion  about 
the  sun  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  planets; 
and  in  such  orbits  the  motion  (referred  now  to  the  sun, 
not  to  the  earth)  is  said  to  be  retrograde. 

In  the  case  of  the  planets,  which  is  thus  the  only  one 
that  we  need  consider,  let  S  be  the  sun,  and  let  the  two 
circles  represent  the  orbits  of  two  planets.  First,  let 
the  planets  be,  as  at  P  and  Q,  toward  the  same  side  of 


the  sun.  The  inferior  planet  has  of  course  the  greater 
velocity ;  therefore,  if  p  and  q  represent  their  positions 
after  the  lapse  of  a  given  time  (second,  hour,  day,  etc.), 
Vp  is  greater  than  Qq,  and  therefore  the  direction  of  the 
line  pq  (in  which  one  is  seen  from  the  other)  has  rotated 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  in  which  either  planet 
revolves  about  the  sun.    Hence,  when  a  superior  planet 


RETROGRESSION  -  RETTERY, 
is  in  opposition  (i.e..  if  Q  be  Jupiter,  and  P  the  earth), 
it  appears  Xo  move  backward  among  the  stars.  When 
an  inferior  planet  is  between  the  earth  and  sun  (i.et,  if 
Q,  be  the  earth,  smd  P  Venus),  it  appears  to  move  back- 
ward also.  If  the  planets  be  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
sun,  as  at  P  and  R  in  the  figure,  let  p  and  r  be  their 
positions  after  a  given  time ;  then  pr  lias  turned  from 
the  direction  PR  in  the  direction  in  which  the  planets 
revolve  about  the  sun.  Hence  any  planet,  superior  or 
inferior,  appears  to  move  directly  when  the  sun  is  be- 
tween it  and  the  earth.  Between  these  two  opposite 
cases,  there  must,  of  course,  be  points  at  which  the  ap- 
parent motion  is  neither  retrograde  nor  direct— then 
the  planet  is  said  to  be  stationary.  This  case  occurs 
whenever,  for  an  instant,  the  lines  PQandp^  are  parallel ; 
that  is,  when  the  two  planets  are  moving  with  equal 
velocities  transverse  to  the  line  joining  them,  these 
velocities  bein£  parallel,  and  toward  the  same  side  of 
the  joining  line. 

RETROGRESSION,  n.  rPtrd-gresh'un  [L.  retrcgressus, 
gone  back  or  backward — from  retro,  backward ;  gressus, 
a  stepping  (s'tie  Retrograde)]  :  the  act  of  going  back* 
ward.  Rf/trogres'sive,  a.  -gres'sn\  moving  backward : 
declining  from  a  better  to  a  worse  state.  ReTrogres'- 
sively,  ad0  41. 

RETROMINGENT,  a.  reftrd-min'fent  [L.  retro,  back- 
ward ;  mingens  or  mingm'tem,  discharging  urine] :  dis- 
charging the  urine  backward :  N.  an  animal  that  dis- 
charges its  urine  backward.  ReTromin'gently,  ad.  -U. 
ReTromin'gency,  n.  -jen-si,  the  act  or  quality  of  being 
retromingent. 

RETROPULSIVE,  a.  re'trd-pul'siv  [L.  retro,  backward; 
pulsus,  driven — from  pellere,  to  drive]  :  driving  back ; 
repelling. 

RETRORSE,  a.  re-trors'  [L.  retrcrsum,  backward— 
from  retro,  backward ;  versus,  turned— from  vertere,  to 
turn] :  turned  backward.    Retrorse'ly,  ad.  -Ra 

RETROSPECT,  n.  re'trb-spekt  [L.  retrospec'tus,  looked 
backward  at — from  retro,  backward ;  spectus,  looked  at ; 
specio,  I  look] :  a  looking  back  on  things  past ;  review 
or  contemplation  of  the  past.  ReTrospecTion,  n. 
-spek'shun,  the  act  or  faculty  of  looking  back  on  things 
past.  Retrospective,  a.  -spek'tlv,  having  reference  to 
what  is  past.  Retrospectively,  ad.  -II. — Syn.  of  *  re- 
trospect ' :  survey ;  re-examination ;  review. 

RETRO  VERT,  v.  re'trd-verf  [L.  retro,  backward? 
vertere,  to  turn] :  to  turn  back.  ReTrovertTng,  imp. 
ReTrovert'ed,  pp. :  Adj.  turned  back.  Retrover- 
sion, n.  -shun  [L.  versus,  turned]  :  a  turning  or  falling 
backward. 

RETTERY,  RETTING:  see  under  Ret.  • 
Vol.  32  —  4 


RETURN— RETZ. 

RETURN,  v.  r8-tern'  [re,  again,  and  turn :  F.  retourner, 
to  return :  It.  ritornare,  to  return  or  go  back] :  to  come 
or  go  back  to  the  same  place ;  after  a  periodical  revolu- 
tion, to  commence  again ;  to  go  back  to  the  same  state ; 
to  revert ;  to  retort ;  to  come  again ;  to  bring  or  send 
back ;  to  give  back ;  to  reply  or  make  answer ;  to  render 
an  official  account ;  to  restore ;  to  render :  N.  the  act  of 
coming,  going,  or  sending  back  to  the  same  place ;  act 
of  putting  in  the  same  place ;  the  act  of  coming  back  to 
a  former  state  or  condition ;  repayment ;  profit ;  requital ; 
an  official  report.  Returning,  imp.  Returned,  pp. 
rl-ternd.  Return'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  returns.  Re- 
turnable, a.  -a-bl,  that  may  be  restored ;  legally  to  be 
returned,  given,  or  rendered.  Returns,  n.  plu.  re~ternzf, 
statistics  in  a  tabulated  form  issued  by  government  for 
general  information;  profits  or  receipts  in  business; 
the  figures  or  state  of  the  poll  at  an  election.  Return 
chaise,  a  carriage  going  back  empty  from  a  post-station. 
Return  days,  in  a  court  of  law,  certain  days  on  which 
writs  are  returnable,  and  on  which  defendants  must  ap- 
pear in  court.  Return  ticket,  a  ticket  for  a  railway 
or  other  journey  and  back.  Returning  officer,  the 
presiding  officer  at  an  election  who  returns  the  persons 
duly  elected. — Syn.  of  *  return,  v. ' :  to  go  back ;  come 
back;  come  again;  revisit;  repay;  transmit;  restore; 
requite ;  recompense ;  remit ;  render ; — of  4  return,  n.  ' : 
retrogression  ;  revolution ;  repayment ;  profit ;  advan- 
tage ;  remittance ;  retribution ;  requital ;  restitution ; 
relapse;  report;  account. 

RETUSE,  a.  re-fas'  [L.  retusus,  blunted — from  re,  back; 
tundere,  to  beat] :  in  hot.,  having  the  extremity  broad, 
blunt,  and  slightly  depressed ;  appearing  as  if  bitten  off 
at  the  end. 

RETZ,  rets,  Jean  Francois  Paul  de  Gondi,  Cardinal 
de:  1614-1679,  Aug.  24;  b.  Montmirail,  France.  He 
was  taught  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  who  endeavored  to 
fit  him  for  the  priesthood,  though  he  seemed  to  have 
neither  the  inclination  nor  the  moral  qualification  for 
such  a  career.  He  was  offered  a  bishopric  by  Louis 
XIII. ;  but  did  not  secure  the  object  of  his  ambition, 
that  of  coadjutor  to  his  uncle  Henri  de  Gondi,  abp.  of 
Paris,  with  the  prospect  of  succession,  till  the  death  of 
the  king.  By  his  eloquence  and  apparent  sympathy 
with  the  people,  he  became  ver}7  popular.  He  was, 
practically,  the  leader  of  the  revolt  against  Mazarin,  and 
for  several  years  was  prominent  in  political  affairs, 
being  noted  for  both  cunning  and  boldness.  Through 
misapprehension  on  the  part  of  the  pope,  he  was  made  a 
cardinal  1651,  the  following  year  was  imprisoned,  es- 
caped two  years  later,  lived  a  while  in  Spain  and  later  in 
Italy,  was  allowed  to  return  to  France  1661,  but  was  re- 
quired to  resign  the  archbishopric,  though  he  was  given 
in  exchange  a  rich  abbacy  and  other  inducements.  He 
then  retired  from  political  life  and  gave  many  years  to 
the  work  of  paying  his  enormous  debts.    His  Memoirs 


BETZSCfit— RE  u  CH  LIN. 
which  he  left  in  MS.,  have  appeared  in  various  editions, 
and  the  first  two  vols,  of  his  collected  works  were 
published  1872.    He  died  at  Paris. 

EETZSCH,  retsh,  Fkiedbich  August  Mokitz  :  German 
painter  and  engraver:  1779,  Dec.  0 — 1857,  July  11;  b. 
Dresden.  He  studied  at  the  acad.  of  his  native  city, 
where  he  became  a  prof.  1824.  He  acquired  celebrity  by 
his  illustrations  in  outline  of  the  great  German  poets, 
Schiller,  Goethe,  etc. — those  of  Goethe's  Faust  par- 
ticularly being  well  known,  not  only  in  his  own  country, 
but  also  in  France  and  England.  His  illustrations  of 
Fouque's  charming  romances,  Undine  and  Sintram,  are 
singularly  beautiful.  R.  executed  several  fine  works  on 
subjects  from  classical  mythology,  e.g.,  The  Child 
Bacchus  Asleep  a  Panther,  Diana,  Love  and  Psyche 
Embracing  in  the  Clouds,  A  Satyr  and  Nymph,  The  Four 
Epochs  of  Human  1  i%  etc.  Among  his  other  works  of 
conspicuous  merit  are—  The  Struggle  of  Light  and  Dark- 
ness, The  Chess- Players,  and  Fantasies.  R.  ranks  as  one 
of  the  most  original,  thoughtful,  and  vigorous  artists 
of  modern  Germany.  His  works  evince  a  strong,  inven- 
tive, and  cultured  imagination,  whose  efforts  at  expres- 
sion never  degenerated  into  sentimentalism.  As  minia- 
ture oil-painter,  also,  he  was  very  successful. 

REUCHLIN,  roych'Vin,  Johann  ;  known  also  by  his 
Grecized  name  Capnio  :  one  of  the  first  and  most  active 
promoters  of  Hebrew  studies  in  Germany,  whose  labors 
and  struggles  aided  greatly  in  bringing  the  Reforma- 
tion :  1455,  Dec.  28—1522,  June  30;  b.  Pforzheim,  in 
Baden.  He  received  his  earliest  education  at  Schlett- 
stadt ;  and  1473,  as  travelling  companion  to  Prince  Fried- 
rich  of  Baden,  visited  Paris,  and  studied  Greek  under 
Hermonymus  of  Sparta,  besides  assiduously  practicing 
Latin  composition.  Two  years  later,  at  Basel,  he  con- 
tinued Greek  study,  and  wrote  his  Latin  dictionary, 
Vocabularius  Latinus  Breviloquus  Dictus  (Basel  1478).  He 
studied  law  at  Orleans,  France  (1479),  and  fought  at 
Poitiers  (1480) ;  then  returned  to  Germany,  married,  and 
became  at  Tubingen  teacher  of  jurisprudence  and  litera- 
ture. In  1492  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  count  of 
the  German  empire,  and  about  the  same  time  began  the 
study  of  Hebrew  under  a  learned  Jew.  In  1496,  at 
Heidelberg,  he  wrote  a  satirical  comedy,  Sergius,  sine 
Capitis  Caput,  against  the  unworthy  Augustinian  monk 
Hoizinger.  who  had  been  made  chancellor  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  In  1498  he  was  sent  to  Rome  by  Philip  the 
Elector-palatine,  and  there  made  wonderful  proficiency 
in  Hebrew  and  Greek.  R.  returned  to  Wtirtemberg 
1499.  In  1506  appeared  his  Rudimenta  Lmguaz  Hebraicce, 
a  work  of  which  he  was  justly  proud,  as  made  4  without 
any  foreign  help/  and  as  '  the  first  attempt  to  execute  a 
grammar  of  the  Hebrew  tongue  '  (see  his  preface).  His 
Hebraic  studies,  which  embraced  the  post-bibiical 
Jewish  literature,  were—in  their  consequences — the 
most  important  of  his  life,  drawing  him  into  bitter  strife 


REUNION. 

with  learned  Jews,  Jewish  proselytes,  and  the  Domin- 
icans, and  directly  and  powerfully  helping  on  the  Refor- 
mation. In  1510  the  struggle  between  Light  and  Dark- 
ness, as  the  Germans  regard  it,  broke  out.  In  that 
year,  Johann  Pfefferkorn,  a  Jewish  proselyte,  in  the  true 
spirit  of  a  renegade,  called  on  princes  and  subjects 
to  persecute  the  religion  of  his  fathers,  and  especially 
urged  the  emperor  to  burn  or  confiscate  all  Jewish  books 
except  the  Bible.  R.  remonstrated,  maintaining  that  no 
Jewish  books  should  be  destroyed  except  those  directly 
attacking  Christianity.  This  tolerant  attitude  drew  the 
enmity  of  the  Dominicans,  particularly  the  inquisitor 
Jakob  van  Hoogstraten.  These  enemies  of  R.  held  pos* 
session  of  the  universities  of  Paris,  Lou  vain,  Erfurt, 
and  Mainz ;  but  all  the  distinguished  and  independent 
thinkers  in  Germany  were  on  the  side  of  the  brave  and 
humane  scholar.  Among  the  Reuchlinists,  as  they  were 
termed,  were  Ulrich  von  Hutten  (q.v.)  and  Franz  von 
Sickingen  (q.v.);  to  the  first  of  whom  (in  conjunction 
with  Rubeanus,  etc.)  we  owe  Epistolce  Obscurorum 
Virorum  (q.v.) ;  and  to  the  second  of  whom  R.  owed  his 
safety,  for  Von  Sickingen  threatened  (1519}  Hoogstraten 
and  his  monks  with  terrible  vengeance  if  they  did  not 
cease  to  persecute  '  his  teacher,  Doctor  Reuchlin.'  When 
the  Reformation  was  inaugurated  by  the  burning  of  the 
papal  bull  (1517),  R.  instinctively  felt  that  a  crisis  had 
come,  and  exulted  in  the  heroism  of  Luther.  4  God  be 
praised ! '  he  said :  *  we  have  now  got  a  man  who  will 
give  them  [the  monks]  mighty  hard  work.'  Luther,  in  a 
letter  to  R.  (1518),  tells  him  that  he  had  longed  to  take 
part  with  him  in  his  noble  struggle,  but  had  never  found 
an  opportunity.  But  the  scholar's  troubles  were  not  at 
an  end.  A  quarrel  broke  out  between  Ulrich,  Duke  of 
Wurtemberg,  and  the  Swabian  League,  in  the  course  of 
which  R.  became  a  prisoner  of  Duke  Wilhelm  of  Bavaria, 
who,  however,  generously  restored  him  his  freedom,  and 
1520  appointed  him  prof,  at  the  Univ>  of  Ingolstadt. 
While  here,  he  received  a  call  to  Wurtemberg,  which  he 
declined,  but  sent  Philip  Melanchthon  in  his  stead.  In 
1522  the  plague  broke  out  at  Ingolstadt,  and  R.  again 
withdrew  to  Tubingen,  to  devote  himself  to  learned 
studies,  but  soon  afterward  died  at  Stuttgart.  R.'s  life 
has  been  written  by  Gehres,  Meyerhoff,  and  Geiger. 

REUNION,  n.  rg-un'yun  [F.  reunion,  return  to  a  state 
of  union  after  separation  or  discord — from  re,  back  or 
again;  union,  union— from  mid.  L.  unionem,  unity — 
from  L.  unus,  one :  Sp.  reunion,  reunion] :  cohesion  of 
parts  after  separation,  as  the  lips  of  a  wound ;  an  as- 
sembly of  familiar  friends  or  associates. 

REUNION,  Ile  de  la,  el  deh  la  ra4t-ne'~dng' ':  official 
name  after  the  French  Revolution  of  1789  and  since  that 
of  1848  for  the  island  Ile  de  Bourbon  (see  Boukbon,  Ile 
de).  The  latter  name  was  used  before  1789,  and  1814-48; 
and  Be  de  Bonaparte  was  the  name  1809-14. 


REUNITE— REUSS. 

REUNITE,  v.  re'u-nW  [re,  again,  and  unite]  :  to  join 
after  separation  ;  to  reconcile  ;  to  become  united  again. 
Re'uni'ting,  imp.    Re'uni'ted,  pp.  :  Adj.  reconciled. 

REURGE,  v.  re-erf  [re,  again,  and  urge]  :  to  urge 
again. 

REUS,  rd'os:  manufacturing  town  of  Spain,  province 
of  Tarragona  ;  about  5  m.  from  the  seaport  of  Salou. 
The  modern  portion  consists  of  wide  plazas  and  streets. 
The  prosperity  of  R.  dates  from  about  1750,  when  a 
number  of  English  merchants  settled  there.  R.  con- 
tains 80  establishments  for  cotton-spinning  alone,  5,000 
looms,  and  many  silk-ribbon  factories,  and  manufactures 
soap,  brandy,  casks,  and  machinery.   Pop.  64,000. 

REUSS,  royss :  name  of  two  sovereign  principalities 
(R.-Giieiz,  -grits,  and  R.-Schleiz,  -shlits)  of  Germany, 
between  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  and  the  Prussian  duchy 
of  that  name  ;  separated  from  each  other  by  the  circle 
of  Neustadt,  an  outlying  portion  of  the  grand-duchy  of 
Saxe -Weimar.  Since  1616  the  possessions  of  the  House 
of  R.  have  been  divided  between  the  elder  and  the 
younger  lines. — The  principality  of  R.-Greiz  (the  elder 
line)  has  123  sq.  m.  ;  chief  town  and  seat  of  govt.  Greiz 
(q.v.).— The  principality  of  R.-Schleiz  (the  younger  line) 
ha3  320  sq.  m.  :  cap.  SchMz  (q.v.). — Of  both  principalities 
the  surface  is  hilly,  traversed  by  the  Frankenwald,  whose 
chief  summits  are  above  2,000  ft.  in  height.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Saale  and  the  Elster,  whose  valleys  are 
extensive  and  well  cultivated.  Large  tracts  are  covered 
with  forests  and  in  pasture  ;  and  cattle  and  timber  are 
exported.  By  the  constitution  of  1867,  R.-Greiz  obtained 
much  needed  reforms.  The  existing  constitutional  form 
of  govt,  in  R.-Schleiz  dates  from  1852.  The  pop.  in  both 
states  is  almost  wholly  Prot.,  and  is  industrially  pros- 
perous.  Pop.  (1900)  R.-Greiz  68,396;  R.-fechleiz  139,210. 

REUSS,  Eduard  Wilhelm  Eugen,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  ph.d.  : 
theologian:  1804,  July  18—1891,  May  -  1;  b.  Stras- 
burg.  He  studied  philology  in  his  native  city,  the- 
ology at  Gottingen  and  Halle,  and  oriental  literature 
under  De  Sacy  at  Paris.  He  commenced  teaching  in 
the  theol.  school  at  Strasburg  1828,  became  prof,  extraor- 
dinary 1834,  and  was  prof,  from  1836  till  his  death. 
He  favored  the  liberal  German  methods  of  criticism  and 
investigation,  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  did  much 
to  popularize  the  study  of  the  Bible  in  France.  Some 
of  his  books  have  been  translated  into  various  lan- 
guages. Among  his  works  were  a  History  of  the  Books  of 
the  New  I'estawxnt ;  Christian  Theology  in  the  Apostolical 
Century  ;  History  of  the  Canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  the 
Christian  Church  (1872) ;  and  The  Epistles  of  Paul  (1883). 
He  also  translated  the  Bible  into  French,  with  notes 
(17  vols.)  ;  and  with  Professors  Baum  and  Cunitz  at- 
tempted a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Calvin,  of 
which  44  vols,  have  been  published.  He  died  at  Stras- 
burg. 


REUSSITE — REVALUE. 
EEUSSITE,  n.  roys'it,  or  Reussxn,  n.  roysln  [after 
Reuss,  an  Austrian  mineralogist] :  a  hydrous  sulphate  of 
soda  and  magnesia,  occurring  in  white,  flat,  six-sided 

crystals. 

REUTER,  roy'ter,  Fritz:  novelist  and  poet  who  wrote 
in  the  Piattdeutsch  or  Low-Germaii  dialect:  1810, 
Nov.  7 — 1874,  July  12;  b.  Stavenhagen,  in  Mecklenburg. 
While  studying  law  at  Jena,  he  became  involved  in  the 
revolutionary  aims  of  the  students'  association,  the 
Burscheaschaft,  was  sentenced  to  death  1833,  but  suffered 
instead  seven  years'  imprisonment  in  Prussian  fort- 
resses. His  numerous  writings  give  a  vivid  picture  of 
the  distinctive  manners  and  customs  of  the  Low-German 
country :  the  best  known  are  Oile  Kamellen  and  Ut  Mine 
tStromtid. 

REU'TER,  Paul  Julius,  Baron:  well  known  from  the 

familiar  newspaper  heading  '  Reuter's  Telegrams' ;  b.  at 
Cassei,  1818.  He  early  became  a  telegraphist.  In  Aix- 
la-Chapeiie  he  gradually  formed  an  organization  for  col- 
lecting and  transmitting  telegraphic  news;  and  1851, 
having  become  a  naturalized  Brit,  subject,  transferred 
his  headquarters  to  London.  As  telegraphs  extended 
throughout  the  world,  his  system  multiplied  its  ramifi- 
cations, and  newspapers  gained  in  copiousness  and 
freshness  of  news.  In  1865  R.  made  over  his  business 
to  a  hunted  liability  company;  1871  became  a  German 
baron;  1872,  obtained  from  the  shah  of  Persia  the  exclu- 
sive privilege  of  making  all  railways  of  Persia  and  work- 
ing all  mines  and  forests;  1889  this  concession  was  an- 
nulled, and  he  received  instead  that  of  the  imperial 
bank  of  Persia.    D.  1899,  Feb.  25. 

REUTLINGEN,  roytTmg-en  :  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  in 
a  beautiful  district,  fertile  in  fruit  and  wine,  on  the 
Eschatz,  feeder  of  the  Neckar,  20  m.  s.  of  Stuttgart.  Its 
houses  are  old  and  picturesque ;  and  it  was  formerly 
surrounded  by  walls  and  moats,  whose  site  is  now  oc- 
cupied by  streets.  The  Church  of  St.  Mary,  completed 
1345,  surmounted  by  a  pierced  tower  325  ft.  high,  which 
is  considered  the  most  beautiful  in  the  kingdom,  is  a 
noble  Gothic  edifice.  Woolen  and  cotton  yarns  are  spun, 
and  cloth,  leather  cutlery,  hosiery,  etc.,  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  (1885)   17,319;   (1890)  18,542;   (1900)  21,494. 

RE  VACCINATE,  v.  re-vak'sln-at  [re,  again,  and  vaccin- 
ate] :  to  vaccinate  a  second  time.  Revac'cina'tion,  n. 
-a'shwi,  repetition  of  vaccination. 

REYALENTA  ARABICA,  rev-a-lm'ta  ar-abl-ka :  em- 
pirical diet  for  invalids,  to  which  extraordinary  restor- 
ative virtues  are  attributed.  It  is  only  a  preparation  of 
the  common  lentil,  its  first  name  being  formed  for  dis- 
guise from  its  botanical  name,  Ervum  Lens  (see  Erva- 
lenta)  :  its  real  value  is  about  equal  to  good  pea-meal. 

REVALUE,  v.  re-val'u  [re,  again,  and  value] :  to  value 
a  second  time.    Revai/ua'tion,  n.  a  second  valuation. 


REVEAL — REVEILLAUD. 
REVEAL,  v.  re-veV  [F.  reveler,  to  reveal — from  L.  r«- 
veldre,  to  uncover — from  re,  back ;  veto,  I  cover  or  veil ; 
velum,  a  veil :  It.  rivelare] :  to  uncover ;  to  lay  bare  or 
open ;  to  make  known  something  before  concealed ;  in 
a  special  sense,  to  make  known  from  God.  Reveal'ing, 
imp.  Revealed,  pp.  re-veld':  Adj.  disclosed;  made 
known.  Reveai/er,  n.  -er,  one  who  reveals.  Reveal'- 
able,  a.  -a-bl,  that  can  be  revealed.  Reveai/ably,  ad. 
-bli.  Reveal'ableness,  n.  -bl-nes,  the  state  of  being  re- 
vealable.  Revelation,  n.  rev'e-ld'shun  [F, — L.] :  the 
act  of  disclosiDg  to  others  what  was  formerly  un- 
known to  them ;  that  which  is  revealed.  Revelation, 
Mo  the  communication  of  truth  by  God  to  men;  the  re- 
vealed truth  itself  (see  below):  usual  name  for  the 
Apocalypse  (see  Revelation  op  John,  The). — Syn.  of 
'  reveal ' :  to  disclose ;  uncover ;  divulge ;  unveil ;  dis- 
cover; open;  impart;  show;  communicate. 

REVEALS,  n.  plu.  re-veltf  [L.  reveller^  to  pull  or  tear 
out — from  re,  back ;  vello,  I  pluck  or  pull] :  vertical  sides 
of  the  aperture  for  a  window- 
frame,  a  door-frame,  etc.,  be- 
tween the  face  of  the  wall  and 
the  framing,  etc. :  spelt  also 
Revels7,  n.  plu.  -velz'.  The  word 
is  used  sometimes  in  the  singular 
form. 

REVEILLAUD,  ra~va-yo, 
Eugene  :  religious  reformer : 
b.  France.  His  parents  were 
Roman  Catholics,  and  his 
mother  was  anxious  that  he 
should  enter  the  priesthood; 

ol1  Xl%l™t'„  T?n  but  his  disinclination  to  this  was 
(JNorman   Doorway,  Fil-  .  .u  ,   u  „  , 

well,  Oxfordshire,  1150.)  so  great  that  ne  was  allowed 
to  study  law.  He  was  a  bril- 
liant scholar  at  the  national  schools,  and  took  high 
rank  among  his  classmates.  After  graduation  he  became 
connected  with  some  important  provincial  papers,  in 
which  he  treated  public  questions  with  great  freedom  and 
ability.  He  soon  became  convinced  that  the  great  need  of 
France  was  religion,  and  that  the  Rom.  Cath.  faith  was  not 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  state.  At  this  time  he  was  a 
freethinker;  but  he  boldly  declared  his  belief  that  to  the 
lack  of  a  proper  faith  was  to  be  traced  the  failure  of  the 
French  Revolution.  He  wrote  a  volume  advocating 
Prot.  doctrines,  not,  as  he  plainly  avowed,  for  their  re- 
ligious bearings,  but  merely  for  their  influence  on  the 
social  and  political  life.  He  afterward  became  a  be- 
liever in  Christianity  in  its  personal  relations,  and  en- 
deavored to  disseminate  its  principles.  He  is  an  elo- 
quent speaker,  and  excited  grea  t  interest  by  his  lectures 
in  the  large  cities  of  France  ;  and  1880  visited  the  United 
States,  where  he  had  large  and  appreciative  audiences. 


REVEILLE— REVELATION. 

REVEILLE,  n.  re-veVyd — frequently  in  the  U.  S.  ser- 
vice rev-el-e'  [F.  reveiller,  to  awake — from  re,  again; 
eveiller,  to  wake — from  L.  ex,  out;  vigildre,  to  watch; 
vigil,  wakeful]  :  in  mil.,  the  beat  of  drums  or  sound  of 
trumpet  at  daybreak  to  announce  to  the  troops  that  the 
night  is  past — after  which  the  sentries  do  not  challenge. 

KEVEL,  n.  rev'el  [Swiss,  rabeln,  to  make  a  disturb- 
ance :  Bret,  ribla,  to  revel :  pro  v.  F.  revel,  gayety,  dis- 
turbance: Dut.  ravelen,  to  be  excited,  to  be  restless: 
revel  is  derived  by  some  from  L.  rebelldre,  to  rebel  (see 
Rebel)]  :  a  feast  with  loose  and  noisy  jollity ;  a  carouse; 
a  riotous  banquet:  V.  to  feast  with  loose  and  noisy 
merriment ;  to  enjoy  with  a  feeling  of  unbounded  free- 
dom ;  to  carouse.  Rev'elling,  imp. :  N.  a  feasting  witb 
noisy  merriment;  enjoyment  under  the  feeling  of  un* 
bounded  freedom.  Rev'elled,  pp.  -eld.  Rev'el:ler,  n. 
-el-er,  one  who  revels.  Revelry,  n.  -ri,  loose  and  noisy 
festivity ;  playful  jollity.  Revel-rout,  n.  -rowt,  a  mob 
or  rabble  engaged  in  tumultuous  festivity. 

REVEL,  rev'el,  or  Reval,  r&v'al:  Russian  seaport, 
cap.  of  Esthonia,  on  the  small  bay  of  R  ,  238  m.  w.s.w.  of 
St.  Petersburg.  It  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower 
towns,  which  till  1878  had  separate  administrations. 
The  upper,  on  a  rocky  ridge,  contains  the  cathedral,  the 
castle,  gymnasium,  gov.'s  residence,  and  the  houses  of 
the  nobility.  The  lower  town  extends  to  the  sandy 
shore  of  the  harbor.  Till  lately  R.  was  a  fortress  of 
the  first  rank.  The  people  are  mostly  of  German  ex- 
traction. It  was  long  held  by  the  Lithuanian  Order  of 
Knights ;  was  made  over  to  Sweden  1562 ;  bombarded 
by  the  Danish  and  Liibeck  fleets  1569 ;  and  besieged  by 
Peter  the  Great,  and  annexed  to  the  Russian  empire 
1710.  In  1713,  a  naval  harbor  was  begun.  The  chief 
exports  are  flax,  linseed,  rye,  skins,  corn,  and  potato- 
brandy,  supplied  by  land  from  the  govts,  of  Esthonia, 
Pskov,  and  Livonia.  The  chief  imports  are  salt,  fruits, 
wine,  and  manufactured  and  colonial  goods.  Pop.  about 
64,600. 

REVELA'TION  [see  Reveal]  :  theological  term  com- 

monly  applied  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Living  God 
which  He  has  given  man  in  Holy  Scripture.  Of  this 
knowledge  concerning  God,  the  center  is  Jesus  the 
Christ ;  the  originating  and  the  communicating  power 
is  the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  basis  or  field  taken  for  its  de- 
velopment in  human  "history  is  the  experience  into 
which  certain  chosen  men  in  various  ages  have  been  led 
concerning  God ;  and  the  agents  or  media  for  its  his- 
torical record  are  the  selected  and  inspired  writers  of 
the  Old  and  New  Test. — In  itself,  however,  the  word  R. 
is  properly,  and  of  late  years  has  been  frequently  used, 
not  only  of  the  divine  knowledge  communicated  in 
Scripture,  but  of  all  divine  knowledge  communicated 
through  whatever  channel.  Conscience  and  rea- 
in  themselves  modes  of  Divine  R.  so  far  as  they 
5  of  the  divine  laws  which  bind  man's  moral  life. 


REVELATION  OF  JOHN, 
and  only  in  harmony  with  wh'eh  can  the  health  and 
happiness  of  that  life  be  found.  History  also  is  a 
species  of  R.,  unfolding,  as  it  does,  the  same  divine 
laws  collectively  in  the  race.  Nature,  too,  originating 
from  God,  reveals  His  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness; 
and  science,  the  interpreter  of  nature,  so  far  as  it  makes 
known  the  great  laws  governing  the  material  universe, 
truly  makes  known  to  us  the  divine  will.  But  since  all 
these  other  means  of  common  R.  have  been  historically 
found  insufficient  for  man  without  the  written  word, 
the  idea  of  R.  is  to  be  associated  centrally  and  eminently 
with  the  Scriptures.  They  are  in  a  special  sense  the 
medium  of  divine  R.  to  the  human  race :  God  has  made 
known  therein  more  fully  and  clearly  than  elsewhere 
His  will  and  character.  They  are  the  key  to  all  other 
revelations  of  Q^a.  But  we  must  not  confound  R.,  in 
its  fact  and  essence,  with  the  books  of  Scripture.  These 
books  are  only  the  highest  or  most  distinguished  form 
ir  medium  of  R.,  which,  in  itself  and  essentially  must 
always  imply  communication  from  one  mind  to  another; 
and,  in  a  religious  sense,  from  the  divine  to  the  human 
mind.  Scripture  is,  in  its  several  books,  the  pre- 
eminent medium  of  this  contact  or  interchange  of  the 
divine  and  human,  inasmuch  as  it  registers  the  growing 
manifestation  of  God  in  Christ  from  the  creation  onward 
in  human  history.  It  is  the  record  of  special  communi- 
cations which  God  made  in  time  past  to  holy  men, 
« who  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit,' 
which,  when  duly  taken  by  a  receptive  mind,  constitutes 
a  R.— -we  may  well  say  the  R. — for  us ;  yet  the  R.  is  not 
the  mere  record,  but  the  knowledge  which  the  record 
conveys  to  our  minds. — See  Bible:  Bible,  The: 
Inspiration  of  the  Bible. 

REVELATION  OF  JOHN,  The  (Apokdlypsis  Idannou) : 
last  book  of  the  New  Test.  It  professes  to  be  the  pro- 
duction of  John,  traditionally  known  as  <  The  Divine  ' 
(ho  theologos).  It  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute,  how- 
ever, whether  John,  writer  of  this  book,  is  the  beloved 
apostle,  writer  of  the  fourth  gospel  and  of  the  three 
Epistles.  Evidence  and  authority  seem  strongly  to 
favor  the  view  that  he  is  the  same;  though  some  dis- 
tinguished names — Luther  in  the  past,  and  Lticke 
among  modern  critics — have  adopted  the  negative  view. 
The  author's  simple  mention  of  himself  by  his  name 
John;  his  description  of  himself  as  one  '  who  bare  rec- 
ord of  the  word  of  God,  and  of  the  testimony  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  of  all  things  that  he  saw,'  is  held  to  indicate 
strongly  his  identity  with  the  author  of  the  gospel,  who 
speaks  of  himself  in  similar  language  (John  xix.  35).  He 
writes  from  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  and  the  apostle  is  the 
only  John  distinctly  named  in  early  Christian  history  as 
an  exile  in  Patmos.  The  authority,  moreover,  with 
which  the  writer  addresses  the  seven  churches  in  Asia 
is  such  as  seems  to  pertain  only  to  an  apostle.  So  far 
as  historical  testimony  is  concerned,  the  authority 
of   the  early   Christian    Fathers — e  g.,   Justin  Martyr, 


REVtfLS. 

Theophilus  of  Antioch,  and  Irenaeus,  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria—- all  point  to  the  Apostle  John  as  the  author 
of  the  B.  The  date  of  the  book  is  supposed  to  be  the 
very  close  of  the  1st  c,  95-97,  at  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Domitian.  We  cannot  here  particularize  the  con- 
tents of  the  book,  nor  can  we  enter  into  any  detailed 
statement  of  the  various  interpretations  which  have 
been  given  of  it.  It  has  been  the  subject  of  very  con- 
flicting commentary.  It  has  been  stated  that  *  not  less 
than  80  systematic  commentaries  are  worthy  of  note, 
and  that  the  less  valuable  writings  on  the  subject  are 
unnumbered,  if  not  innumerable.'  All  that  we  can  do 
here  is  to  characterize  the  different  general  schools,  into 
which  the  interpreters  of  this  sublime  and  mysterious 
book  may  be  arranged.  Nearly  all  these  schools  are 
sub-divided  according  to  minor  variations. — 1.  The 
Praeterist  School  of  interpreters  consider  the  Kevelation 
as  fulfilled  in  the  past,  especially  in  the  great  conflicts 
of  Christianity  with  Judaism  and  Paganism,  and  its 
triumph  over  them  in  the  ages  following  the  time  in 
which  it  was  written;  to  this  class  of  interpreters 
belong,  among  others,  Grothis,  Hammond,  Bossuet, 
Calmet,  Eichhorn,  Ewald,  Liicke,  De  Wette,  Stuart, 
Lee,  Maurice.  2.  The  Futurist  School  regard  the  book, 
except  the  first  three  chapters,  as  referring  to  events 
yet  to  come ;  this  view  has  been  advocated,  in  modern 
times,  by  such  writers  as  Dr.  J.  H.  Todd,  Dr.  S.  R. 
Maitland,  Newton,  and  many  others.  3.  What  has  been 
called  the  Historical  and  Continuous  School  of  exposi- 
tors, who  regard  the  R.  as  a  progressive  symbolic  history 
of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  church  from  the  1st  c.  to  the 
end  of  time.  To  this  school  of  interpreters  belong  a 
host  of  eminent  names,  such  as  Mede,  Sir  I.  Newton, 
Vitringa,  Bengel,  Faber,  Elliot,  Wordsworth,  Alford, 
Hengstenberg,  Ebrard,  and  others.  4.  Another  school 
of  expositors  are  not  disposed  to  allow  any  exact  pro- 
phetical character  to  the  book,  but  simply  to  regard  it 
as  a  species  of  grand  and  inspiring  symbolical  poem, 
setting  forth  the  eternally-recurring  principles  of  the 
olivine  govt.  The  real  fulfilment  of  the  R.  therefore,  is 
sought  by  these  interpreters  not  in  any  definite  histori- 
cal events,  but  in  the  vindication  of  these  principles 
shadowed  forth  more  or  less  in  great  historical  crises, 
yet  transcending  all  partial  historical  results.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view,  the  lofty  symbolic  imagery  of  the  R. 
has  never  found  and  will  never  find  its  exact  counter- 
part in  any  earthly  facts  ;  but  it  finds  its  spiritual 
counterpart  constantly  in  the  career  of  the  church — the 
unceasing  conflict  of  truth  with  error,  of  righteousness 
with  sin,  of  life  with  death,  oi  +he  kingdom  of  God  with 
the  kingdom  of  evil,  and  will  i  ttain  its  true  realization 
on'y  at  the  sure  and  final  triumph  of  the  Son  of  God  over 
°i'  the  power  of  sin  and  death. 
REVELS  :  see  Reveals, 


BEVELS &EVENGE. 

BEVELS,  Master  of  the;  or  Loud  of  Misrule: 
officer,  who,  in  England,  was  attached  to  royal  and 
other  distinguished  houses,  whose  function  it  was  to 
preside  over  the  amusements  of  the  court,  or  of  the 
nobleman  to  whose  house  he  was  attached,  during  the 
12  Christmas  holidays.  This  officer,  sometimes  called 
Master  of  the  Tents  and  Revels,  became  a  permanent  ap- 
pendage to  the  English  court  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII ;  and  his  duties  included  the  keeping  the  tents  and 
pavilions  which  accompanied  the  sovereign  on  a  royal 
progress,  as  also  the  keeping  the  dresses  and  masks 
used  in  entertainments  given  at  court,  and  the  provid- 
ing of  new  ones  as  required.  In  Queen  Elizabeth's  time, 
we  find  the  Mastership  of  the  Revels  divided  into 
several  distinct  offices.  The  office  continued  till  the 
reign  of  George  III.,  when  it  was  abolished.— See 
Christmas  :  Fools,  Feast  of  :  Boy-bishop. 

BEVENGE,  n.  re-venf  [F.  revanche,  requital,  revenge: 
OF.  revenger,  to  revenge:  L.  re,  back  or  again;  vindicare, 
to  make  a  claim  upon — from  vindex  or  vindicem,  sl  claim- 
ant, an  avenger] :  a  malicious  or  spiteful  infliction  of 
injury  in  return  for  an  injury;  the  passion  for  retalia- 
tion excited  by  an  injury  or  an  affront :  V.  to  inflict  pain 
or  injury  maliciously  in  return  for  injury  done,  or  an 
affront  received  ;  to  punish  in  return — an  injury  is  re- 
venged, a  crime  avenged.  Beven'ging,  imp.  Bevenged', 
pp.  -venjd'.  Beven'ger,  n.  -jer,  one  who  revenges.  Be- 
venge'ful,  a.  -ful,  vindictive ;  prone  to  revenge.  Re- 
vengefully, ad.  -U.  Bevenge'fulness,  n.  -nes,  the 
state  of  being  revengeful.  Beven'gingly,  ad.  -ft.  Be- 
venge'ment,  in  OE.,  revenge;  vengeance. — Syn.  of 
*  revengeful  * :  vindictive ;  vengeful ;  resentful ;  spiteful : 
malicious. 


HEVDNUE. 


REVENUE,  n.  rcv'cn-u  |  F.  rcrcnu,  revenue — from  re- 
venir,  to  return — from  L.  re,  back  or  again;  venire,  to 
come]:  annual  income  from  rents,  etc.;  the  public  in- 
come of  a  state  derived  from  taxes,  etc.  Revenue- 
cutter,  an  armed  vessel  employed  by  the  custom-house 
authorities  to  suppress  smuggling.  Revenue-officer, 
an  officer  in  the  service  of  the  customs;  an  exciseman. 
— See  Revenue,  Public. 

REVENUE,  Public:  public  income  of  a  state,  derived 
from  taxes,  etc.  A  state  has  a  right  to  reserve  part  of 
the  property  of  the  citizens,  or  of  the  produce  of  the 
country,  or  to  exact  contributions  from  the  citizens,  to 
supply  the  expense  of  carrying  on  the  govt.  It  is  entitled 
also  to  augment  the  riches  of  the  state  by  taxing  mer- 
chandise imported  into  or  exported  from  the  country, 
and  by  taking  a  small  proportion  of  the  things  con- 
sumed. In  England,  the  crown  is  dependent  on  supplies 
voted  by  parliament  for  its  ordinary  support  and  ex- 
istence. The  popular  voice,  in  the  matter  of  taxation, 
was  admitted  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  an  act 
of  that  monarch  declaring  '  that  no  tallage  or  aid  shall 
be  taken  or  levied  without  the  goodwill  and  assent  of 
the  archbishops,  bishops,  earls,  barons,  knights,  bur- 
gesses, and  other  freemen  of  the  land/  The  laity  were 
thenceforth  taxed  by  the  votes  of  their  representatives. 
The  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  voted  separate  supplies 
for  themselves;  and  from  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the 
clergy,  as  a  body,  granted  subsidies,  either  as  a  national 
council  of  the  clergy,  in  connection  with  parliament,  or, 
at  a  later  period,  in  convocation,  till  the  disuse  of  this 
right  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  As  the  commons  in- 
creased in  political  importance,  the  subsidies  voted  by 
them  became  the  principal  sources  of  revenue,  and  they 
gradually  assumed  their  present  position  in  regard  to 
taxation  and  supply,  including  the  lords  as  well  as  them- 
selves in  their  grants.  Concurrently  with  parliamentary 
taxation,  imposts  were  formerly  levied  by  royal  prerog- 
ative alone;  but  none  of  these  survived  the  revolution 
of  1688.  A  grant  by  the  commons  is  not  effectual  with- 
out the  ultimate  assent  of  the  king  and  house  of  lords; 
the  lords,  however,  cannot  alter  a  bill  of  supply,  though 
they  may  refuse  their  assent  to  it.  The  aggregate  of 
the  different  sources  of  revenue  is  paid  into  a  fund 
called  the  '  Consolidated  Fund/  which  is  chargeable  with 
the  interest  of  the  national  debt,  and  is  mortgaged  to 
raise  an  annual  sum  for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal 
household  and  Civil  List  (q.v.). 

In  the  United  States  the  national  government  derives 
its  revenue  chiefly  from  tariff  duties,  and  internal  taxes 
on  alcoholic  liquors  and  tobacco.  The  revenues  of  the 
various  States  and  municipalities  are  mainly  from  taxes 
on  land  and  buildings,  and  personal  property.  New  York 
and  some  other  States  have  an  inheritance  tax  which 


REVENUE  CUTTER  SERVICE. 

brings  in  large  returns,  so  that  the  New  York  State 
government  is  supported  almost  without  direct  taxation. 

REVENUE  CUTTER  SERVICE,  United  States: 
under  the  provisions  of  Section  2752,  Revised  Statutes, 
is  purely  a  technical  service,  in  that  no  person  not 
trained  in  the  technical  profession  of  the  sea  can  hold 
a  commission  in  its  ranks,  and  under  regulations  pre- 
scribed in  conformity  with  the  law  referred  to,  all 
officers  are  required  to  pass  rigid  professional  examina- 
tions for  entrance  and  promotion. 

The  commissions  of  its  officers  are  of  the  same  (life) 
tenure  as  those  of  officers  of  the  army,  navy,  and  marine 
corps.  Officers  enter  this,  as  they  do  the  services  named, 
in  the  lowest  grades  and  work  their  way,  by  promotion, 
through  long  years  of  service  ( after  examination,  men- 
tal and  physical)  to  the  highest. 

The  revenue  cutter  service  has  always  been  regarded 
and  treated  as  a  part  of  the  military  force  of  the  coun- 
try. Its  vessels  are  armed  cruisers,  officered  by  men 
bearing  the  commissions  (under  military  titles,  captains, 
lieutenants,  chief  engineers,  etc.)  of  the  President,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  and 
manned  by  duly  enlisted  men;  its  officers  and  men  are 
uniformed  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  prescribed 
by  the  department;  naval  discipline  and  routine  prevail 
on  board  of  all  its  ships;  the  officers  and  crew  are  re- 
quired to  be  proficient  in  naval  drills,  and  to  possess  a 
practical  knowledge  of  the  use  of  arms.  The  service  is 
required  by  law  not  only  to  aid  in  the  protection  of  the 
revenue,  but  to  enforce  nearly  every  statute  affecting 
the  maritime  interests  of  the  country.  By  acts  of  Con- 
gress the  service  is  required  to  aid  in  the  enforcement  of 
the  quarantine  laws,  and  in  preventing  the  violation  of 
the  neutrality  laws;  to  suppress  mutinies  on  board  mer- 
chant vessels,  and  to  use  the  armament  of  their  ships 
and  the  force  on  board. 

Under  the  definite  provisions  of  the  Act  approved 
1902,  April  12,  all  officers  of  this  service  are  invested 
with  military  rank,  and  are  placed  upon  the  same  level 
with  officers  of  the  army  as  to  pay  and  allowances,  in- 
crease of  pay  for  length  of  service,  retirement  on  ac- 
count of  physical  disability,  or  upon  reaching  the  age  of 
64  years. 

By  law  (Section  2757,  Revised  Statutes)  the  President 
may,  by  a  simple  order,  require  the  service,  or  any  part 
of  it,  to  co-operate  with  the  navy,  when  it  at  once  be- 
comes part  and  parcel  of  the  naval  force  of  the  country, 
and  passes  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment to  the  control  of  the  Navy  Department.  The 
semep  is,  therefore,  a  part  of  the  regular  armed  force  of 
the  country,  identical  in  character  with  the  naval  ser- 
vte  m&  may  at  any  time,  in  paae©  or  in  war,  b*  wde 
QM  hy  i^omvv  order. 


REVENUE  CT1TER  SERVICE. 


The  number  of  commissioned  officers  authorized  upon 
the  active  list  is  as  follows:  Of  the  line:  37  captains,  37 
first,  37  second  and  37  third  lieutenants.  Of  engineer 
officers:  1  captain  of  engineers,  who  is  also  the  engi- 
neer-in-chief, with  the  rank  of  captain  of  the  line;  35 
chief  engineers,  with  the  rank  of  first  lieutenants;  17 
first  and  18  second  assistant  engineers,  with  the  rank  of 
second  and  third  lieutenants,  respectively,  and  1  con- 
structor with  the  rank  of  first  lieutenant. 

Entrance  to  the  service  (line)  is  confined  to  graduates 
of  the  School  of  Instruction,  United  States  Revenue 
Cutter  Service,  to  which  young  men  are  appointed  after 
physical  and  mental  examinations,  as  cadets,  serving  a 
probationary  term  of  three  years.  They  are,  at  gradua- 
tion, commissioned  as  third  lieutenants,  and  at  every 
promotion  thereafter  must  pass  a  satisfactory  mental 
and  physical  examination. 

Entrance  as  engineer  officers.  The  candidate  must 
pass  on  a  high  standard,  a  satisfactory  examination, 
mental  and  physical,  and  is  then  commissioned  in  the 
lowest  grade,  second  assistant  engineer.  Promotions  are 
only  gained  after  rigid  examination  and  record  for  effi- 
ciency. 

The  enlisted  force  of  the  service  numbers  about  1,250 
men. 

There  are  in  the  fleet  11  cruisers  of  tonnage  from  588 
to  985  (gross)  ;  13  cruisers,  tonnage  from  330  to  416; 
13  harbor  vessels  and  launches,  and  one  sailing  bark, 
practice  ship  for  cadets. 

Previous  to  1889  the  chiefs  of  the  service  were  civil- 
ians, and  the  consulting  engineer  was  employed  from  the 
outside.  In  that  year  Capt.  L.  G.  Shepard,  R.C.S.,  was 
assigned  as  chief,  and  Chief  Engineer  J.  W.  Collins, 
R.C.S.,  as  engineer-in-chief.  Subsequently,  by  enactment 
of  Congress,  the  chief  of  the  service  must  be  a  captain, 
while  the  captain  of  engineers  is  assigned  as  engineer-in- 
chief.  Upon  the  death  of  Capt.  L.  Gr.  Shepard  in  March, 
1895,  he  was  succeeded  by  Capt.  C.  F.  Shoemaker. 

The  following  statistics  sIioav  the  work  of  9  years  t<* 
1903:  Vessels  seized  or  reported  for  violation  of  law, 
1,598;  fines  and  penalties  incurred  by  vessels  seized, 
$10,721,107;  vessels  in  distress  assisted,  736;  value  of 
vessels  and  cargoes,  $19,371,505;  persons  on  board  ves- 
sels assisted,  10,349;  lives  actually  saved,  820;  medical 
aid  rendered  to  persons,  190,360;  miles  covered  in  all  of 
above  work,  3,234,245. 


BE  VERB — REVERE. 
REVERB  :  see  under  Reverberate. 
REVERBERATE,  v.  re-ver'ber-at  [L.  reverberate, 
beaten,  cast,  or  driven  back — from  re,  back  or  again; 
ver'berd,  I  strike  or  beat ;  verber,  a  lash,  a  whip :  It. 
riverberare :  F.  reverberer]  :  to  return  or  send  back,  as  a 
sound;  to  echo;  to  reflect,  as  rays  of  light;  to  drive 
from  side  to  side,  as  flames ;  to  be  repelled ;  to  resound : 
Adj.  in  OE.,  beating  back;  resounding.  Reverberat- 
ing, imp.  Reverberated,  pp.  Rever'bera'tion,  n. 
-a'shun  [F.—L.J  :  the  act  of  reflecting  light  and  heat,  or 
of  repelling  sound.  Rever'bera'tor,  n.  -after,  that 
which  reverberates;  a  reflecting-lamp.  Rever'bera'- 
tory,  a.  -a'ter-%,  returning  or  driving  back  sound  or 
light  or  heat.  Reverberatory  furnace,  furnace  so 
constructed  that  matter,  e.g.,  ore,  may  be  heated  in  it 
without  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  fuel.  It 

consists  essentially  of 
three  parts—a  fireplace 
at  one  end ;  in  the  middle, 
a  flat  bed  or  sole,  on 
which  the  material  to  be 
heated  is  placed ;  and  at 
the  other  end,  a  chimney 
to  carry  off  the  smoke  or 
fume.  Between  the  fire- 
place and  the  bed,  a  low 
partition-wall,  called  a 
fire-bridge,  is  placed,  and 
the  whole  built  over  with 
a  flat  arch,  dipping  to- 
ward the  chimney.  The  flame  plays  over  the  fire-bridge, 
and  is  reflected,  or  reverberated,  on  the  material  beneath, 
hence  the  name.  See  Lead.  Reverb,  v.  re-verb%  in 
0E.9  to  reverberate. 

REVERE,  v.  re-ver*  [F.  rev  ever,  to  revere — from  L.  re- 
vereri,  to  stand  in  awe  or  fear  of — from  re,  back  or  again ; 
vereor,  I  feel  awe :  It.  reverire] :  to  regard  with  fear 
mingled  with  respect  and  affection;  to  honor;  to  hold 
in  estimation.  Reve'ring,  imp.  Revered',  pp.  -verd'. 
Reve'rer,  n.  -rer,  one  who  reveres.  Reverence,  n. 
rev'er-ens  [F.  reverence — from  L.  revereidia]  :  fear  mingled 
with  respect  and  affection,  as  for  a  parent  or  one  in  au- 
thority ;  a  title  given  in  addressing  a  clergyman ;  an  act 
of  obeisance ;  a  bow ;  a  courtesy ;  poetical  title  of  a 
father :  V.  to  regard  with  fear  mingled  with  respect  and 
affection.  Reverencing,  imp.  Rev'erenc^d,  pp.  -enst. 
Rev'erencer,  n.  -ser,  one  who  reverences.  Rev'erent, 
a.  -ent,  expressing  reverence ;  humble ;  submissive. 
Reve'ren'tiad,  a.  -en'shal,  proceeding  from  reverence, 
or  expressing  it.  Rev'eren'tially,  ad.  -U,  in  a  rever- 
ential manner.  Reverently,  ad.  -II,  in  a  reverent 
manner;  respectfully.— Syn.  of  *  revere  ' :  to  venerate; 
honor ;  adore ;  reverence ;  worship ; — of  *  reverence  ' : 
awe;  veneration;  honor;  adoration ;  deference;  respect, 


Section  of  Reverberatory 
Furnace. 


REVERE — REVEREND. 

REVERE,  re-ver\  Paul:  1735,  Jan.  1.—1818,  May  10; 
b.  Boston.  From  bis  father  he  learned  the  trade  of 
goldsmith,  and  he  attained  skill  as  a  designer  for  en- 
gravings on  silver  plate.  In  the  expedition  against 
Crown  Point  1756  lie  was  a  lieut.  of  artillery.  Returning 
to  Boston,  he  began  business  as  a  goldsmith,  and  gave 
attention  to  engraving  on  copperplate,  an  art  which  he 
had  learned  without  a  teacher.  He  issued  various  em- 
blematic prints  which  were  of  great  advantage  to  the 
patriot  cause,  refused  to  serve  on  the  grand  jury  1774, 
because  of  the  action  of  parliament  in  reference  to  the 
relations  of  the  supreme  court  judges  to  the  legislature; 
engraved  the  plates  from  which  the  paper  money  of  the 
Mass.  province  was  printed  1775,  and  by  request  of  the 
provincial  congress  learned  to  make  gunpowder,  and 
established  a  mill  for  its  manufacture.  He  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  celebrated  'tea  party'. in  Boston 
harbor,  and  of  a  secret  society  wrhich  watched  and  re- 
ported the  movements  of  the  British  ;  and  1775,  Apr.  18, 
took  his  famous  midnight  ride  to  Lexington  described 
by  Longfellow  in  one  of  his  popular  poems.  He  was  a 
trusted  messenger  of  the  committee  of  safety,  became 
lieut. col.  of  artillery,  and  in  various  ways  rendered  in* 
valuable  service  to  the  patriot  cause.  He  laid  the 
corner  stone  of  the  State  House  at  Boston  1795,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  pres.  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Charitable  Mechanics'  Assoc.  He  was  the 
first  man  in  America  to  make  copper  sheets  and  bolts, 
and  he  established  1801  at  Canton,  Mass.,  a  copper  roll- 
ing business  which  is  still  continued.  He  was  a  prom- 
inent Mason,  and  was  noted  for  kindness  and  benev- 
olence.   He  died  at  Boston. 

REVEREND,  a.  rev'er-end  [F.  reverend ;  It.  reverendo, 
reverend — -from  L.  reveren'dus,  venerable — from  revereri, 
to  stand  in  awe  or  fear  of  (see  Revere)]  :  entitled  to  or 
worthy  of  reverence ;  a  title  of  honor  applied  by  cour- 
tesy to  a  clergyman  :  in  Rom.  Cath.  countries  it  is  applied 
to  members  of  the  various  religious  orders.  Rev.,  a 
common  contraction  of  reverend,  usually  prefixed  to  the 
name  of  a  clergyman.  Very  Reverend,  prefixed  to 
that  of  a  dean,  the  principal  of  a  Scotch  university  when 
a  clergyman,  and  the  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  Right  Reverend,  prefixed 
to  the  name  of  a  bishop  in  Britain  or  the  United  States, 
'Most  Reverend,  prefixed  to  the  name  of  an  archbishop 
in  Britain  or  the  United  States.  An  archdeacon  has  the 
prenx  venera  ble.  The  style  Reverend  is  generally  ad- 
opted  by,  and  given  to,  the  clergy  or  ministers  of  the 
different  dissenting  bodies  in  England,  and  of  all  denom- 
inations in  America;  though,  a  few  ministers  decline 


REVERIE. 

REVERIE,  n.  rev'er-l,  or  Rev'eky,  n.   plu.  Rev'- 
EKiEs,  ~\z  [F.  reverie,  a  musing— -from  rever,  to  dream ; 
OF.  resverie,  ideas  floating  irregularly  in  the  mind; 
resver,  to  speak  idly  (see  also  Rave)]  :  loose,  irregular 
train  of  ideas  floating  in  the  mind ;  a  lit  of  deep  musing, 
during  which  all  or  greater  part  of  the  external  senses 
remain  unconscious  of  surrounding  objects.    R.  is  de- 
scribed as  of  three  kinds :  (1)  absence  of  mind,  in  which 
the  attention  is  truant,  and  does  not  readily  yield  to 
the  will;  (2)  abstraction  oj  mind,  in  which  the  mind  is 
concentrated  on  some  particular  theme  by  the  direct  act 
of  the  will ;  and  (3)  brown  study,  gloomy  or  dull  reverie ; 
reverie  in  which  the  will  relaxes  itself,  and  gives  full 
play  to  any  train  of  ideas  which  may  be  uppermost. 
- — R.  has  been  defined  the  dream  of  a  waking  man ;  but 
it  differs  in  many  respects  from  dreaming.  Regarded 
in  the  light  of  mental  philosophy,  R.  is,  like  dreaming, 
the  involuntary  action  of  the  fantasy  or  imaging  power, 
though  it  may  be  guided  somewhat  by  attention.  In 
dreams,  the  senses  are  closed  to  the  outer  world,  whose 
presence  in  R.  prevents  our  mistaking  fancies  for  real- 
ities, as  in  dreams.    In  a  higher  sense,  R,  is  a  word 
sometimes  applied  to  a  state  of  abstraction,  when  the 
mind  is  wholly  engaged  in  earnest  thought.    In  an  ex- 
aggerated form,  it  is  rare;  but  when  it  goes  beyond  ab- 
sence of  mind,  or  abstraction  from  what  is  passing 
around,  it  is  abnormal  and  unhealthful;  and  may,  if  at 
all  approaching  a  habit,  be  regarded  as  a  phenomenon 
of  an  imperfectly  constituted,  if  not  of  a  diseased 
nervous  temperament.    In  general,  R.  takes  the  direc- 
tion of  personal  pursuits,  tastes,  and  experiences;  the 
mind  may  be  occupied  according  to  the  age,  character, 
or  pursuits  of  the  individual,  by  calculations,  profound 
metaphysical  inquiries,  by  fanciful  visions,  or  by  such 
trivial  and  transitory  objects  as  to  make  no  impression 
on  consciousness,  so  that  the  period  of  R.  is  left  an 
entire  blank  in  memory.    The  most  obvious  external 
feature  marking  this  condition  is  the  apparent  uncon- 
sciousness,  or  only    partial   perception,   of  external 
objects.    In  what  may  be  designated  the  first  stage, 
castle- building,  this  inattention  is  only  apparent,  as  the 
surrounding  scenery  may  enter  into  the  illusion,  and 
constitute  part  of  the  romance.    In  the  celebrated  case 
of  Hartley  Coleridge,  whose  double  life,  indulged  in  for 
years,  affords  illustrations  of  voluntary  creations  ul- 
timately extorting  a  degree  of  belief  and  expectation — 
from  a  field  near  his  home  burst  forth  a  cataract,  from 
which  flowed  a  river;  on  the  banks  of  this  arranged 
themselves  fertile  fields,  a  populous  region,  divided  into 
realms  and  kingdoms,  governed  by  laws,  having  tradi- 
tions, histories.    His  *  Ejuxria'  was  an  analagon  to  the 
world  of  fact,  embellished  by  imagination.    This  eher* 
ished  unreality  was  parted  with  reluctantly,    A  more 
od  stage  of  the  affection  is  where,  independently 
of  the  will,  and  In  opposition  to  the  ordinary  habits  of 
I  dlVidt.m.1,  and  under  peculiar  mmm$Umw&  tliote 


REVERSE. 

occur  a  loss  of  cognizance  of  sunv>u»ding  objects  and 
relations,  and  a  state  of  abstraction  or  brown  study,  in 
which  absurd  and  incongruous  things  are  said  and  done. 
Ludicrous  examples  of  this  state  are  where  a  man  loses 
his  way  in  his  native  town,  forgets  his  own  name,  or 
retires  to  bed  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  a  third  stage 
or  form,  the  man  in  a  R.  cannot  be  recalled  to  active 
perception,  loses  individuality,  and  is  absorbed  in  the 
contemplation  of  unreal,  though  self-suggested  impres- 
sions :  this  is  seen  in  such  cases  as  St.  Teresa,  and  in 
the  trances  of  Mysticism,  Quietism,  Second  Sight. — 
Memoir  of  Hartley  Coleridge,  Disraeli's  Life  of  Lord  G* 
Bentinck,  Maury's  Le  Sommeil  et  les  Reves. 

REVERSE,  v.  revers'  [F.  re-vers,  reverse,  opposite  side 
—from  L.  re,  back  or  again ;  versus,  turned — from  verto, 
I  turn :  It.  riversare,  to  upset  or  overturn]  :  to  turn  or 
put  in  the  contrary  direction,  position,  condition,  01 
order;  to  turr  upside  down;  to  invert;  in  law,  to  change 
by  a  contrary  decision;  to  annul;  in  OE.,  to  return: 
Adj.  having  the  contrary  or  opposite  direction; 
opposite:  N.  a  contrary;  an  opposite;  generally  c- 
change  for  the  worse ;  misfortune ;  in  mil. ,  the  back  01 
rear  of  a  body  of  troops :  in  numismatics,  the  side  ot 
face  of  a  coin  or  medal  opposite  to  the  side  on  which  thff 
head  or  principal  figure  is  impressed — the  latter  being 
called  the  obverse :  there  is,  however,  generally  an  inscrip* 
tion  or  device  on  the  reverse ;  and  when  the  lower  part 
of  it  is  markedly  separated  from  the  rest,  it  is  called  the 
Exergue  [Gr.  ex  ergon,  outside  the  work],  and  bears  a 
secondary  inscription.  Reversing,  imp.  Reversed', 
pp.  -zersf :  Adj.  changed  or  turned  to  the  contrary;  an- 
nulled ;  in  conch.,  applied  to  a  shell  whose 
whorls  run  from  right  to  left,  or  whose 
aperture  is  on  the  left,  when  placed  before 
a  spectator  with  its  a  pex  upward.  Rever- 
sal, n.  re-ver'sal,  a  change;  a  contrary  de- 
cision. Reverse'dy,  ad.  -vers'li.  Reverse'- 
less,  a.  -les,  not  to  be  reversed.  Rever- 
sible, a.  re-ver'si-bl  [F. — L.] :  that  may  be 
reversed.  Rever'sibly,  ad.  ~bl%.  Rever'- 
sedly,  ad.  -sed-ll.  Reversion,  n.  -shun  fteverse 
[F.—  L.]  :  a  returning;  right  to  future  pos-  stieu4 
session  or  enjoyment,  as  an  estate  or  an- 
nuity after  the  death  of  a  person  now  living ;  succession ; 
the  right  which  a  person  has  to  any  inheritance  or 
place  of  profit  after  the  decease  of  another.  When  the 
emergence  of  a  reversionary  right  is  certain  and  the  date 
fixed,  the  marketable  value  of  the  reversion  is  easily 
calculated  (see  Interest)  :  when  the  reversion  is  con- 
tingent, depending  on  some  future  event  of  unknown 
date,  the  problem  becomes  complex  (see  works  that 
treat  of  Life  Insurance,  etc.).  Reversionary,  a.  -&r\ 
that  may  be  enjoyed  in  succession.  Reversioner,  n. 
•er  ore  who  holds  a  reversion.  To  Reverse  an  engine, 
to  cause  it  to  perform  its  revolutions  in  an  opposite 


REVERSION  TO  TYFE — REVEST, 
direction,  with  the  view  of  quickly  bringing  it  to  a 
stand  or  of  causing  it  to  move  backward.  Reverse 
curve,  on  railways,  a  curve  like  the  letter  S,  consisting 
of  two  curves  lying  in  opposite  directions.  Reverse 
fire,  in  mil. t  the  fire  which  proceeds  from  the  rear. 
Reversed  arms,  arms  carried  under  the  right  arm, 
muzzle  to  the  rear  and  pointing  downward,  the  left 
hand  passed  behind  the  back  and  grasping  the  barrel — 
only  so  carried  at  military  funerals.  Reversing  gear, 
apparatus  for  causing  a  locomotive  or  marine  engine  to 
move  backward. — Syn.  of  'reverse,  v.':  to  invert;  over- 
throw; subvert;  annul;  revoke;  overturn;  overset; 
repeal;  contradict; — of  4 reverse,  n.' :  change;  vicissi- 
tude; defeat;  check;  misfortune;  opposite. 

REVERSION  TO  TYPE  :  re-appearance  in  offspring 
of  ancestral  feature  or  type.  Atavism  (q.v.),  is  nearly 
synonymous,  but  properly  more  restricted,  referring  to 
the  return  of  characters  observed  in  less  remote  ances- 
tors, of  the  human  race  especially.  R.  is  sometimes 
seen  in  cultivated  plants,  exhibiting  features  of  the 
wild  plant.  Domestic  animals  do  not  always  ret^n  to 
the  feral  form  and  color,  when  they  run  wild,  but  in 
many  instances  or  in  some  degree  they  do.  Pigs  have 
resumed  the  stripes  and  other  characteristics  of  the 
wild  boar.  Black  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  color  of 
sheep,  to  which  some  in  almost  every  flock  return,  de- 
spite most  careful  exclusion  for  many  generations.  The 
crossing  of  breeds  sometimes  reproduces  at  once  the 
original  type," as  in  the  case  of  pigeons,  and  white  and 
black  fowls;  the  former  was  followed  by  offspring  like 
the  wild  blue  Rock  Pigeon ;  the  latter  became  red  like 
the  original  jungle-cock  of  India.  In  plants  there  is 
often  a  partial  morphological  reversion,  as  when  sta- 
mens are  re-converted  into  petals,  or  petals  into  leaves. 
Consult  Darwin's  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants,  under 
Domestication;  and Lankester's Degeneration,  a  Chapter  in 
Darwinism. 

REVERT,  v.  re-vert'  [L.  revertere,  to  turn  back — from 
re,  back  or  again  ;  verto,  I  turn]  :  to  fall  back  ;  to  turn 
back ;  to  refer  back  to ;  to  return  to  the  original  owner, 
or  to  his  heirs.  Revert'ant,  a.  in  her.,  bent  and  rebent. 
Reversed,  in  her.,  flexed  and  reflexed,  or  bent  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  S ;  revertant.  Reverting,  imp.  Re- 
vert'ed,  pp.  Revert'ible.  a.  -i-bl,  that  may  revert  or 
return.  Revert'ive,  a.  -Iv,  changing ;  causing  reversion, 
Revert'ively,  ad.  -li. 

REVERY :  see  Reverie. 

REVEST,  v.  re-vest'  [Norm.  F.  revestir ;  F.  revetir,  to 
clothe — from  L.  re,  again ;  vestire,  to  dress,  to  clothe 
(see  Vest)]  :  in  OE. ,  to  clothe  again;  to  vest  again  in 
possession  of  an  office.   Revesting  imp.  Revest'kt* 


REVET— REVICTUAL. 


REVET,  v.  re-vet'  [F.  revetement,  the  lining  of  a  ditch 
— from  revetir,  to  clothe  ( see  preceding  entry )  ] :  in  mil., 
to  face  with  masonry  or  other  material,  as  an  embank- 
ment.   Revet'ting,  imp.    Revetted,  pp.  re-vet'ed. 

REVET'MENT:  in  permanent  fortification,  a  retain- 
ing-wall  of  masonry  for  holding  back  the  earth  of  which 
works  are  composed.  The  most  ordinary  position  of  re- 
vetments is  for  the  escarp  and  counterscarp  of  the  ditch 


oc,  revetment;  6,  bottom  of  ditch,  level  of  ground  within  the 
work;  de,  top  of  rampart;  fgh,  parapet;  ik,  banquette;  kle, 
mass  of  earth  supported  by  revetment ;  ra,  centre  of  gravity 
of  mass ;  w,  point  of  greatest  pressure  on  revetment. 

( see  Fortification  ) .  The  most  important  of  these  two 
is  the  escarp,  which  has  to  hold  back  the  great  mass  of 
earth  represented  by  the  rampart,  parapet,  banquette, 
etc.  It  is  usually  of  solid  brickwork  or  stone,  5  ft.  thick 
at  the  top,  and  sloping  outward  as  it  descends  (on  the 
ditch-side  only)  to  the  extent  of  1  in  6.  Prior  to  Vau- 
ban's  time,  the  escarp  R.  was  usually  raised  to  the  top 
of  the#  parapet ;  but  as  in  this  case  the  artillery  of  a  be- 
sieger played  on  the  top  of  the  wall,  and  ruined  it  soon 
after  the  siege  commenced,  Vauban  adopted  the  princi- 
ple— thereafter  followed — of  raising  it  no  higher  than 
the  crest  of  the  glacis,  or  about  7  ft.  above  the  natural 
ground,  "leaving  the  parapet  above  of  sloped  earth  only. 
When  the  main  ditch  is  24  ft.  deep,  the  scarp  R.  will  be 
about  30  ft.  hign.  Additional  strength  is  imparted  to 
the  R.  wall  by  massive  buttresses  at  every  15  ft.,  called 
counterforts ;  and  these,  again,  are  sometimes  connected 
and  strengthened  by  masonry  arches  outside  the  R.  The 
R.  forms  a  terrible  barrier  to  an  assaulting  party.  In 
field-works,  a  temporary  R.  may  be  made  of  timber,  turf, 
hurdles,  or  other  materials  at  hand. 

REVIBRATE  v.  rZ-vl'lrat  {re,  again,  and  vibrate] :  to 
vibrate  back,  or  in  return. 

REVICTUAL,  v,  rfrvit'l  Ire,  again,  and  victual}  \  to 
furnish  mm  wjth  provUlQB»f 


BE  VIEW  HE  Visit. 
REVIEW,  n.  re-vuf  [re,  again,  and  view:  F.  reVue,  a 
review — from  revoir,  to  see  again,  to  revise— from  L.  re, 
again ;  videre,  to  seej  :  a  second  examination,  as  for  im- 
provement or  amendment;  a  survey;  critical  remarks 
on  a  new  publication;  a  periodical,  generally  consisting 
of  essays,  criticism,  etc.  (see  Periodicals):  in  milit., 
public  inspection  of  troops  or  ships  in  parade  order  by 
a  superior  officer.  Reviews  always  comprise  a  march 
past  the  inspecting-officer  in  column,  and  a  general 
salute  in  line;  to  these  is  frequently  added  a  mock- 
battle,  for  amusement  of  spectators,  and  for  practicing 
the  troops  in  warlike  manoeuvres:  V.  to  look  back  on: 
to  view  and  examine  again;  to  reconsider;  to  criticise, 
as  a  new  publication  ;  to  inspect,  as  troops.  Review'- 
ing,  imp. :  Adj.  inspecting,  as  an  army  :  N.  the  practice 
of  writing  and  publishing  criticisms  of  new  publica- 
tions; the  'business  of  a  reviewer.  Reviewed,  pp.  re- 
vud\  Review'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  reviews;  a  literary 
critic.  Review'al,  n.  -al,  the  review  of  a  book.— Byn. 
of  *  review,  n.':  re-examination;  resurvey;  survey;  crit- 
icism ;  reconsideration  ;  revise;  revisal;  revision; 
retrospect. 

REVILE,  v.  re-vlV  [L.  re,  again ;  vilis,  mean,  worth- 
less (see  Vile)]  :  to  treat  with  opprobrious  and  con- 
temptuous language ;  to  upbraid:  N.  in  OE.,  reproach; 
contumely.  Revi  sing,  imp. :  N.  the  act  of  reproaching ; 
the  act  of  using  contumelious  language.  Reviled',  pp. 
-vildf.  Revi'ler,  n.  -ler,  one  who  reviles.  Revi'lingly, 
ad.  •  Syn.  of  'revile,  v.':  to  vilify;  calumniate; 
reproach ;  upbraid. 

REVINDICATE,  v.  re-vm'di-kdt  [re,  again,  and  vindi- 
cate] :  to  vindicate  again ;  to  demand  and  take  back 
what  has  been  lost. 

REVISE,  v.  re-vizf  [F.  reviser — from  L.  revisere,  to 
come  to  see  again — from  re,  again ;  visere,  to  look  at 
attentively — -from  videre,  visum,  to  see;  Sp.  revisar,  to 
revise]  :  to  examine  carefully  for  purposes  of  correction  ; 
to  alter ;  to  amend  :  N.  a  re-examination  ;  amon g printers, 
a  second  proof-sheet  pulled  for  correction  and  compari- 
son with  the  first.  Revi'sing,  imp.  Revised',  pp.  -vlzd': 
Adj.  re-examined  for  correction.  Revi'ser,  n.  -zer,  one 
who  revises.  Revi'sal,  n.  -zal,  the  act  of  examining  for 
correction  and  improvement.  Revi'sion,  n.  -vizhfun  [F. 
— L.] :  theactof  examining  for  correction.  Revi'sional, 
a.  -al,  pert,  to  revision.  Revi'sor,  n.  -vi'zer,  in  Russia, 
one  who  takes  the  number  of  inhabitants.  Revi'sor y, 
a.  -zer-i,  able  or  tending  to  revise.  Revising  babris- 
ters'  courts,  courts  held  in  the  autumn  in  districts 
throughout  England  to  revise  the  list  of  voters  for 
members  of  parliament. — Syn.  of  '  revision ' :  revisal ; 
re-examination ;  review. 

REVISED'  VER'SION :  see  Bible,  Canterbury  Re- 
vision OF  THE. 

REVISIT,  v.  rS-msftt  [re,  and  visit] :  to  visit  again. 


REVIVALS. 

REVrVALS  of  Religion:  public  awakenings  of  in- 
terest in  personal  religion.  The  term  Revival  of  Religion, 
briefly  Revival,  is  employed  to  denote  an  increase  of 
faith  and  of  earnest  activity  in  individual  Christians, 
particularly  after  a  period  of  religious  declension ;  also 
an  increase  of  religion  in  a  community  or  neighborhood, 
both  through  the  revival  of  those  who  are  already  reli- 
gious, and  through  the  conversion  of  the  previously  irreli- 
gious. It  does  not  necessarily  (though  it  may  usually) 
involve  a  previous  declension  :  sometimes  it  may  denote 
the  joyous  "harvest-time  when  the  operation  of  natural 
laws  brings  the  ingathering  of  fruits  from  seeds  sown  in 
quiet  patience.  In  these  applications,  its  use  is  counte- 
nanced by  several  passages  of  Scripture ;  the  idea  which 
it  is  intended  to  convey  is,  however,  far  more  frequently 
suggested  by  passages  in  which  the  term  does  not  occur. 
The  idea  of  revival  is  connected  particularly  with  the 
system  of  'evangelical'  doctrine,  especially  with  that 
part  of  it  which  relates  to  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
awakening  the  church  to  a  fuller  spiritual  life,  and  in  the 
conversion  of  sinners. 

What  are  commonly  called  R.  are  religious  movements 
or  excitements  extending  over  a  neighborhood,  some* 
times  over  a  country.  By  those  who  regard  them  as 
genuine,  it  is  urged  in  their  favor,  that  they  are  in  ac- 
cordance with  what  the  Scriptures  teach  us  to  expect, 
and  that  we  have  instances  of  a  similar  kind  recorded  in 
the  Scriptures  themselves— both  in  the  history  of  the 
Jews,  and  in  the  early  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
particularly  in  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  and  afterward  in  connection  with  the  min- 
istry of  the  apostles,  when  many  were  converted  through 
a  single  discourse,  or  in  other  cases  evidently  within  a 
short  time.  It  is  urged  also  that  such  operations  of  the 
Divine  Spirit,  though  supernatural,  are  not  therefore 
against  nature ;  and  that  indeed  they  accord  with  the 
law  of  periodicity-— of  ebb  and  flow — which  is  observed 
in  mental  states.  It  is  further  urged  that  the  promise 
of  the  effusion  of  the  Spirit  in  *  the  latter  days '  was  not 
completely  fulfilled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  but  relates 
to  the  whole  period  of  the  Christian  dispensation,  and 
that,  according  to  many  prophecies,  we  have  reason  to 
expect  even  more  of  it  in  future  times  than  there  has 
ever  hitherto  been,  so  that  1  a  nation  shall  be  born  in  a 
day,  and  the  kingdoms  shall  be  the  Lord's.'  The  Refor- 
mation of  the  16th  c,  and  the  partial  movements  of  the 
same  kind  which  preceded  it,  are  regarded  as  essentially 
R.  of  religion — the  Reformation*  itself  the  greatest  since 
the  apostolic  age.  The  great  development  of  religious 
fervor  in  England  in  the  17th  c,  is,  according  to  this 
view,  a  revival,  and  the  extravagances  which  attended 
it  as  mere  excrescences,  like  those  of  the  Anabaptists  in 
the  time  of  the  Reformation.  The  next  great  movement 
of  the  same  kind  was  that  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  c, 
in  which  the  Methodist  churches  originated  (see  Meth- 
odists).   It  was  accompanied  with  many  circumstances 


EEVIVALS. 


similar  to  those  which  have  attended  later  R.  The  term 
revival  did  not  begin  to  be  commonly  employed  till  after 
this  period ;  and  the  revival  in  New  England  and  other 
parts  of  N.  America  about  the  same  time,  was  then 
and  still  is  generally  designated  the  Great  Awakening. 
Its  beginning  seems  to  have  had  no  connection  with  the 
Methodist  movement  in  England,  though  subsequently 
they  became  connected  through  Whitefield's  visits  to  N. 
America,  and  his  powerful  preaching  to  vast  crowds. 
The  revival  in  New  England,  which  began  about  1734, 
under  the  ministry  of  Jonathan  Edwards  (q.v.),  at  North- 
ampton, and  rapidly  extended  over  great  part  of  New 
England  and  N.  Y.,  was  speedily  followed  by  similar  reli- 
gious movements  in  Scotland,  not  altogether  independent 
of  it.  Such  movements  had  not  been  unknown  in  Scot- 
land, though  confined  to  particular  times  and  localities. 
In  1625  and  following  years,  there  was  a  revival  at  Irvine, 
under  the  ministry  of  David  Dickson,  which  extended 
to  the  neighboring  parish  of  Stewarton,  and  was  con- 
temptuously styled  by  its  adversaries  the  Stewarton  sick- 
ness. In  1630,  several  hundreds  are  said  to  have  been 
converted  at  once,  through  a  sermon  preached  at  Kirk- 
of-Shotts  by  John  Livingstone,  then  a  young  preacher, 
afterward  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  a  sufferer  for  the  cause  of  Presbyterianism. 
About  the  same  time  (1623-41),  similar  R.  took  place  in 
Ireland  under  the  ministry  of  Scottish  Presb.  ministers 
in  Ulster,  to  which  the  origin  of  the  Irish  Presb.  Church 
is  in  great  part  ascribed.  Local  R.  are  recorded  at 
various  places  in  Scotland  remote  from  each  other,  1742, 
1798-1800,  1804-13;  and  an  extensive  one  in  Wales,  re- 
sulting in  the  formation  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Meth. 
Church,  but  not  confined  to  that  connection.  Local  re- 
vivals attended  the  ministry  also  of  some  evangelical 
ministers  of  the  Church  of  England. 

In  1839,  a  revival  began  at  Kilsyth,  Scotland,  which 
spread  to  many  other  places.  During  a  sermon  by  Wil- 
liam C.  Burns  in  the  parish  church,  the  emotion  of  many 
of  the  congregation  broke  out  in  sobs  and  cries,  so  that 
for  a  time  the  preacher's  voice  could  scarcely  be  heard. 
For  months,  religion  was  the  almost  exclusive  subject 
of  interest  to  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  par- 
ish, and  many  meetings  for  public  worship  were  held 
besides  the  ordinary  Sabbath  services,  at  which  great 
emotion  was  often  shown.  In  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
c.  there  were  many  R.  in  the  United  States,  notable 
among  which  were  those  under  Charles  G.  Finney  (q.v.), 
who  also  visited  England,  and  pree.ched  to  vast  crowds 
in  London  and  other  cities.  These  R.  were  generally 
confined  to  congregations,  colleges,  or  localities,  but 
sometimes,  as  in  connection  with  Dr.  Finney,  extended 
over  great  districts.  Throughout  at  least  the  northern 
and  middle  United  States,  the  idea  had  become  familiar 
to  the  popular  mind,  that  R.  ought  to  be  expected  from 
time  to  time;  from  which  naturally  followed  the  belief 
that  special  means  should  be  employed  to  produce  them. 


REVIVALS. 

From  this  resulted,  in  some  cases,  increased  earnestness 
in  preaching  and  prayer,  with  greater  assiduity  in  all 
ordinary  means  for  promotion  of  religion  ;  in  other  cases, 
direct  endeavors  to  produce  excitement,  as,  in  the 
states  farther  southward,  by  camp -meetings — assemblies 
of  great  numbers  of  people  held  in  the  open  air,  at  which 
exciting  addresses  were  delivered  by  preacher  after 
preacher,  to  work  upon  the  nervous  sensibilities. 

Nothing  of  this  kind,  however,  attended  the  beginning 
of  the  great  religious  movement  in  1857  and  the  two 
following  years.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  in  part  to  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  awakened  during  a  period  of  great 
commercial  distress.  It  began  in  New  England,  partic- 
ularly in  Conn,  and  Mass.,  and  rapidly  extended  to  N.  Y. 
and  over  the  middle  and  western  states.  It  was  not 
generally  attended  with  scenes  of  great  excitement. 
Strong,  but  calm  religious  feeling  was  its  general  char- 
acteristic. In  New  York,  almost  every  congregation  re- 
ceived great  accession  of  members,  and  prayer-meetings 
were  held  in  churches,  public  halls,  and  even  theatres, 
for  about  an  hour  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  which  were 
attended  by  crowds  of  persons  actively  engaged  in  busi- 
ness. More  than  2,000  places  in  N.  Y.  (state)  were  re- 
ported as  partaking  of  this  revival.  Very  soon  after- 
ward a  similar  movement  took  place  in  n.  Ireland,  not 
apparently  arising  from  that  in  America,  though  certainly 
connected  with  it  soon  afterward,  and  promoted  by  the 
tidings  of  it.  It  rapidly  extended  over  the  whole  north 
of  Ireland,  and  subsequently  to  Scotland,  Wales,  and 
parts  of  England.  As  a  rule,  it  was  free  from  excite- 
ment, and  characterized  by  little  else  than  intensity  of 
religious  feeling.  Another  remarkable  revival,  which 
extended  over  the  greater  part  of  Great  Britain  1874-5, 
originated  in  the  efforts  of  two  American  evangelists, 
Moody  and  Sankey,  and  was  characterized  by  almost 
entire  absence  of  sensationalism,  and  by  a  general  reli- 
gious awakening.  See  Moody,  Dwight  Lyman  :  Evan- 
gelist. 

R.  have  occurred  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  A  wide- 
spread movement  of  this  kind  in  Switzerland,  extended 
under  the  ministry  of  Felix  Neff  to  the  Prot.  district  of 
Dauphine,  and  to  the  neighboring  Vaudois  or  Waldenses, 
on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Alps.  Similar  religious  move- 
ments have  occurred  in  recent  years  in  many  parts  of 
Sweden.  The  Rom.  Cath.  Chh.  has  had  in  various  coun- 
tries many  well-organized  and  efficient  R.,  termed  mis- 
sions  (see  Mission).  The  Church  of  England,  and  recently 
the  Prot.  Episc.  Chh.  in  the  United  States,  have  organ- 
ized special  *  missions/  developing  wide  and  deep  re- 
ligious interest  under  earnest  and  pungent  preaching, 
though  carefully  guarded  against  mere  sensatioualism. 
Congl.,  Presb.,  and  Meth.  missionaries  have  had  some 
remarkable  R.  in  heathen  lands.  Notable  were  those 
which  many  years  ago  swept  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and 
resulted  in  the  organization  of  immense  Congl.  churches; 
and  those  among  the  Teiugus  i"  India,  among  whom  the 


REVIVALS. 

Bapt.  missionaries  gathered  convert  numbering  more 
than  12,000  within  5  years. 

R.  have  been  accounted  for  in  very  different  ways;  but 
in  general,  too  evidently  in  mere  accordance  with  the  dif- 
ferent religious  views  of  those  by  whom  the  theories 
have  been  proposed.  Some  opponents  have  attempted 
to  explain  the  phenomena  of  religious  excitement  ex- 
tending over  wide  districts,  and  rapidly  spreading  from 
place  to  place,  by  the  supposition  of  a  kind  of  epidemic 
disease  affecting  the  mind.  Another  opinion  prevalent 
among  those  who  see  in  R.  nothing  good,  is,  that  they 
are  the  result* of  endeavors  to  work  on  the  feelings.  It 
is  replied,  that  though  this  theory  might  be  plausible,  if 
only  such  instances  were  considered  as  the  camp-meet- 
ings of  the  Southern  Methodists,  it  is  far  from  being  in 
accordance  with  ascertained  facts  as  to  many  of  the  R. 
in  America  and  in  other  countries.  It  is  certain  that 
many  of  these  have  taken  place  without  any  attempt  to 
work  on  the  feelings,  more  than  has  been  always  ordi- 
nary and  proper  in  the  preaching  of  the  gospel;  and  that 
the  greatest  outburst  of  emotion  has  often  been  connect- 
ed with  preaching  of  the  most  simple  and  sober  kind. — 
By  those  who  believe  in  the  reality  of  R.  as  productive 
of  a  true  increase  of  religion,  they  are  ascribed  to  the 
operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  which,  according  to  the 
*  evangelical'  scheme,  the  'conversion'  of  every  indi- 
vidual soul  is  ascribed,  and  also  all  increase  of  faith  and 
piety  in  the  converted.  R.  have,  however,  often  been 
regarded  with  doubt  by  many  who  believe  in  the  whole 
doctrine  of  the  work  of  the  Spirit  as  generally  held  in 
the  Prot.  churches,  but  who  regard  the  excitement  fre- 
quently attending  them  as  inconsistent  with  the  proper 
sobriety  and  solemnity  of  religion,  and  think  the  prog- 
ress of  religion  ought  rather  to  be  gradual,  and  without 
much  to  call  attention  to  it  at  one  time  more  than  an- 
other. To  this  it  is  replied,  that  while  a  blessing  on  the 
regular  use  of  ordinances  may  confidently  be  expected  if 
duly  sought  by  prayer,  there  is  yet  much  in  Scripture 
and  in  the  nature  of  the  human  mind  to  indicate  that 
particular  seasons  may  be  unusually  marked  by  the  evi- 
dence of  a  blessing;  and  further,  that  R.,  when  they  take 
place,  generally  show  the  usefulness  of  the  ordinary 
religious  means,  as  they  seldom  occur  among  persons 
very  ignorant  of  Christian  truth,  but  rather  among  those 
who  have  previously  had  the  most  faithful  ministra- 
tions. With  regard  to  the  excitement  attending  many 
revivals,  it  is  argued  that  this  excitement  is  not  wonder- 
ful, if  persons  are  suddenly  impressed  with  a  deep  sense 
of  their  sins  and  of  the  danger  of  being  separated  for- 
ever from  God,  and  that  it  is  in  some  measure  also  to  be 
expected  in  those  brought  by  quick  transition  from  deep 
distress  to  a  full  sense  of  God's  forgiveness  and  love. 
Are  we  to  be  surprised,  it  is  asked,  if  persons  in  such 
circumstances,  after  much  effort  of  self-restraint,  cry 
aloud  in  the  congregation,  or  fall  down,  overpowered  by 
their  emotions  ?    It  is  sometimes  alleged  by  the  oppo- 


REVIVALS. 

nents  of  R.,  that  much  of  the  excitement  manifested  in 
them  is  merely  hysterical ;  and  some  of  their  advocates 
have  rashly  denied  that  this  is  ever  the  case ;  others, 
more  prudent,  admitting  it,  deny  that  it  affords  any  just 
cause  of  objection,  and  maintain  that  hysterical  excite- 
ment is  for  certain  temperaments  natural  and  unavoid- 
able in  such  circumstances;  they  acknowledge,  however, 
that  like  excitement  produced  by  causes  which  have 
nothing  to  do  with  religion,  it  may  extend  from  one  to 
another,  even  where  the  cause  in  which  it  originated 
does  not  operate ;  and  they  therefore  decline  to  consider 
such  excitement  as  in  itself  any  evidence  of  the  religious 
or  spiritual  condition  of  the  persons  affected  by  it.  It 
may  be  conceded  also  by  the  friends  of  R.,  that  such  oc- 
casions are  favorable  and  inviting  to  persons  whose  zeal 
exceeds  their  discretion,  and  too  often  afford  opportu- 
nity for  ignorant  and  self-conceited  or  over-excitable 
persons  to  thrust  themselves  forward  as  teachers  and 
conductors  of  religious  exercises.  Friendly  criticism 
may  be  directed  «aiso  against  too  much  urging  of  persons 
who  have  been  of  very  profligate  life  to  recount  their 
own  history,  which  has  sometimes  been  carried  so  far, 
that  they  have  seemed  even  to  glory  in  the  enormity  of 
their  past  wickedness.  The  criticism  also  has  been 
made  that  certain  peculiar  modes  of  expression,  not  un- 
aptly designated  a  kind  of  slang,  have  sometimes  come 
into  use  in  connection  with  R.,  with  the  unhappy  effect 
of  prejudicing  against  them  many  minds,  particularly 
among  the  educated  classes.  This  is  an  infelicity  which 
R.  share  with  other  great  popular  movements. 

Endeavor  has  here  been  made  to  present  the  subject 
fairly ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  opinion  formed  by  any  one 
will  depend  largely  on  his  general  religious  views.  As 
to  mere  religious  excitement,  however,  and  bodily  affec- 
tions resulting  from  it,  many  facts  show,  what  might  be 
presumed  beforehand,  that  these  may  be  connected  with 
religious  views  extremely  at  variance.  Excitement  may 
be  produced  by  religious  views  utterly  false,  as  well  as 
by  the  true.  Heathenism  has  always  abounded  in  it; 
Mohammedanism  has  much  of  it.  Also,  allusion  may 
be  made  to  the  extravagances  of  the  Flagellants  (q.v.), 
and  to  the  strange  scenes  of  the  Dancing  Mania. 

The  subject  of  this  article  has  been  treated  in  a  multi- 
tude of  publications,  almost  every  revival  which  takes 
place  calling  forth  new  pamphlets,  narrative  and  con- 
troversial. The  works  of  Jonathan  Edwards  deserve 
the  first  attention  of  those  who  wish  to  study  the  subject ; 
Finney's  views  and  accounts  also  are  important;  and 
much  information  as  to  the  history  of  R.  is  in  Gillies's 
Historical  Collections  Relating  to  Remarkable  Periods  of  the 
Success  of  the  Gospel.  See  also  Mrs.  Lundie's  work  Re- 
vivals in  the  British  Isles ;  Robe's  Narrative  of  the  Revival 
of  Religion  at  Kilsyth,  Cambuslang,  and  other  Places  in 
1742  (new  ed.,  Glasgow,  1840).  Edwards  maintains  the 
genuineness  of  revivals  with  perhaps  more  force  of 
argument  than  any  writer  has  since  clone;  and  most  of 


REVIVE — REVOCABLE. 
thas<  extravagances  which  have  sometimes  attended 
revivals  to  the  present  time,  might  have  been  avoided  if 
those  whose  religious  views  accord  with  his  had  more 
carefully  studied  his  discriminating  remarks  and  sober 
counsels.  No  work  has  yet  been  produced  such  as 
Edwards  in  one  of  his  letters  expresses  a  strong  desire 
to  see — '  a  history  of  true,  vital,  and  experimental 
religion,  and  enthusiasm,  bringing  down  the  history 
from  age  to  age,  judiciously  and  clearly  making  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  one  and  the  other.' 

REVIVE,  v.  re-viv'  [F.  revivre,  to  rise  from  the  dead— 
from  L.  revivere,  to  live  again — from  re,  again;  vivo,  I 
live :  It.  rivivere] :  to  return  to  life ;  to  recover  from  a 
state  of  neglect ;  to  recover  new  life  or  vigor ;  to 
restore  or  bring  again  to  life ;  to  be  reanimated  after 
depression ;  to  reanimate ;  to  quicken ;  to  refresh ;  to 
bring  back  to  the  memory ;  to  inspire  anew  with  hope  or 
joy;  in  chem.,  to  recover  or  reduce  to  its  natural  state, 
as  a  metal  after  calcination.  Reviving,  imp. :  Adj. 
coming  to  life  again  ;  reanimating  ;  refreshing  :  N.  the 
act  of  coming  to  life  again.  Revived',  pp.  -vivd'.  Re- 
vi'vingly,  ad.  -U.  Revi'val,  n.  -ral,  recovery  to  life 
from  death  or  apparent  death ;  return  to  activity  from 
a  state  of  languor ;  recovery  from  a  state  of  neglect  or 
depression;  renewed  and  more  active  attention  to  the 
importance  of  religion ;  the  means  by  which  this  is 
accomplished  (see  Revivals).  Revi'valist,  n.  -val-lst, 
one  who  endeavors  to  promote  a  greater  earnestness  in 
religion.  Revi'ver,  n.  -ver,  he  or  that  which  invigorates 
or  revives ;  one  who  brings  into  notice  again  after 
neglect.  Revivor,  n.  -ver,  in  law,  bill  or  writ  in 
renewal  of  a  suit  abated  by  the  death  of  one  of  the 
parties  to  it.  Revivification,  n.  re-viv'i-fi-ka' 'shun  [L. 
facto,  I  make]  :  restoration  of  life;  the  act  of  recalling 
to  life.  Revival  of  learning  (see  Renaissance,  The), 
— Syn.  of  'revive':  to  refresh;  reanimate:  renovate; 
renew;  recover;  reinvigorate ;  awaken;  animate; 
quicken  ;  rouse  ;  comfort. 

REVIVIFY,  v.  re-vlv%-f%  [re,  and  vivify]  :  to  give  new 
life  or  vigor  to  ;  to  reanimate. 

REVIVISCENT,  a.  revl-vis'sent  [L.  revivis'cens  or  re- 
viviseen'tem,  coming  to  life  again — from  re,  again; 
vives'co,  I  get  life ;  vivere,  to  live]  :  regaining  or  restor- 
ing life.  Rev'ivis'cence,  n.  -sens,  or  Rev'ivis'cency, 
n.  -sen-si,  renewal  of  life;  reanimation. 

REVIVOR  :  see  under  Revive. 

REVOCABLE,  a.  rev'o-ka-bl  [F.  revocable— from  L. 
revocab%l%s,  revocable— from  revocare,  to  recall — from 
re,  back  or  again;  voco,  I  call :  It.  revocabile]  :  that  may 
be  recalled;  that  may  be  repealed  or  annulled.  Rev'o- 
cably,  ad.  -bli.  Rev'ocableness,  n.  -bl-nes,  or  Rev'- 
ocabil'ity,  n.  -bil'i-ti,  the  quality  of  being  revocable. 
Rev'oca'tion,  n.  -kd'shun  [F. — L.j  :  the  calling  back  of 
a  thing  granted;  repeal;  reversal  (see  below).  REVO- 
CATORY, a.  rev'd-ka'ter-i,  tending  to  revoke. 


RE  VOCATION— BE  VOLUTIN  N. 

REVOCA'TION,  in  Law :  the  withdrawing  or  annulling 
of  a  deed  or  will  otherwise  valid.  A  will  is  said  to  be 
always  subject  to  R.,  even  though  the  testator  say  in 
the  most  express  language  that  it  is  not  to  be  revocable ; 
because  a  will  is  supposed  to  be  subject  to  the  ever- 
varying  occasions  of  life.  On  the  other  hand,  a  deed  is 
not  capable  of  R.,  and  is  in  its  nature  final ;  but  if  an 
express  proviso  is  inserted  which  reserves  a  power  of 
R.,  then  this  is  a  valid  power,  provided  the  directions  of 
the  deed  are  strictly  followed. 

REVOKE,  v.  re-vok'  [F.  revoquer — from  L.  rtvocare,  to 
recall — from  re,  back  or  again ;  voco,  I  call :  It*  revocare] : 
to  repeal ;  to  annul ;  to  reverse,  as  a  law ;  to  declare 
void ;  to  renounce  at  cards :  N.  the  act  of  renouncing 
at  cards.  Revoking,  imp.  Revoked,  pp.  re-vokt\ 
Revoke'ment,  n.  -merit,  repeal ;  recall ;  revocation. — 
Byn.  of  '  revoke,  v.' :  to  annul ;  cancel ;  abolish ;  recall ; 
countermand;  rescind;  repeal;  abrogate;  reverse; 
abjure. 

REVOLT,  v.  re-vdlt'  [F.  revolter,  to  raise  a  rebellion ; 
revolte,  a  revolt — from  L.  revolutus,  revolved — from  re, 
back ;  volvere,  to  roll :  It.  rivoltare,  to  revolt ;  rivolta,  a 
revolt]  :  literally,  to  turn  round ;  to  fall  off  or  turn  from 
one  to  another ;  to  renounce  allegiance  to  a  sovereign 
or  a  state ;  to  shock ;  to  cause  to  turn  away  from  with 
abhorrence  or  disgust;  in  OE.,  to  change:  N.  a  change 
of  sides;  insurrection;  rebellion;  in  OE.,  one  who 
changes  sides.  Revolting,  imp. :  Adj.  doing  violence 
to  the  feelings ;  exciting  abhorrence.  Revolted,  pp. : 
Adj.  turned  away  from  allegiance  or  duty;  shocked. 
Revolt'ingly,  ad.  -li.  Revolver,  n.  -er,  one  who  re- 
volts.— Syn.  of  *  revolt,  n.':  insurrection;  sedition; 
revolution ;  rebellion ;  mutiny. 

REVOLUTE,  a.  rev'd-ldt  [L.  revolutus,  revolved — from 
re,  back  or  again;  volvere,  to  roll] :  in  hot.,  rolled  back- 

fward  from  the  margins  upon  the  under  sur- 
face, as  the  edges  of  certain  leaves  are  in  ver- 
nation ;  also  Rev'olutive,  a.  -lo-tlv. 
REVOLUTION,  n.  rev'd-lo'shun  [F.  revolution, 
Re  volute,  revolution — from  L.  revolutionem — from  revolu- 
tus, revolved — from  re,  back;  volvere,  to  roll: 
It.  rivoluzione] :  the  motion  of  a  body  round  any  fixed 
point  or  centre ;  motion  or  course  of  anything  which 
brings  it  back  to  the  same  state  or  point ;  change  or 
alteration  of  system ;  an  extensive  and  sudden  change 
in  the  constitution  of  a  country  (see  below).  Rev'olu'- 
tionary,  a.  -er-i,  pert,  to  a  revolution,  or  tending  to  pro- 
duce one :  N.  a  revolutionist.  Revolutionize,  v.  -iz, 
to  effect  an  extensive  or  entire  change  in  the  form  or 
principles  of  a  thing.  Revolutionizing,  imp.  Rev- 
olutionized, pp.  -%zd.  Revolutionist,  n.  -1st,  one 
engaged  in  endeavoring  to  effect  a  change  in  the  govern- 
ment of  a  country. 


REVOLUTION — REVOLUTIONARY  TRIBUNAL. 

REVOLUTION,  in  Politics:  any  extensive  sudden 
change  in  the  constitution  of  a  country. — The  English 
R.  of  the  17th  c.  began  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  with  the  struggle  between  that  king  and  his 
parliament :  in  1642  the  struggle  became  a  civil  war,  in 
which  the  parliament  obtained  ascendency,  and  brought 
Charles  to  the  block  1649.  A  commonwealth  followed, 
under  the  protectorate  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  which  was 
mcceeded  1660  by  the  restoration  of  monarchy  in  the 
person  of  Charles  II. ;  but  the  arbitrary  rule  of  James  II. 
brought  the  king  and  people  again  into  antagonism; 
and  James  having  fled  the  country,  William  III.  was 
called  to  the  throne  by  the  R.  of  1688,  under  such  con- 
ditions and  safeguards  as  secured  the  balance  of  the 
constitution. — The  French  R.  was  a  violent  reaction 
against  that  absolutism  which  in  the  course  of  time  had 
supplanted  the  old  feudal  institutions  of  the  country. 
It  began  with  an  outbreak  of  insurrectionary  movements 
at  Paris  1789,  July,  including  the  destruction  of  the 
Bastile.  1793,  Jan.  21,  King  Louis  XVI.  was  beheaded: 
the  Christian  religion  was  soon  discarded,  the  sacredness 
of  the  Republic  and  worship  of  Reason  solemnized,  and 
the  disastrous  Reign  of  Terror  (q.v.)  and  of  blood  fol- 
lowed, which  was  brought  to  an  end  1794,  when  Robes- 
pierre himself  suffered  on  the  guillotine  the  fate  to  which 
he  had  condemned  countless  multitudes  of  his  country- 
men.— The  American  R.  began  1775,  by  which  the  Brit. 
N.  Amer.  colonies,  throwing  off  their  dependence  on 
Great  Britain,  became  the  United  States  (q.v.). — The 
French  R.  of  1830  drove  Charles  X.  into  exile,  and  raised 
Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  to  the  throne  by  the 
will  of  the  people.  In  the  French  R.  of  1848,  France 
rose  against  Louis  Philippe,  and  adopted  for  a  time  a 
republican  govt. — the  revolutionary  contagion  spreading 
temporarily  over  most  of  continental  Europe.  The  third 
French  republic  also  was  established  1870-1  by  a  R.-— By 
the  Italian  R.  of  1859-60,  the  various  minor  sovereigns  of 
Italy  were  driven  into  exile,  and  the  whole  of  the  penin- 
sula became  (with  the  incorporation  of  the  Roman  ter- 
ritories 1870)  subject  to  King  Victor  Emmanuel. — In 
1889,  Nov.,  Brazil  was  changed  from  an  empire  to  a  repub« 
lie  by  "a  bloodless  revolution." 

R EVOLUTION ARY  CAL'ENDAR,  n.  :  calendar 
adopted  by  the  French  Republic:  see  Calendab. 

REVOLUTIONARY  TRIBUNAL:  name  given  spe- 
cially to  the  infamous  court  of  judgment — not  of  justice 
—instituted  by  the  French  convention  1793,  Mar.,  on  a 
motion  by  Danton  (q.v.),  who  considered  that  such  a 
coiiit  had  become  necessary,  inasmuch  as  the  recent 
disasters  of  the  national  armies:  on  the  frontiers  had  led 
to  dangerous  conspiracies  against  the  revolutionary 
govt.  Its  members  were  chosen  from  the  various 
departments,  and  their  appointment  was  ratified  by  the 
convention.  Their  function  was  to  sit  in  judgment  on 
ail  persons  accused  of  crimes  against  the  state,  and  from 


REVOLUTIONARY  WAR — REVOLVER, 
their  sentence,  delivered  with  appalling  promptitude, 
there  was  no  appeal.  During  the  *  Reign  of  Terror,' 
when  Fouquier-Tinville  (q.v.)  was  *  public  accuser,'  the 
R.  T.  acquired  a  horrible  notoriety,  soon  abolishing 
almost  all  forms  of  justice,  neither  hearing  witnesses  on 
behalf  of  the  accused,  nor  allowing  him  opportunity  of 
defense,  but  blindly  executing  the  orders  of  the  *  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety,'  which  was  merely  a  tool  in  the 
hands  of  Robespierre  (q.v.). — In  the  provinces,  similar 
tribunals,  under  the  name  1  Revolutionary  Committees,' 
were  established,  the  commissaries-general  of  which, 
e.g.,  Carrier  (q.v.),  shot  or  drowned  suspects  in  crowds. 

REVOLUTIONARY  WAR :  see  United  States. 

REVOLVE,  v.  re-volv'  [L.  revolver  e,  to  revolve — from 
re,  back ;  volvere,  to  roll]  :  to  roll  in  a  circle ;  to  turn 
round,  as  on  an  axis ;  to  move  round  a  centre ;  to  turn 
over  and  over,  as  in  the  mind ;  to  meditate  on.  Revolv'- 
'  ing,  imp. :  Adj.  rolling  or  turning  round ;  performing  a 
revolution.  Revolved',  pp.  -volvd'.  Revolv'ency,  n. 
-vdlv'en-si,  act,  state,  or  principle  of  revolving.  Revolv'- 
er,  n.  -er,  a  pistol  having  several  chambers  to  one  barrel, 
each  containing  a  separate  charge,  and  which  can  be 
discharged  in  rapid  succession  (see  below).  Revolving 
light,  the  light  of  a  Light-house  (q.v.),  so  arranged  as  to 
appear  and  disappear  at  certain  intervals.  Revolving 
storms,  or  Cyclones,  violent  storms  which,  while  ad- 
vancing bodily  in  a  definite  direction,  rotate  about  an 
axis  with  great  rapidity. 

REVOLVER,  in  Firearms :  weapon  which,  by  means 
of  a  revolving  breech,  or  revolving  barrels,  can  be  made 
to  fire  more  than  once  without  reloading.  The  invention 
is  not  recent— specimens  with  even  the  present  system 
of  rotation  being  still  in  existence  which  were  manufact- 
ured at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c.  Probably  the  first 
R.  to  suggest  itself  was  one  in  which  several  barrels 
were  mounted  on  an  axis,  and  made  to  revolve  by  the 
action  of  the  trigger,  so  that  their  powder-pans  came 
successively  under  the  action  of  the  lock.  This  principle 
was  never  entirely  abandoned,  and  in  the  reign  of  George 
IV.  a  pistol  was  produced,  called  the  *  Mariette,'  which 
had  from  4  to  24  small  barrels  bored  in  a  solid  mass  of 
metal,  made  to  revolve  as  the  trigger  was  drawn  back. 
At  close  quarters,  such  a  pistol  would  doubtless  have 
been  useful ;  but  its  great  weight  and  cumbrous  mech- 
anism rendered  aim  extremely  unsteady. 

Contemporaneously  from  the  first  with  the  revolving 
barrels  went  the  formation  of  a  revolving  chamber  or 
breech,  pierced  with  several  cylindrical  apertures  to 
receive  the  charges.  Being  made  to  revolve,  each 
motion  brought  a  chamber  into  line  with  the  one  barrel, 
common  to  all,  whereupon  the  weapon  was  ready  for 
discharge.  Numerous  patents  for  this  principle  have 
been  taken  out,  including  one  by  the  renowned  Marquis 
of  Worcester  1661.  Various  improvements  were  made, 
especially  in  the  mode  of  causing  revolution ;  an  Anier* 


REVOLVER. 

ican.  Elisha  H.  Collier,  patenting  such  a  weapon  In  the 
United  States  and  England  about  1818.  In  1835  Col. 
Samuel  Colt,  of  Hartford,  after  years  of  experiment, 


Fig.  2.— Chamber  with 
Five  Barrels. 


Fig.l: 

a,  the  chamber;  b,  hammer;  c,  trigger;  d,  spur  for  raising  th® 
hammer;  e,  lever-ramrod. 

patented  his  world-renowned  Colt's  K.,  a  great  advance 
on  all  previous  attempts,  and  substantially  still  in  use. 
Colt's  R.  consists  of  one  rifled  barrel  of  considerable 
strength  and  a  massive  chamber  perforated  with  six  or 
seven  barrels,  which  are  brought  successively  into  a 
line  with  the  barrel  by  action  of 
the  trigger.  Each  chamber  had 
its  nipple  for  a  cap,  which  is 
brought  under  the  hammer  by  the 
same  motion  which  brings  the 
chamber  or  breech-piece  round. 
In  recent  forms,  the  capped  nipple 
disappears,  the  cap  being  con- 
tained within  the  cartridge.  The 
hammer  is  discharged  by  the 
trigger,  and  acts  nearly  horizontally  in  a  forward  direc- 
tion. Under  the  pistol  is  a  fixed  lever-ramrod,  used  in 
loading  the  chambers.  Besides  all  this,  by  withdrawing 
a  bolt,  which  can  be  done  in  a  moment,  the  entire  breech- 
piece  can  be  taken  out,  and  replaced  by  another  ready- 
charged,  so  that,  by  carrying  a  spare  breech-piece,  a 
person  may  fire  12  shots  in  less  time  than  another  could 
fire  3  if  he  had  to  load  between  the  shots. 

Colt's  R.  has  been  described  because  it  was  the  earliest 
form  that  was  entirely  successful.  Many  ingenious 
modifications  have  been  introduced,  and  choice  can  now 
be  made  among  various  styles  of  perhaps  equal  excel- 
lence. 

The  R.  principle  has  been  applied  to  a  kind  of  revolv- 
ing guns  for  small  projectiles,  which  are  really  aggre- 
gates of  small-arms :  see  Gatling  Gun  :  Machine  Gun. 
Of  this  kind  of  gun,  the  best  known  is  the  French  mitrail- 
leuse or  mitrailleur,  used  during  the  Franco-German  war 
— having  usually  25  barrels.  The  range  of  such  guns  in 
a  level  plain  is  not  great ;  but  among  fortifications,  or  in 
a  narrow  valley,  they  may  be  used  with  very  deadly 
effect. 


REVOMlT — REWARD. 

REVOMIT,  v.  re-vom'U  [re,  again,  and  vomit]  :  to  vomit 
or  pour  forth  again. 

REVULSION,  n.  re-vul'$hwi  [F.  revulsion,  revulsion — 
from  L.  revulsionem,  a  tearing  off  or  away  ;  revulaus,  torn 
away — from  re,  back  or  again ;  vellere,  to  pull] :  the  act 
of  holding  or  drawing  back;  a  violent  separation;  in 
med.,  the  act  of  turning  or  diverting  a  disease  from  one 
part  of  the  body  to  another  (see  Derivation  :  Counter- 
irritant).  Revui/sive,  a.  -siv,  tending  to  cause  re- 
vulsion: N.  a  medicine  to  cause  a  revulsion.  Revui/- 
sively,  ad.  4i. 

REWAH,  ra'wa,  or  Baghelcund  :  state  in  India, 
between  the  N.W.  and  the  Central  Provinces,  sub- 
sidiary to  the  govt,  of  the  latter,  and  having  for  its  capc 
the  town  of  R.,  70  m.  s.w.  from  Allahabad,  on  the  right 
b;mk  of  the  Tons  (pop.  about  7,000).  The  town  has  re- 
mains of  former  magnificence,  but  even  the  walls  and 
the  rajah's  palace  are  much  decayed. — The  state  has 
11,324  sq.  m.,  and  great  part  of  it  is  well  cultivated. 
Pop.  1,509,500. 

REWARD,  n.  re-wawrd'  [re,  again,  and  award:  OF. 
rewarder ;  F.  regard^r,  to  regard] :  a  suitable  return  for 
kindness,  merit,  services,  and  the  like ;  the  fruits  of 
labor  or  industry ;  a  sum  of  money  offered  for  the  ap- 
prehension of  a  criminal,  or  for  the  recovery  of  lost 
property  (see  below) :  punishment :  V.  to  recompense ; 
to  signify  approval  by  a  gift ;  to  give  in  return,  either 
good  or  evil ;  to  remunerate ;  to  requite;  to  punish ;  to 
repay  evil.  Rewarding,  imp.  Rewarded,  pp.  Re- 
ward'er,  n.  -er,  he  who  or  that  which  rewards.  Re- 
ward'able,  a.  -a-bl,  that  may  be  rewarded.  Reward'- 
ableness,  n.  -bl-nes,  the  state  of  being  worthy  of  reward. 
Reward'less,  a.  -les,  without  a  reward ;  having  no  re- 
ward.— Syn.  of  *  reward,  n. ' :  compensation;  remunera- 
tion; pay;  recompense;  punishment;  retribution;  re- 
quital ;  satisfaction ;  guerdon. 

REWARD',  in  Law  :  recompense  awarded  by  authority 
of  law  for  some  act  in  the  interest  of  the  commonwealth  ; 
in  particular  for  detection  of  crime :  a  R.  may  be  offered 
either  by  public  authority  or  by  private  persons  (but  see 
Compounding  of  Felony).  A  witness  testifying  in  a 
criminal  cause  in  hope  of  a  R.  is  a  competent  witness. 
Courts  will  enforce  the  fulfilment  of  an  offer  of  R. ;  but 
such  offer  may  be  revoked  at  pleasure.  In  the  United 
States  generally  it  is  the  state  executive  or  the  sheriffs 
of  counties,  or  the  supervisors  or  selectmen  of  towns, 
etc.,  that  offer  rewards  on  behalf  of  the  public;  and 
neither  executive  officers,  courts,  nor  judges  have  au- 
thority to  make  compensation  to  citizens  for  their  exer- 
tions in  bringing  offenders  to  p'Unishment,  except  when 
there  is  a  public  offer  of  R. — In  Ejigland  the  practice  is 
different.  By  an  English  act  of  parliament  of  1827, 
whenever  it  appears  to  a  court  of  assize  that  a  per- 
son has  been  active  in  apprehending  offenders  charged 
with  murder,  or  with  feloniously  shooting,  stabbing, 


REWARDS— REYNARD  THE  FOX. 
cutting,  wounding,  or  poisoning,  or  with  rape,  burglary, 
housebreaking,  robbery,  arson,  or  cattle-stealing,  or 
with  receiving  stolen  goods,  the  court  may  order  the 
sheriff  of  the  county  to  pay  to  such  person  a  sum  of 
money,  to  compensate  his  expenses,  exertions,  and  loss 
of  time.  So  courts  of  quarter  sessions  may  order  a  re- 
ward not  exceeding  £5.  If  any  man  happen  to  be  killed 
while  endeavoring  to  apprehend  a  criminal  charged  with 
any  of  these  offenses,  the  court  may  also  order  a  sum  to 
be  paid  to  the  widow  or  child. 

REWARDS  for  Distinguished  Military  Service: 
in  England,  annuities — commonly  of  £100  each — granted 
to  meritorious  officers  in  consideration  of  distinguished 
service. 

REWORD,  v.  re-werdf  [re,  and  word] :  in  OE.t  to  repeat 
in  the  same  words. 

REWRITE,  v.  rB-rif  [re,  again,  and  write]  :  to  write  a 
second  time. 

REX,  n.  reks  [L.] :  a  king. 

REY'KIAYIK :  see  Iceland. 

REYNARD,  n.  ren'ard  :  another  spelling  of  Renard,  a 
fox,  which  see. 

REYN'ARD  THE  FOX  :  title  of  a  celebrated  epic  fable 
of  the  middle  ages,  belonging  to  and  terminating  the 
series  of  poems  in  which  *  beasts  '  are  the  speakers  and 
actors.  It  is  written  in  Low  German,  professedly  by  a 
Hinreck  van  Alckmer,  1  schoolmaster  and  tutor  of  that 
noble  virtuous  Prinee  and  Lord  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,' 
and  was  printed  at  Liibeck  1498,  under  the  title  Reineke 
Vos  ;  but  German  critics  in  general  are  disposed  to  be- 
lieve that  no  such  person  as  Hinreck  van  Alckmer  ever 
existed — he  is  nowhere  else  mentioned  in  history — and 
that  the  real  author  is  a  Hermann  Barkhusen,  town-clerk 
and  book-printer  in  Rostock,  who,  according  to  a  com- 
mon practice,  sent  his  book  into  the  world  under  a  pseu- 
donym. A  Rostock  edition  appeared  1517,  long  believed 
the  earliest,  until  the  discovery  of  a  copy — the  only  one 
known — of  the  older  Liibeck  ed.  in  the  Wolfenbiittel  Li- 
brary by  Prof.  Hakemann,  who  published  it  1711.  Since 
then,  the  work  has  been  repeatedly  republished  in  Ger- 
many— the  best  ed.  being  that  of  Hoffmann  von  Fallers- 
leben  (Bresl.  183-1,  2d  ed.  1852),  enriched  with  '  Introduc- 
tion,' *  Notes,' and  *  Glossary.' — Translations  were  early 
made  from  the  Rostock  ed.  into  High  German,  that  of 
Mich.  Beuther  (Frankf.  1544)  passing  through  more 
than  20  editions.  The  High-German  translation  was  re- 
translated into  Latin  verse  by  Hartmann  Schopper 
(Frankf.  1567),  and  thus  found  its  way  into  other  coun- 
tries. Goethe  translated  the  work  into  modern  German 
hexameters  with  admirable  spirit  and  freshness  (Berl. 
1794),  and  his  translation  has  been  charmingly  illustrated 
by  Kaulbach  (Mun.  1847) :  later  translations  are  those 
by  Soltau  (Berl.  1803)  and  Simrock  (Frankf.  1845-52), 
both  executed  in  the  measure  of  the  original — rhymed 
Vol.  32—5 


EEYNaKB  the  fox. 

iambic  couplets.  There  are  Danish  and  Swedish  trans- 
lations. 

An  interesting  question  is — Was  the  work  an  original 
product  of  the  author's  fancy,  or  the  final  form  assumed 
by  a  widespread  fable?  Till  Jakob  Grimm  published  the 
results  of  his  laborious  researches,  everybody  supposed 
that  the  poem  printed  at  Liibeck  1498  was  the  earliest 
literary  embodiment,  if  not  the  direct  source,  of  the 
fable;  but  that  opinion  is  no  longer  tenable.  Grimm 
has  shown  that,  in  one  form  or  another,  the  *  beast-fable  ' 
(Ger.  Thiersage)  goes  back  to  the  remotest  antiquity, 
and  is  a  common  inheritance  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-Ger- 
manic  races — Hindus,  Celts,  Greeks,  Romans,  Slaves, 
Esthonians,  Germans— and  even  the  Finns ;  and  he  ex- 
plains with  great  clearness  the  conditions  of  thought, 
intellectual  and  religious,  under  which  such  a  literary 
form  is  developed.  But  all  nations  did  not  attain  equal 
success  in  its  cultivation,  and  it  was  among  the  Ger- 
mans, particularly  the  Franks,  that  it  attained  its  most 
complete  poetical  elaboration.  Grimm  is  inclined  to 
deem  the  particular  fable  Reineke  Vos  of  German  rather 
than  oriental  origin,  and  that  the  Franks  brought  it 
with  them  to  the  Netherlands  and  to  France,  where  (and 
not  in  Low-Germany)  it  first  appeared.  The  Flemish 
and  early  French  form  of  the  story  kept  itself  free  of 
merely  temporary  phenomena,  and  gradually  shaped 
itself  into  a  style  of  pure  epic  satire,  reflecting  general 
human  characteristics.  Before  the  close  of  the  12th  c, 
this  purer  and  more  epic  form  of  the  satire  found  its  way 
into  both  German  and  Flemish  literature  :  see  Grimm's 
Reinhart  Fucks  (Berlin  1834) ;  and  Reinaertde  Vos  (pub.  by 
J.  F.  Willems,  Ghent  1836-50,  at  expense  of  the  Bel- 
gian govt.).  How  popular  the  fable  became  in  France 
may  be  estimated  from  the  fact  that  the  German  word 
Reinhart  (old  form,  Raginohart — i.e.,  *  bold'  or  1  cunning 
in  counsel '),  which  merely  designates  the  character  of 
\he  Fox,  has  entirely  superseded  the  old  Franco-Latin 
word  goupil  (from  the  Latin  vulpes).  The  peculiarity  of 
E.  the  F.  consists  in  this,  that  it  is  the  latest,  best,  and 
most  complete  of  the  whole  series  of  poems  about  the 
Fox,  gathering  into  itself,  the  merits  of  its  predecessors, 
and  presenting  the  whole  in  epic  unity.  The  work  now 
consulted  by  general  readers  is  Goethe's  version  (excel- 
lent Eng.  translation  into  heroic  verse  by  T.  J.  Arnold, 
with  illustrations  by  J.  Wolf,  Lond.  1855).  For  a  critical 
appreciation  of  the  fable,  see  Carlyle's  '  Essay  on  Ger- 
man Literature  of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Cen- 
turies '  (Miscellaneous  Essays). 


REYNOLDS. 

REYNOLDS,  ren'olz,  John  Fulton:  soldier:  1820, 
Sep.  20 — 1863,  July  1;  b;  Lancaster,  Perm.  He  graduat- 
ed from  West  Point  1841,  served  under  Gen.  Taylor  in 
the  Mexican  war,  and  was  brevetted  capt.  and  major  for 
gallantry  at  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista.  After  several 
years  on  the  frontier,  he  was  stationed  at  West  Point 
1859,  In  the  civil  war  he  led  a  brigade  in  the  Peninsular 
campaign,  was  a  prisoner  1862,  June — Aug.,  and  was 
then  exchanged.  At  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Eun  and 
in  the  Maryland  campaign  he  commanded  a  division, 
and  commanded  the  1st  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg. In  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  just  as  he  had 
arranged  his  troops  and  was  cheering  them  to  the 
assault,  he  was  killed  by  a  rifle-ball.  In  his  honor  a 
bronze  statue  was  erected  by  the  1st  corps,  and  a  granite 
shaft  by  the  state  of  Penn.,  at  Gettysburg ;  and  a  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  him  has  been  placed  in  front  of  the 
city  hall  in  Philadelphia.  By  various  promotions  he 
reached  the  rank  of  maj.gen.  vols.  1862,  Nov.  29.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  gallant,  able,  and  popular  officers 
of  the  army. 

REYN'OLDS,  Joseph  Jones;  soldier:  b.  Flemings- 
burg,  Ky.,  1822,  Jan.  4.  He  graduated  from  West  Point 
1843,  was  with  the  U.  S.  troops  in  Texas  1845-6,  was 
asst.  prof,  at  West  Point  1849-56,  and  resigned  from 
the  armv  in  the  latter  year.  He  held  a  professorship  in 
Washington  Univ.,  St.  Louis,  till  1860.  The  following 
year  he  again  entered  the  army,  was  promoted  brig.gen. 
vols.,  participated  in  various  engagements  in  the  civil 
war,  resigned  1862,  Jan.,  but  organized  volunteers  in 
Ind.,  and  was  commissioned  col.  the  following  Aug.,  and 
brig.gen.  in  Sep.  He  served  in  the  Army  of  the  Cumber- 
land, was  promoted  maj.gen.  vols.,  was  in  the  battles 
of  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga,  commanded  the  de- 
fenses of  New  Orleans  during  the  first  part  of  1864,  and 
had  charge  of  the  dept.  of  Arkansas  1864-66.  In  1866, 
July,  he  was  again  appointed  col.  in  the  army,  and  in 
Sep.  was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  service.  He 
was  in  charge  of  the  5th  milit.  dist.  1867-72,  was 
elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate  from  Texas  1871,  but  declined 
to  serve,  and  was  in  command  of  the  dept.  of  the  Platte 
1872-76.  He  was  brevetted  brig.gen.  and  maj.gen.  U.  S. 
army  for  brilliant  service  at  Chickamauga  and  Mission 
Ridge,  and  was  retired  1877,  June. 

REYNOLDS,  Sir  Joshua,  p.r.a.  :  generally  acknowl- 
edged as  head  of  the  English  school  of  painting :  1723, 
July  16—1792,  Feb.  23 ;  b.  Plympton  Earl,  Devonshire, 
England;  son  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  R.,  rector  of  Plymp- 
ton, St.  Mary,  and  master  of  the  grammar  school  of 
Plympton.  The  rector  intended  his  son  for  the  medical 
profession,  but  Joshua,  having  early  shown  an  ardent 
desire  to  be  a  painter,  was  1741  placed  under  Hudson, 
principal  portrait-painter  of  the  day.  After  two  years 
with  this  artist,  he  commenced  on  his  own  account  as 
portrait-painter  at  Plymouth  Dock,  now  Devonport,  and 


RHABARBARATE— RIIABDOMANCY. 
met  great  encouragement.  In  1746  he  went  to  London, 
and  established  himself  in  A.  Martin's  Lane ;  but  1749 
accepted  Commodore  Keppel's  invitation  to  sail  with 
him  to  the  Mediterranean  station,  and,  on  arrival  in 
Leghorn,  proceeded  to  Rome.  He  spent  three  diligent 
years  in  Italy.  On  his  return  to  London,  1752,  Oct.,  his 
works  attracted  great  attention,  eclipsing  everything 
done  there  since  Van  Dyck's  time.  When  the  Royal 
Acad,  was  instituted  1769,  he  was  elected  pres. ;  wa  * 
knighted  by  George  III.,  and  on  Ramsay's  death,  1784, 
succeeded  him  as  painter  to  the  king.  He  died  in  his 
house  in  Leicester  Square,  and,  after  lying  in  state  at 
the  Royal  Acad.,  was  interred  in  the  crypt  of  St.  Paul's. 
Sir  Joshua  lived  in  friendly  intercourse  with  Johnson, 
Burke,  and  the  leading  men  of  his  period.  His  literary 
works  consist  of  15  Discourses  delivered  in  the  Royal 
Academy ;  three  essays  contributed  to  the  Idler,  at  Dr. 
Johnson's  request;'  notes  to  Mason's  translation  of 
Du  Fresnoy's  Art  of  Painting;  a  few  notes  for  Dr. 
Johnson's  ed.  of  Shakespeare;  and  notes  of  his  tour 
through  Flanders  1781.  In  his  writings  there  is  much 
valuable  information  on  art,  imparted  in  an  admirable 
manner ;  but  he  has  been  charged  with  laying  down  in 
them  various  rules,  and  holding  up  the  works  of  certain 
schools  as  models  for  the  student,  while  he  himself  did 
not  carry  out  these  preempts  in  his  practice  as  an  artist ; 
and  from  this  an  unfair  inference  has  been  drawn,  that 
from  love  of  gain  he  cultivated  portrait-painting,  the 
most  lucrative  branch  of  the  profession,  and  recom- 
mended others  to  follow  what  is  generally  believed  to 
be  a  more  arduous  but  less  remunerative  path  of  art. 
This  accusation  is  most  unjust :  perhaps  no  other  artist 
has  handed  down  in  writing  so  many  practically  useful 
maxims  and  observations  on  art.  His  paintings  are  nu- 
merous, and  bear  a  very  high  value.  There  are  nearly  700 
engravings  from  R.'s  pictures;  most  of  them  admirably 
rendered  in  mezzotint. — Northcote's  Life  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  (2  vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1819) ;  Cunningham's  Lives 
of  British  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects  (Lond.  1854, 
vol.  i.) 

RHABARBARATE,  a.  ra-bdr'ba-rat  [L,  rha  barbdrum, 
rhubarb  (see  Rhubarb)]  :  tinctured  with  rhubarb.  Rha- 
bar'barin,  or  Rhabar'barine,  n.  -ba-rin,  chrysophanic 
acid. 

RHABDOLOGY,  n.  rdb-dol'o-ji  [Gr.  rhabdos,  a  staff; 
logos,  discourse] :  the  art  of  computing  or  numbering  by 
means  of  Napier's  rods  or  bones.  Rhabdologic,  a.  rob'- 
do-lofik,  pert,  to  rhabdology,  or  performed  by  it. 

RH  ABDOMANCY,  n.  rdb' do-man' si  [Gr.  rhabdos,  a  rod ; 
mantei'a,  divination ;  mantis,  a  prophet]  :  divination  by 
a  rod  or  wand,  generally  of  witch-hazel,  to  indicate 
where  metals,  minerals,  or  water  may  be  found  in  the 
earth — a  superstitious  practice  not  yet  altogether  aban- 
doned ;  called  also  met!  alios' copy  or  hydros' copy :  see 
Divining-rod. 


RHABD0PI10RA 


l — RHAMNACEiE. 


RHABDOPHORA,  n.  plu.  rab-ddf'6-ra  [Gr.  rhabaos,  a 
rod;  phoros,  bearing — from  phero,  I  bear]  :  a  name  for 
the  Graptolites,  because  they  commonly  possess  a  chi- 
tinous  rod  or  axis  supporting  the  perisarc. 

RHACHITIS,  ra-ki'tis:  see  Rachitis  (under  Rachis) 
— but  the  former  is  the  proper  spelling. 

RHADAMANTHUS,  rad-a-man' 'thus :  mythical  per- 
sonage, son  of  Zeus  and  Europa,  and  brother  of  Minos 
(q.v. ).  He  settled  in  Bceotia,  where  he  married  Alc- 
mene.  So  great  was  his  reputation  during  life  for  the 
exercise  of  justice,  that  after  death  he  was  appointed  a 
judge  in  the  under- world,  with  Minos  and  iEacus. 

RHADAMANTINE,  a.  rad-a-man' tin,  or  Rhadaman'- 
thine,  a.  -thin  [Rhadamanthus,  in  a.  myth.,  a  son  of 
Jupiter]:  strictly  just;  severe  as  a  judgment  of  Rhada- 
manthus, one  of  the  three  judges  in  the  infernal  regions. 

RHiETIA,  re'shi-d:  ancient  tribal  district,  comprising 
an  extensive  territory  in  the  Alpine  regions,  separat- 
ing the  valleys  of  the  Po  and  the  Danube.  It  included 
the  modern  Swiss  canton  of  the  Grisons  and  the  Aus- 
trian province  of  Tyrol,  and  at  one  time  extended  from 
Lakes  Como  and  Garda  to  Lake  Constance,  and  along 
the  n.  slope  of  the  Alps  to  the  Danube.  The  Rhsetians 
were  virtually  independent  until  conquered  by  Augustus, 
with  other  iUpine  tribes,  B.C.  15,  when  R.  became  a 
province  of  the  Roman  empire.  Little  is  known  of  the 
origin  or  history  of  the  Rha^tians,  but  they  are  supposed 
to  have  been  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  occupying  at  first 
the  plains  of  the  Po,  but  driven  into  the  mountains  by 
the  Gauls,  and  at  that  time  assumed  their  name  from  a 
leader  Rhaetus. 

RHyETlAN,  a.  re'shi-an:  pertaining  to  Rhsetia. 

RHiETIC  BEDS,  re'tik  bedz:  in  geol.,  a  term  generally 
applied  to  the  marine  passage-beds  which  lie  between  the 
Trias  and  Lias,  and  which  are  so  called  from  their  ex- 
tensive development  in  the  Rhcetic  Alps,  now  grouped 
with  the  Trias. 

RHAMNAOE./E,  ram-na'se-e  [Gr.  rhamnos,  kind  of 
thorn  or  prickly  shrub]  :  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  or  shrubs;  often  spiny;  with 
simple,  generally  alternate  leaves,  and  stipules  minute 
or  lacking.  The  flowers  are  small,  generally  green.  The 
calyx  is  4-5  cleft;  the  petals  distinct,  hood-shaped,  or 
convolute,  inserted  into  the  throat  of  the  calyx,  occasion- 
ally lacking.  The  stamens  are  equal  in  number  to  the 
petals,  and  opposite  to  them;  the  disk  is  fleshy;  the 
ovary  is  superior,  or  half-superior,  with  two,  three,  or 
four  cells;  the  ovules  solitary.  The  fruit  is  fleshy,  and 
does  not  open  when  ripe,  or  dry  and  separating  into 
three  parts.  This  order  contains  about  250  known 
species,  natives  of  temperate  and  tropical  countries. 


BHAM^HASTIDiE — BHAMPSINFI  US. 


Some  are  used  in  dyeing  (see  Buckthorn  :  French 
Berries),  some  in  medicine  (see  Bed  Root),  and  the 
fruit  of  some  is  pleasant  (see  Jujube)  ;  while  Hovenia 


Habu  (see  Bameses).  According  to  Herodotus,  he 
placed  two  colossal  statues  25  cubits  high  in  front  of 
the  w.  vestibule  of  the  Hepheesteum  at  Memphis.  He 
was  the  richest  of  Egyptian  kings,  having  amassed  400,- 
000  talents,  or  nearly  $375,000,000 — an  incredible  sum 
for  that  period :  this  wealth  was,  however,  probably  in 
jewels  as  well  as  the  precious  metals,  for  both  are  re- 
corded on  the  walls  of  the  treasury  of  Medinet-Habu. 
To  secure  this  enormous  treasure,  he  built  a  treasury 
of  stone,  one  side  of  which  adjoined  the  wall  of  his 
palace.  In  connection  with  this  is  narrated  a  story 
which  rather  resembles  the  tale  of  Ali  Baba  in  the 
Arabian  Nights  than  the  sober  narrative  of  history.  The 
story  was  told  to  Herodotus  by  the  Egyptian  dragomen 
of  the  days  of  the  Father  of  History,  who  naively  doubts 
its  veracity ;  but  notwithstanding  some  of  the  German 
researches,  which  attempt  to  connect  it  with  Hellenic 
myths  of  the  brothers  Agamedes  and  Trophonios,  it  is 
believed  to  be  essentially  Egyptian.  B.  is  said  to  have 
descended  to  Hades,  and  to  have  played  at  draughts 
with  Isis,  or  Ceres,  and  he  is  so  represented  on  the  walls 
of  his  palace  at  Medinet-Habu.  His  return  was  celebrated 
as  a  festival.  Herodotus,  who  has  inverted  and  con- 
fused the  whole  history  of  Egypt,  calls  B.  son  of  Pro- 
teus and  predecessor  of  Cheops,  placing  him  16  dynas- 
ties earlier  than  he  should  be.  According  to  Lepsius, 
he  reigned  about  B.C.  1275.  According  to  Diodorus,  R. 
was  called  Bemphis,  or  rather  Bempsis  (Bamses),  and 
by  Pliny  Bamses,  in  whose  reign  Troy  was  taken. 

Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  8,  14,  2;  Herodotus,  ii. 
121-124;  Diodorus,  i.  62;  Champollion,  Not.  Descr. : 
Burton,  Exa.  Hier. ;  Sir  G.  Wilkinson,  Manners  and  Cus- 
toniSy  i.  121,  etc. ;  Lepsius,  Einleit.,  299,  etc. 


dulcis,  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  is  remarkable  for  the 
thickening  of  its  flower- 
stalks  after  flowering,  so  as 
to  form  a  succulent  sweet 
red  pulp,  with  flavor  resem- 
bling that  of  a  pear.  Rham- 
nine,  n.  ram'nm,  crystalline 
principle  obtained  from 
buckthorn-berries. 


BHAMPHAS'TIDiE :  see 
Toucan. 


BHAMPSINITUS,  ramp- 


Rhamnus  frangula. 


si-nVtus  :  Greek  name  of  the 
Egyptian  monarch  Barneses 
III.,  first  king  of  the  20th 
dynasty,  and  builder  of 
the  great  palace  at  Medinet- 


BHAPONTICINE — BHEA. 

BHAPONTICINE,  n.  ra-pdn'ti-sin  [L.  rhaponticum, 
rhubarb] :  the  yellow  substance  which  water  extracts 
from  rhubarb. 

BHAP'SODXSTS,  in  Ancient  Greece :  a  class  of  persons 
who  earned  their  bread  by  going  about  from  place  to 
place,  reciting,  in  a  sort  of  musical  chant,  the  epic  ballads 
of  Homer  and  other  ancient  poets.  They  were  like  the 
wandering  minstrels  of  the  middle  ages,  except  that  the 
latter  were  generally  the  authors  of  the  compositions 
which  they  sung.  The  B.  were  long  a  respected  and 
venerated  body,  but  lost  their  importance,  and  con- 
sequently their  character,  when  the  Homeric  songs, 
after  being  written  down,  and  perhaps  woven  together 
into  their  present  form,  by  the  scholars  at  the  court  of 
Peisistratos,  became  generally  known  to  the  Greek 
world  through  the  medium  of  manuscript  copies.  Each 
ballad,  or  at  least  as  much  as  could  conveniently  be  re* 
membered  and  recited  at  one  time,  was  termed  a  *  rhap- 
sody,' whence  the  application  of  the  term  to  the  separate 
books  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  in  which  usage  it  is 
equivalent  to  the  Fytte  or  Canto  of  Scott  and  Byron. 

EHAPSODY,  n,  rap'sd-di  [Gr.  rhapsodia,  a  term  ap- 
plied by  the  Greeks  to  a  book  of  the  Iliad  or  Odyssey, 
the  chanting  of  poems ;  rhapsodos,  a  bard — from  rhaptd, 
I  stitch  together ;  ode,  a  poem  or  song]  :  a  confused 
jumble  of  words  or  sentences  without  dependence  or 
natural  connection ;  any  rambling  composition.  Bhap'- 
sodist,  n.  -dist,  one  who  speaks  or  writes  in  an  uncon- 
nected way  :  specially  in  anc.  Greece  (see  Bhapsodists). 
Bhapsodical,  a.  rap-sodl-kal,  or  Bhapsod'ic,  a.  -ik,  con- 
sisting of  rhapsody ;  unconnected ;  rambling.  Bhap- 
sod'ically,  ad.  ~kal-Vi.  Bhapsodize,  v.  rap'sd-diz,  to 
write  or  uttev  rhapsodies.  Bhap'sodizing,  imp.  Bhap'- 
sodized,  pp.  -dlzd.  Bhap'sodoman'cy,  n.  -man'sl  [Gr. 
mnntei'a,  divination]  :  divination  by  means  of  verses. 

EHAT'ANY  BOOT  :  see  Batany. 

BHEA,  n.  re'a:  a,  large  running  bird — the  ostrich  of 
S.  America :  see  Nandu. 

BHEA,  n.  re'a:  in  Gr.  myth.,  daughter  of  Uranus 
and  Ge,  wife  of  Saturn,  and  mother  of  Vesta,  Ceres, 
Juno,  Pluto,  etc. 

BHEA,  or  Bheea,  a.  n.  re'a:  species  of  nettle  of  tropical 
and  semi-tropical  countries,  whose  stalks  contain  an  ex- 
cellent spinning  fibre,  the  outer  skin  being  employed  in 
paper-making. — Rhea  fibre  is  a  valuable  fibrous  material 
supplied  by  several  species  of  plants  of  the  nettle  tribe 
formerly  included  in  the  genus  Urtica,  now  known  as 
Boehmeria  (q.v.).  The  plants  by  which  it  is  produced 
are  indigenous  in  various  Asiatic  regions,  and  some 
species  are  largely  grown  in  India,  China,  and  Japan. 
The  Chinese  make  their  famous  'grasscloth'  from  the 
fibre  of  B.  nivea ;  B.  tenacissima  is  much  grown  in  the 
East,  and  has  been  introduced  into  the  Western  world, 
and  other  species  are  cultivated  to  some  extent.  The 


PLATE  1. 


Elielms 


Cathedral  of  lUieiins. 


KHEGITTM  J  U  L 1 1 — RH  E  IMS. 
fibre  is  remarkably  strong  and  beautiful.  It  was  sold 
in  England  first  in  1810,  and  is  now  largely  used  in 
manufacture  there  and  in  France.  The  difficulty  of  pre- 
paring it  for  use  has  been  the  only  bar  to  its  production 
in  immense  quantities,  and  this  is  likely  to  be  removed 
by  recently  invented  machines  and  processes.  See 
Ramie. 

RHE'GIUM  JU'LIl :  see  Reggio  (in  prov.  of  Reggio, 
3.  Italy). 

RHEIMS,  or  Reims,  remz :  city  and  arehiepiscopal  see, 
dept.  of  Marne,  France ;  on  the  Vesle  (tributary  of  the 
Aisne),  107  m.  e.n.e.  of  Paris,  by  the  Paris  and  Stras- 
bourg railway.  This  very  ancient  city,  is  built  on  the 
site  of  Durocortorum,  mentioned  by  Julius  Caesar  (De 
Bello  Galileo,  vi.  44)  as  cap.  of  the  Remi,  from  which 
people  it  subsequently  took  its  present  name.  Chris- 
tianity may  have  found  entrance  into  R.  at  an  earlier 
period,  but  not  till  the  middle  of  the  4th  c.  did  R. 
become  a  bishop's  see.  Under  the  Frank  rule  it  was  an 
important  place,  and  it  acquired  religious  interest  as  the 
scene  of  the  baptism  of  Clovis  and  his  chief  officers  by 
the  bp.,  Saint  Remy,  496.  In  the  8th  c,  it  became  an 
archbishopric,  and  from  1179,  in  which  year  Philip 
Augustus  was  there  solemnly  crowned,  it  became  the 
place  for  the  coronation  of  the  kings  of  France, 
till  the  time  of  Charles  X, — a  vessel  of  sacred 
oil,  called  la  Sainle  Ampoule,  to  which  a  miraculous 
origin  was  ascribed,  being  preserved  for  the  purpose. 
The  only  sovereigns  in  the  long  series,  to  the 
revolution  of  1830,  not  crowned  at  R.  were  Henry 
IV.,  Napoleon  L,  and  Louis  XVIII.  During  the  frenzy 
of  the  Revolution,  the  cathedral  was  attacked  by  the 
populace,  and  the  sainte  ampoule  destroyed,  in  detesta- 
tion of  royalty;  and  in  1830,  the  ceremony  of  the  coro- 
nation at  R.  was  abolished.  R.  is  one  of  the  principal 
entrepots  for  the  wines  of  Champagne,  and  the  hills 
which  surround  the  town  are  planted  with  vineyards. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  centres  of  French  woolen  manufact- 
ure, and  its  woolen  goods,  mixed  fabrics  in  silk  and 
wool,  merinoes,  etc.,  are  known  in  commerce  as  Articles 
de  Reims.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  is  picturesque 
from  the  material  employed  in  building — the  chalk-stone 
of  the  district — and  from  the  prevalence  of  the  older 
style  of  domestic  architecture.  Its  most  striking  public 
building  is  the  cathedral,  which,  though  still  lacking  the 
towers  of  the  original  design,  is  one  of  the  finest  extant 
specimens  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  was  built  in  the 
first  half  of  the  13th  c.  Its  nave  is  466  ft.  long  by  99  in 
breadth,  with  a  transept  of  160  ft.,  and  the  height  is 
144  ft.  Its  grandest  features  are  the  w.  front,  which  is 
almost  unrivalled,  and  the  Angel  Tower,  which  rises  59  ft. 
above  the  lofty  roof.  The  stained  glass  is  remarkable 
for  beauty ;  the  baptismal  fonts  are  of  exquisite  work- 
manship, and  the  organ  is  reputed  one  of  the  finest  in 
France.    The  church  of  St.  Remy  is  of  greater  age,  and 


architectural  style  of 


RHEINGAU — RHENISH  ARCHITECTURE. 

nearly  of  equal  size,  but  of  less  architectural  pretension. 
The  archiepiscopal  province  of  R.  comprises  the  sees  of 
Soissons,  Chalons,  Beauvais,  and  Amiens.  Pop.  (1881) 
y3,G8'd;  (1891)  104,180 ;  (11)01)  108,385. 

RHEINGAU,  rin'gow :  district  along  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  formerly  belonging  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Mainz,  now  forming  the  administrative  dist.  of  Wies- 
baden, in  the  Prussian  province  of  Hessen-Nassau.  R. 
is  about  12  m.  long,  6  broad.  This  district,  one  of  the 
richest  in  Germany,  protected  by  mountains  from  the  n. 
and  e.  winds,  and  exposed  to  the  mid-day  sun,  produces 
wines  of  the  best  quality. 

RHEIN-HESSE :  see  Hesse-Darmstadt. 

RHENISH,  a.  renflsh :  pert,  to  the  river  Rhine :  IJ 
wine  from  the  vineyards  in  the  districts  of  the  Rhine : 
see  Rhine-wine. 

RHEN'ISH  ARCHITECTURE : 
the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Rhine  when  the  arts  first  revived 
after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire. Being,  at  the  time  of  Char- 
lemagne, part  of  the  same  empire 
with  Lombardy,  the  arts  of  that  j 
country  (see  Lombard  Archi-  j 
tecture)  soon  spread  northward,  j 
and  similar  buildings  sprang  up 
n.  of  the  Alps.  There  are  almost 
no  traces  of  architecture  in  Ger- 
many before  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne. It  received  great  en- 
couragement from  him  and  his 
successors,  and  the  Rhenish  style 
made  great  progress  up  till  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  c,  when 
the  fashion  of  copying  the  Gothic 
architecture  of  France  super- 
seded it.  It  is,  however,  a  well- 
marked  style,  and  is  complete 
and  perfect  in  itself.  Like  the 
Lombard  stylo,  it  is  round- 
arched,  and  has  some  remarkable 
peculiarities.  The  earliest 
churches  seem  to  have  been  cir- 
cular (like  the  Dom  at  Aix-la- 
Chapeile,  built  by  Charlemagne) ; 
later  the  circular  church  was 
absorbed  into  the  Basilica,  or  rectangular  church  (see 
Romanesque  Architecture),  in  the  form  of  a  western 
apse.  Most  German  churches  thus  have  two  apses — an 
eastern  and  a  western.  They  also  have  a  number  of 
small  circular  or  octagonal  towers,  which  seoui  similar 
in  origin  to  the  Round  Towers  of  Ireland.  They  exem- 
plify in  a  remarkable  manner  the  arrangements  of  an 
ancient  plan  of  the  9th  c,  found  in  the  monastery  of  St. 


Plan  of  Church  at 
Laach. 


RHENISH  ARCHITECTURE, 


Gaxi;  and  supposed  to  have  been  sent  to  the  abbot,  as  a 
design  for  a  perfect  monastery,  to  aid  him  in  carrying 
out  his  new  buildings.     The  arcaded  galleries  at  the 


Elevation  of  Church  at  Laach. 


eaves,  and  the  richly  carved  capitals,  are  among  the 
most  beautiful  features  of  the  style.  Examples  are 
very  numerous  from  about  a  d.  1000  to  1200.    The  three 

great  types  of  the  style  are 
the  cathedrals  of  Mainz, 
Worms,  and  Speyer.  The 
last  is  a  magnificent  build- 
ing, 435  ft.  long  by  125  ft. 
wide,  with  a  nave  45  ft. 
wide  and  105  ft.  high.  It 
is  grand  and  simple,  and 
one  of  the  most  impressive 
buildings  in  existence. 
There  are  also  numerous 
fine  examples  of  the  style 
at  Cologne — the  Apostles' 
Church,  Sta  Maria  in  Capi- 
tulo,  and  St.  Martin's, 
being  among  the  best  ex- 
amples of  Rhenish  archi- 
tecture. In  the  church  at 
Laach  (see  fig.)  the  vaults  being  small,  the  different 
spans  were  managed  (though  with  round  arches)  by 
stilting  the  springing  ;  but  in  great  buildings  like  Speyer 
and  Worms,  the  vaults  are  necessarily  square  in  plan,  in 


Rhenish  Architecture  (secular). 


RHENISH  PRUSSIA. 

this  round  istrched  stylo,  and  the  nave  embraces  in  each 
of  its  bays  two  arches  of  the  side  aisles.  From  the  use 
of  the  round  arch  and  solid  walls,  the  exteriors  are  free 
from  the  great  mass  of  buttresses  used  in  Gothic  build- 
ings, and  the  real  forms  are  distinctly  seen. 

RHEN'ISH  CONFEDERATION:  see  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine. 

RHENISH  PRUSSIA,  ren'ish  prush'ya  or  pro'shi-a 
(Ger.  Rheinprovinz,  or  Rheinpreussen)  :  most  western 
and  most  thickly  peopled  of  the  provinces  of  Prussia; 
along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine;  bounded  w.  by  Belgium 
and  the  Netherlands;  10,400  sq.  m.  In  the  south,  the 
surface  is  mountainous,  the  principal  ranges  being  the 
Hundsriick,  the  Eifelgebirge,  and  branches  of  the  West- 
erwald.  The  largest  river  is  the  Rhine,  which  flows 
n.n.w.  through  the  province  for  200  nr.,  and  receives 
many  affluents.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  except  in 
the  extreme  n.,  and  the  soil  of  the  higher  mountain- 
tracts  barely  supports  the  inhabitants;  while  that  of  the 
valleys  of  the  Rhine,  Moselle,  and  Nahe  are  very  fruit- 
ful, and  the  flat  districts  in  the  n.  are  most  productive 
in  grain.  Timber  and  minerals,  including  lead,  copper, 
zinc,  coal,  etc.,  abound;  and  the  warm  and  hot  sulphur- 
springs  of  Aix  (q.v. )  and  Burtscheid  (q.v.)  have  Eu- 
ropean reputation.  Industry  and  manufactures  are 
prosecuted  with  the  utmost  energy,  and  with  great  suc- 
cess. The  cotton  manufactures  of  the  Wupperthal,  the 
silk  manufactures  of  Krefeld  and  vicinity,  and  the 
woolen  cloth  and  cashmere  manufactures  of  the  dist.  of 
Aix,  are  famous.  R.  P.  came  into  the  possession  of 
Prussia  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  1815.  It  comprises  the 
former  duchies  of  Cleves,  Gelders,  and  Berg,  the  princi- 
palities of  Mors  and  Lichtenberg,  the  n.  and  middle 
parts  of  the  former  archbishopric  of  Cologne,  numerous 
lordships,  portions  from  the  four  French  depts.  of  Rhein- 
Mosel,  Mosel  des  Forets,  and  Saar,  etc.,  and  also  known 
as  the  Province  of  the  Rhine,  is  divided  into  the  5 
govts,  or  districts  of  Coblentz,  Treves,  Cologne,  Aachen, 
and  Diisseldorf.  Coblentz  is  the  administrative  capital 
and  Cologne  the  commercial  capital.  Nearly  2,500  m.  of 
railways  facilitate  the  commerce  and  trade  of  the  prov- 
ince. Pop.  5,759,000,  comprising  half-a-million  of  Flem- 
ish blood  and  10,000  Walloons. 

RHENSE:  village  of  Germany,  on  the  Rhine,  in  the 
district  of  Coblentz,  Prussia,  celebrated  for  the  diet  held 
there  1338,  July,  which  declared  against  the  necessity 
o*f  Papal  confirmation  for  the  election  of  German  King 
and  Holy  Roman  Emperor,  when  a  majority  of  electoral 
votes  had  been  cast. 


RHEOMETER — RHESUS  MONKEY. 

RHEOMETER,  n.  re-om'e-ter  [Gr.  rheos,  a  current— 
from  rheein,  to  flow ;  metron,  a  measure]  :  an  instrument 
for  measuring'  the  intensity  of  a  galvanic  current. 
Rheqm'etky,  n.  -e-tri,  the  method  of  determining  the 
force  of  galvanic  currents.  Rheomotok,  n.  re'd-mo'tor 
[L.  motor,  a  mover— from  moved,  I  move]  :  the  apparatus 
by  which  an  electrical  or  galvanic  current  is  originated. 
Rheochord,  n.  re'o-kawrd  [prefix  rheo- ;  Eng.  chord] : 
an  instrument,  consisting  of  two  platinum  wires,  used 
in  measuring  electio-magnetic  resistances.  Rhe'o. 
phoee,  n.  -for  [Gr.  phored,  I  bear  along] :  Ampere's  term 
for  the  connecting-wire  of  an  electric  or  voltaic  appara- 
tus. Rhe'oscope,  n.  -shop  [Gr.  skopeo,  I  view]  :  an  ap- 
paratus for  ascertaining  the  pressure  of  a  galvanic 
current,  or  merely  its  existence.  Rhe'ostat,  n.  -stai 
[Gr.  statos,  that  stands] :  an  apparatus  for  enabling  a 
galvanic  n3edle  to  be  kept  at  the  same  point  during  an 
experiment;  an  instr.  for  measuring  electrical  resist- 
ance. Rhe'otome,  n.  -torn  [Gr.  tome,  a  cutting]  :  an 
instr.  for  periodically  interrupting  an  electric  current. 
Bre'oteope,  n.  -trop  [Gr.  trope,  a  turn] :  an  instr.  for 
reversing  the  direction  of  a  voltaic  current. 

RHESUS  MONKEY,  re'sus mung'M  (Macaws  Rhesus): 
East  Indian  monkey,  extending  further  n.  than  any  other 
species  except  the  Entellus  (q.v.),  or  Hanuman  (q.v.),  and, 
like  it,  partially  migratory,  visiting  regions  of  the  Hima- 
laya in  summer,  which  are  far  too  cold  for  it  in  winter, 


it  is  held  in  almost  as  great  veneration  by  the  natives 
of  India  as  the  Hanuman  itself ;  and  the  killing  of  one  of 
these  animals  is  apt  to  arouse  the  greatest  popular  in- 
dignation. The  monkeys  live  in  troops  in  the  forests, 
chiefly  in  hilly  districts,  and  visit  the  cultivated  grounds 
to  carry  away  grain  and  other  produce,  which  they  store 
up  for  themselves  among  rocks.  The  native  farmers 
leave  a  share  for  the  monkeys,  believing  this  to  be  neces- 
sary for  the  averting  of  their  anger;  as  otherwise,  next 
year  they  would  destroy  the  Avhole  crop  while  green. 
The  R.  M.  has  stout  form,  stout  limbs,  short  ears,  short 
tail,  large  callosities,  skin  hanging  loose  about  tha 


Bhesus  Monkey  (Macacus  Rhesus), 


RHETORIC— RHEUM. 

throat  and  belly,  hair  rather  long,  back  brownish,  lower 
part  of  the  back  and  the  haunches  bright  chestnut,  or 
almost  orange,  shoulders  and  arms  lighter.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  intelligent  and  mischievous  of  monkeys. 

RHETORIC,  n.  ret'6-rlk  [F.  rhetorique,  rhetoric — from 
L.  rhetdr'ica;  Gr.  rhetdr'ike,  oratory — from  rhetor,  an 
orator;  rheo,  I  say,  I  speak]  :  science  of  oratory;  art  of 
composition  written  or  spoken ;  art  of  speaking  in  public 
with  propriety,  elegance,  and  force;  power  of  persuasion 
and  attraction  in  speech:  in  its  broadest  sense  the 
theory  of  eloquence.  It  aims  at  expounding  the  rules 
which  should  govern  all  prose  composition  or  speech 
designed  to  influence  the  judgments  or  the  feelings  of 
men;  therefore  treats  of  everything  that  relates  to 
beauty  or  force  of  style — e.  g.,  accuracy  of  expression, 
structure  of  periods,  and  figures  of  speech.  But  in  a 
narrower  sense  R.  concerns  the  fundamental  principles 
according  to  which  particular  discourses  of  an  oratorical 
kind  are  composed.  The  three  chief  elements  of  an 
oration  are  usually  held  to  be — inventio,  or  discovery  of 
proper  ideas;  dispositio,  or  their  arrangement;  and 
elocutio,  or  the  style  in  which  they  are  expressed.  The 
ancients,  however,  who  cultivated  oral  eloquence  more 
than  the  moderns  do,  reckoned  other  two — viz.,  memoria, 
or  memory,  and  actio,  or  gesticulation.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished writers  on  rhetoric  in  ancient  times  were 
Aristotle,  Cicero,  and  Quinctilian;  in  modern  times, 
Blair,  Campbell,  Whately,  and  Spalding  among  the 
English  ;  Erneste  Maass,  Schott,  Richter,  and  Falkmann 
among  the  Germans;  and  among  the  French,  Rollin, 
Gibert,  Le  Batteux,  La  Harpe,  Marmontel,  and  Andrieux. 
Rhetorical,  a.  re-tor'tkal,  pert,  to  rhetoric ;  persuasive ; 
figurative.  Rhetorically,  ad.  -II.  Rhetorician,  n. 
rct'o-rlsh'dn,  one  skilled  in  the  art  of  rhetoric,  or  an  in- 
structor in  it. 

RHEUM,  n.  re' urn  [Gr.  rheon,  rhubarb — from  Rha,  old 
name  of  the  river  Volga,  in  Russia,  from  which  first 
brought]  :  in  hot.,  the  systematic  name  of  rhubarb. 

RHEUM,  n.  rom  [Gr.  rheuma,  that  which  flows — from 
rheo,  I  flow :  F.  rhume] :  the  increased  action  of  the  ves- 
sels of  any  organ  of  the  body  producing  a  flow  of 
humors;  usually  applied  to  the  increased  secretions  of 
the  mucous  glands  caused  by  a  cold.  Rheum'y,  a.  -t, 
pert,  to  or  abounding  in  rheum;  affected  with  rheum. 


c5 


Siemens1  Rheostat. 


RHEUMATISM. 

RHEUMATISM,  n  rd'ma-tizm  [L.  rheumatis'mus;  Gr, 
rheumatis'mos,  rheum,  catarrh — from  Gr.  rhevma,  a 
watery  fluid — from  rhed,  I  flow:  It.  reumatismo;  F.  rhu- 
matisme]:  painful  disease  affecting  the  muscles  and  joints, 
causing  swelling  and  stiffness.  Rheumatic,  a.  rd-mat'ik, 
or  Rheumat'ical,  a.  -i-kdl,  pertaining  to  or  affected  with 
rheumatism.  Rheu'matoid,  a.  -toyd  [Gr.  eidos,  resem- 
blance]: having  I  he  appearance  of  rheumatism. — Rheuma- 
tism is  a  blood-disease  in  which  inflammation  of  the  fibrous 
tissues  is  the  marked  characteristic.  It  occurs  either  as 
acute  or  as  chronic;  but  there  is  no  distinct  demarkation, 
and  the  chronic  is  often  a  consequence  of  the  acute. 

Acute  R.  (acute  articular  R.)  is  indicated  by  general 
febrile  symptoms,  redness,  heat,  swelling,  and  usually 
intense  pain,  in  ana  around  one  or  more  (generally  several, 
either  simultaneously  or  in  succession)  of  the  larger  joints; 
and  the  disease  shows  a  tendency  to  shift  from  joint  to 
joint  or  to  certain  internal  fibrous  membranes,  especially 
the  pericardium;  R.  being  the  most  common  origin  of 
Pericarditis  (q. v.).  The  pulse  is  strong  and  full,  there  is 
headache,  but  seldom  delirium,  unless  the  heart  is  affected; 
ihe  tongue  is  covered  with  creamy  thick  fur,  the  tip  and 
edges  being  red;  the  urine  is  turbid,  and  abnormally  acid; 
and  the  skin  is  bathed  in  copious  perspiration,  with  so 
characteristic  a  smell  (resembling  that  of  sour-milk),  that 
the  physician  can  often  recognize  the  disease  almost  before 
he  sees  the  patient.  The  joints  are  extremely  painful,  and 
the  pain  is  much  increased  by  pressure,  and  consequently 
by  movement  which  gives  rise  to  internal  pressure.  Hence 
the  patient  lies  fixed  in  one  position,  from  which  he  dares 
not  slir.  There  are  two  varieties  of  acute  R.  In  one,  the 
inflammation  commences  not  in  the  joint,  but  near  it,  and 
attacks  the  tendons,  fasciae,  ligaments,  and  possibly  the 
muscles  themselves.  This  form  is  termed  fibrous  or  dif- 
fused rheumatism.  Iu  the  other  variety,  the  synovial 
membrane  in  the  joint  becomes  affected,  and  an  excess  of 
fluid  is  poured  into  the  joint,  distending  the  membrane,  and 
making  it  bulge  out  between  the  spaces  intervening  be- 
tween the  various  tendons,  ligaments,  etc.,  round  the 
joint.  The  knee-joint  is  most  frequently  affected  in  this 
way,  and  fluctuation  may  readily  be  perceived  on  applying 
the  hands  to  the  two  sides  of  the  knee.  In  this  form, 
called  synovial  rheumatism,  the  swelling  and  redness  come 
on  sooner,  and  are  more  marked  than  in  the  former 
variety.  The  fibrous  is  by  far  the  most  severe  form,  and 
to  it  chiefly  the  previous  sketch  of  the  most  marked  symp- 
toms applies.  In  the  synovial  form,  the  fever  is  less  in- 
tense, the  tongue  less  foul,  the  perspiration  far  less  profuse, 
and  the  membranes  of  the  heart  are  much  less  liable  to  be 
attacked.  It  is  to  this  form  that  the  term  rheumatic  gout  is 
often  applied,  and  it  is  by  no  means  inappropriate,  because 
synovial  R.  forms  (as  Dr.  Watson  has  observed)  a  connect- 
ing link  between  gout  and  R.,  and  partakes  of  the  charac- 
ters of  both. 

The  only  known  exciting  cause  of  acute  R.  is  exposure 
to  cold,  and  especially  to  cold  combined  with  moisture; 


BHEUMATISTVT. 

hence  Lie  greater  prevalence  of  this  disease  among  the 
poor  and  ill-clad.  Sleeping  in  damp  sheets  or  on  the  damp 
ground,  the  wearing  of  wet  clothes,  and  sitting  in  a  cold 
damp  room,  especially  if  the  sitter  was  previously  warm 
from  exercise,  are  examples  of  the  kind  of  exposure  liable 
to  be  followed  by  R.  The  excreting  power  of  the  skin 
being  checked  by  the  action  of  cold,  certain  effete  matters 
which  should  be  eliminated  in  the  form  of  perspiration, 
are  retained,  and  accumulate  in  the  blood,  which  thus 
becomes  poisoned.  This  blood-poisoning  is  not,  however, 
a  universal  sequence  to  exposure  to  the  cold:  it  occurs 
only  when  there  is  special  predisposition  to  this  disease,  or, 
as  it  is  termed,  a  rheumatic  diathesis  or  constitution,  and 
the  diathesis  may  be  so  strongly  developed  as  to  occasion 
an  attack  of  acute  R.,  independently  of  exposure  to  any 
apparent  exciting  cause.  Men  are  more  subject  to  the 
disease  than  women,  probably  from  their  greater  exposure 
to  atmospheric  changes  by  reason  of  their  occupations. 
The  predisposition  is  certainly  affected  by  age;  children 
under  ten  years,  and  adults  over  60,  being  seldom  attacked, 
while  the  disease  is  most  prevalent  between  the  age  of  15 
and  40.  Persons  once  affected  become  more  liable  to  it 
than  they  previously  were.  Dr.  Fuller  believes,  from  his 
observations  in  St.  George's  Hospital,  that  the  disease  is 
sometimes  hereditary;  whether  this  be  the  case  or  not, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  predisposition  is  very  apt  to 
exist  in  members  of  the  same  family.  The  exact  nature  of 
the  poison  is  unknown.  The  late  Dr.  Prout  regarded 
lactic  acid  as  the  actual  materies  morbi,  and  certain  experi- 
ments by  Dr.  Richardson  tend  to  confirm  this  view.  Re- 
cently a  bacterial  origin  of  acute  R.  is  conjectured  with 
increasing  probability. 

The  danger  in  acute  R.  arises  almost  entirely  from  the 
disease  going  from  the  joints  to  the  heart,  and  setting  up 
Pericarditis  (q.v.).  Hence  that  treatment  is  best  which 
tends  most  surely  to  prevent,  or,  at  all  events,  to  lessen  the 
risk  of  this  complication.  The  treatment  should  be  left  to 
professional  skill:  it  suffices  here  only  to  indicate  some  of 
the  different  lines  adopted.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
disease  purging  is  advocated  by  some;  calomel  every  night, 
followed  in  the  morning,  for  three  or  four  days,  by  an 
ordinary  strong  cathartic  will  sometimes  dislodge  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  dark  and  foul  secretions  from  the  liver 
and  bowels,  and  give  marked  relief.  Opium  (or  morphia) 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  remedies  in  this  disease,  from 
its  power  of  allaying  pain  and  procuring  sleep:  some  prac- 
titioners trust  to  opium  alone  for  the  cure.  It  may  be 
given  with  ipecacuanha  (as  in  Dover's  Powder),  or  with 
doses  of  an  aperient;  taken  alone,  it  would  aggravate  that 
lethargy  of  the  excretory  organs  which  has  much  to  do 
with  the  rheumatic  condition.  Colchicum  sometimes  has 
marvellous  effect  in  subduing  the  disease;  but  it  must  be 
given  with  extreme  caution  in  view  of  the  prostration  to 
which  an  over-dose  gives  rise:  see  Poisons.  Some  writers 
consider  this  remedy  of  most  value  when  synovial  symp- 
toms are  present,  Le.,  when  the  R.  approaches  gout.  The 


RHEUMATISM. 

abnormal  acidity  of  the  various  fluids  (the  sweat,  urine, 
even  the  saliva)  in  acute  R.  has  led  to  the  belief  that  alka- 
line remedies  would  both  neutralize  the  poison,  and,  from 
theii  diuretic  properties,  tend  to  eliminate  it.  The  bicar- 
bonate of  potash  in  solution  has  been  largely  tried  in 
average  doses  of  two  scruples  every  two  hours,  by  night 
and  day,  for  several  days  together.  Of  51  cases  so  treated, 
the  average  period  of  treatment  was  between  six  and  seven 
days,  and  the  average  duration  of  the  disease  was  slightly 
under  a  fortnight.  The  medicine  soon  rendered  the  urine 
alkaline,  but  did  not  irritate  either  the  bladder  or  the  intes- 
tines. It  seemed  rapidly  to  calm  the  pulse  and  to  allay  the 
febrile  heat;  and  in  no  case  did  any  heart-complication 
arise  after  the  patient  had  been  48  hours  under  its  influ- 
ence. Some  physicians  prefer  the  acetate  of  potash.  The 
mode  of  treatment  by  lemon-juice  in  doses  of  one  or  two 
ounces  tive  or  six  times  a  day,  originally  advocated  by  Dr. 
G.  O.  Rees,  at  first  seems  in  direct  antagonism  to  the  alka- 
line mode  of  treatment.  As.  however,  the  most  active 
principle  in  the  lemon- juice  is  citrate  of  potash,  which., 
before  it  reaches  the  kidneys,  becomes  converted  into 
carbonate  of  potash,  there  is  less  essential  difference 
between  the  acid  and  the  alkaline  mode  of  treatment  than 
at  first  appears  It  is  said  by  some  authorities  that  the  sys- 
tem is  in  some  cases  in  an  alkaline  condition,  in  others  acid; 
hence  the  treatment  that  might  result  in  improvement  in 
one  case,  would  fail  in  another.  Some  years  ago  a  new 
treatment  was  warmly  advocated  by  Dr.  Davies  of  the 
London  Hospital — mainly  the  application  of  a  series  of 
blisters  to  the  parts  around  the  affected  joints.  One  of  the 
high  authorities  on  this  disease,  Dr.  Fuller  of  St.  Georges 
Hospital,  London,  after  trying  various  hot  external  applica- 
tions, finds  that  *<;  mixed  alkaline  and  opiate  solution  is  far 
more  powerful  than  any  other  in  allaying  acute  rheumatic 
pain.  The  solution  usually  applied  by  him  is  made  by 
dissolving  half  an  ounce  (or  rather  more)  of  carbonate  of 
potash  or  soda  in  nine  ounces  of  hot  water,  and  adding  six 
tlii id  drachms  of  Battley's  Liquor  opii  sedativus.  Thin 
flannel,  soaked  in  this  hot  lotion,  is  applied  to  the  affected 
joints,  and  the  whole  is  wrapped  in  a  covering  of  thin 
gutta-percha. 

Cases  intermediate  between  acute  and  chronic  R  are 
frequent.  In  what  may  be  termed  subacute  rheumatism, 
there  is  slight  fever,  and  several  joints  are  usually  affected, 
without  intense  inflammation  in  any  one  joint.  These 
cases  soon  show  signs  of  amendment  under  mild  alkaline 
treatment,  e.g.,  a  drachm  of  liquor  potassae  daily,  well 
diluted  and  divided  into  three  or  four  doses,  and  moderate 
use  of  purgatives. 

In  all  cases  of  acute  and  subacute  R.  the  heart-sounds 
should  be  examined  daily,  or  even  oftener,  to  detect  the 
earliest  sign  of  cardiac  affection,  and,  if  possible,  to  check 
it.  For  the  treatment  when  the  membranes  of  the  heart 
are  affected,  see  Pericarditis. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  chronic  rheumatism,  sufficiently 
distinct  to  require  notice,    In  one  there  h  considerably 


RHEUMATISM. 

local  heat  aud  swelling,  though  unaccompanied  with  cor- 
responding constitutional  disturbance:  in  the  other  the 
patient  complains  of  coldness  (rather  than  heat)  and  stiff- 
ness of  the  affected  joints.  The  former  approximates 
most  closely  to  the  previously  described  forms  of  R.,  of 
which  it  is  frequently  the  sequel,  and  must  be  treated  in 
like  manner;  while  the  latter,  termed  by  some  the  passive 
form,  occurs  usually  as  an  independent  affection.  In  pas- 
sive R.,  the  pain  is  relieved  by  friction,  and  the  patients 
are  most  comfortable  when  warm  in  bed— conditions  which 
increase  the  pain  in  the  former  variety.  Patients  of  this 
kind  derive  benefit  from  living  in  a  warm  climate,  from 
warm  clothing,  warm  bathing,  especially  in  salt  water  at  a 
temperature  of  not  less  than  100°,  the  hot-air  bath,  etc. 
Friction  with  some  stimulating  liniment,  and  some  modes 
of  manipulation  are  of  service;  and  among  the  internal 
remedies,  turpentine,  cod-liver  oil,  sulphur,  guaiacum, 
sarsaparilla,  and  Dover's  Powder  have  good  reputation. 
One  high  authority  recommends  muriate  of  ammonia  as  a 
remedy  of  'singular  efficacy;'  but  of  all  remedies  for  this' 
affection  the  most  efficacious  is  doubtless  the  iodide  of 
potassium,  in  five-grain  doses,  combined  with  a  few  grains 
of  carbonate  of  ammonia  three  times  daily.  A  patient 
liable  to  attacks  of  chronic  R.  should  always  wear  flannel 
next  the  skin  during  the  day,  and  at  night  he  should  sleep 
between  the  blankets,  discarding  linen  or  cotton  sheets. 

Rheumatic  Diseases  in  the  lower  animals  are  less  fre- 
quent than  with  men.  Horses  are  not  very  liable  to  acute 
R.,  but  suffer  from  a  chronic  variety,  specially  in  con- 
junction with  influenza.  When  affecting  the  limbs,  it 
often  show's  its  characteristic  tendency  to  shift  from  one 
part  to  another.  In  cattle  and  sheep,  rheumatic  disorders 
are  more  common  and  acute  than  in  horses.  The  specific 
inflammation  sometimes  involves  most  of  the  fibrous  and 
fibro-serous  textures  throughout  the  body,  inducing  gen- 
eral stiffness,  constipated  bowels,  and  high  fever.  This  is 
rheumatic  fever — the  chine-felon  or  body-garget  of  the  old 
farriers.  Sometimes  the  disease  affects  mainly  the  larger 
joints,  causing  intense  pain,  lameness,  and  hard  swellings; 
occasionally  it  is  confined  to  the  feet  and  fetlocks,  when  it 
is  recognized  as  bustian-foul.  Cattle  and  sheep  on  bleak 
exposed  pastures,  and  cows  turned  out  of  the  dairy  to  feed 
on  strong  alluvial  grazings,  are  especially  subject  to  R.  In 
dogs,  R.  is  known  as  kennel  lameness,  and  is  very  trouble- 
some and  intractable  in  low,  damp,  cold  situations. 
Blood-letting  is  rarely  admissible  except  in  the  most  acute 
cases  among  cattle.  In  all  animals,  a  laxative  should  at 
once  be  given,  with  some  saline  matters  and  colchicum, 
and  when  the  pain  and  fever  are  great,  a  little  tincture  of 
aconite  may  be  added.  For  cattle,  a  good  combination 
consists  of  one  ounce  of  nitre,  two  drachms  of  powdered 
colchicum,  and  two  fluid  drachms  of  the  Pharmacopoeia 
tincture  of  aconite,  repeated  in  water  or  gruel  every 
three  hours:  half  this  dose  will  suffice  for  horses. 
With  a  simple  laxative  diet,  dogs  should  have  a  pill  night 
and  morning  containing  five  grains  of  nitre  md.  two  <4 


RHEYDT— RHIN. 
coichicum.  Comfortable  lodgings,  a  warm  bed,  horse-rugs 
on  the  body,  and  bandages  on  the  legs,  will  greatly 
expedite  a  cure.  In  chronic  cases,  or  after  the  more  acute 
symptoms  are  subdued,  an  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and 
two  drachms  each  of  nitre  and  powdered  colchicum, 
should  be  given  for  a  cow,  half  that  quantity  for  a  horse, 
and  one-fourth  for  a  sheep.  Hartshorn  and  oil,  or  other 
stimulating  embrocations,  diligently  and  frequently  rubbed 
in,  will  often  abate  the  pain  and  swelling  of  the  affected 
joints. 

RHEYDT,  rit:  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Niers,  and  on  the  railway  between  Diisseldorf 
and  Aix-la-Chapelle,  14  m.  w.  by  s.  from  Diisseldorf.  It 
has  manufactures  of  silks  and  velvets,  soap,  glue,  vinegar, 
and  leather;  also  dyeworks,  and  some  trade  in  linen. 
Pop.  (1880)  19,087;  (1890)  26,962;  (1895)  30,099. 

RHIGOLENE,  n.  rig'o-len  [Gr.  rldgos,  frost,  cold;  L. 
oleum,  oil]:  a  petroleum  naphtha,  introduced  by  Dr.  H.  J. 
Bigelow,  of  Boston,  as  a  local  anaesthetic.  It  is  applied  in 
the  form  of  spray  in  minor  operations,  producing  intense 
cold  by  its  evaporation. 

RHIME:  see  Rime. 

RHIN,  Bas,  hdrang  (Lower  Rhine):  formerly  a  fron- 
tier dept.  of  France,  but  now  corresponding  nearly  to  the 
German  administrative  dist.  of  Lower  Alsace  (Meder- 
Elsass)  in  the  imperial  territory  of  Alsace-Lorraine:  to  the 
e.  lies  Baden,  and  w.  are  the  French  depts.  Moselle, 
Meurthe,  and  Yosges.  The  area  of  Bas-Rhin,  as  a  dept.  of 
France,  was  1,759  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1866^  609  987:  area  of 
Lower  Alsace  1841  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1900)  659,432.  This 
dist.  lies  almost  wholly  within  the  basin  ol  the  Rhine, 
which  flows  n.  along  its  e.  border.  The  e.  portion  of  the 
dist.,  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  consists  wholly 
of  plains;  while  in  the  w.  are  the  rugged  and  wooded 
heights  which  form  the  e.  slopes  of  the  Vosges  Mountains. 
In  the  hilly  regions  are  many  beautiful  valleys.  The  win- 
ters are  long  and  cold;  summers  variable;  autumns  always 
line.  Cretinism  and  goitre  prevail  in  some  parts,  though 
less  now  than  formerly.  The  country  is  unusually  rich  in 
agricultural  and  manufacturing  resources  and  capabilities. 
A  great  variety  of  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables,  including 
fine  crops  of  hem])  and  tobacco,  are  grown  extensively; 
and  wines,  red  and  white,  the  latter  held  in  highest  esti- 
mation, are  produced  abundantly.  Manufactures,  textile 
and  other,  are  carried  on  on  a  grand  scale.  Spinning-mills, 
weavmg  factories  for  cotton,  calico,  woolen,  and  other 
fabrics,  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  foundries,  arms 
and  machine  factoriesabound.  Some  timber,  floated  down 
the  Rhine  in  rafts,  is  exported.  The  region  recently  occu- 
pied by  the  French  depts.  Haut-Rhin  and  Bas-Rhin  consti- 
tuted, prior  to  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  1697,  one  of  the  most 
densely  peopled  and  industrious  portions  of  Germany, 
called  in  German,  Elsass  (Latin  Alsatia).  Ceded  then  to 
France,  it  became  the  French  province  of  Alsace,  which 
was  at  the  Revolution  subdivided  into  the  two  depart- 


RHIU— RHIN  AN  THB  S. 

memU  So  it  remained  till,  in  1870,  during  the  war  between 
France  and  Germany,  Bas-Khiuand  Haut-Ruin  were,  with 
portions  of  the  depts.  Moselle,  Meurthe,  and  Vosgess 
erected  by  the  king  of  Prussia  into  the  German  general 
govt,  of  Alsace.  When  peace  was  concluded  at  Frankf  urt, 
the  repossessed  German  territory  was  not  incorporated 
with  any  of  the  German  states;  but,  after  certain  portions 
had  been  restored  to  France,  formed  a  member  of  the  new 
German  Empire,  with  the  title  of  the  imperial  territory 
(iteichsland)  of  Alsace-Lorraine  (Elsass-Lothringen). 

RHIN,  Haut,  d  rang  (Upper  Rhine):  formerly  a  fron- 
tier dept.  in  e.  France,  but  n  v  mostly  comprehended 
within  the  German  dist.  of  Upper  Alsace.  The  area  of 
Haut-Rhin  was  1,586  sq,  m. ;  oop.  (1866)  530,285;  area  of 
Upper  Alsace  being  1,354  sqm.;  pop.  (1900)  495.209.  The 
e.  frontier  is  formed  mostly  by  the  Rhine,  and  the  w. 
frontier  by  the  Vosges  Mts.  After  the  Rhine,  the  principal 
river  is  the  111,  into  which  the  streams  from  the  Vosges 
flow.  In  the  middle  f  th  dist.  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  of 
the  valleys  of  the  w.  some  are  exceedingly  rich  and  pro- 
ductive. The  vineyards  are  extensive,  and  much  wine  is 
produced.  In  agriculture,  and  in  trade  and  manufactures, 
great  activity  and  enterprise  are  manifested.  At  the  treaty 
of  Frankfurt,  the  cantons  of  Belfort,  Delle,  Giromagny, 
witli  2S  other  communes,  all  formerly  included  in  liaut- 
Ruin,  were  restored  to  France  by  Germany.  The  French 
remnant  was  then  called  '  Territory  of  Belfort/  but  since 
1878  is  again  iiaut  Rhin. 

RHINAL,  a.  rl'nal  [Gr.  rhis  or  rhlna,  the  nose]:  of  or 
pertaining  to  the  nose.  Rhinalgia,  n.  rin-al'jl-a  [Gr. 
algos,  pain]:  pain  in  the  nose. 

R1I1NAN THUS,  rl-nan'thus:  genus  of  plants  of  nat. 
oider  Scrophulariaceoe,  having  an  inflated  4-tootued  calyx; 
the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  compressed  laterally,  furnished 
on  both  sides  below  th  tip  with  a  straight  tooth  or  lobe,  the 
lower  one  plane  and  3-lobed.  The  capsule  is  compressed 
and  2-celled.  E.  crista,  galliis  a  common  plant,  az»  annual, 
1-2  ft.  high,  seen  in  gardens,  with  yellow  flowers,  and 
rather  large  capsules,  in  which  the  seeds  rattle  when  ripe, 
whence  its  name,  Yellow  Rattle.  It  is  called  also  Cock's* 
comb,  from  its  fringed  bracts. 


RHINE. 

RHINE,  rin  (R7ienus)\  most  important  river  in  Germany, 
and  one  of  the  most  noted  in  Europe;  rising  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  the  Grisons,  and  after  a  n.n.w.  course  of  about 
750  m. ,  falling  into  the  German  Ocean.  The  area  of  the 
R.  basin,  including  its  various  feeders,  which  have  been 
counted  to  the  number  of  12,000,  is  estimated  at  about  65,- 
000  sq.  m.  The  R.  is  divided  into  the  Upper,  Middle,  and 
Lower  R.,  the  first  term  being  applied  to  the  river  from  its 
source  to  Basel;  the  second  from  Basel  to  Cologne;  and  the 
last  from  Cologne  through  the  Netherlands  to  the  sea,  into 
which  it  empties  by  several  mouths,  forming  an  extensive 
delta.  The  head-waters  of  the  Upper  R.  consist  of  three 
main  streams,  the  Vorder  R.,  the  Mittler  R.,  and  the  Hin- 
ter  Rhine.  The  first  and  most  easterly  rises  on  Mount 
Crispalt,  n.e.  of  Mount  St.  Gothard,  7,500  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  and  flowing  e.,  bursts  like  a  torrent  through  a  deep 
ravine.  At  Dissentis,  12  m.  from  its  source,  it  is  joined  by 
the  Mittler  R.,  or  central  branch,  at  the  comparatively  low 
level  of  3,500  ft.  At  Reichenau,  50  m.  from  the  source  of 
the  Vorder  R.,  the  stream  is  swelled  by  the  third  branch, 
Hinter  R.,  which,  taking  its  rise  among  the  glaciers  of  the 
Vogelberg,  flows  80  m.  before  it  blends  with  the  main 
branches.  The  Hinter  R.,  considerably  the  longest  of  the 
upper  waters,  is  deemed  the  chief  source,  and  at  its  con- 
fluence with  the  other  branch  at  Reichenau,  the  river  first 
assumes  the  general  name  Rhine.  At  Coire,  where  the 
river  takes  a  sudden  turn  northward,  it  is  nearly  150  ft. 
wide,  and  navigable  for  rafts  and  flat  boats.  A  little  above 
the  small  town  of  Sargans,  in  St.  Gall,  it  leaves  the  Grisons, 
and  forming  the  boundary  between  the  small  principality 
of  Lichtenstein  and  the  Vorarlberg  on  the  right,  and  St. 
Gall  on  the  left,  flows  northward  to  Rheineck,  where  it 
enters  the  Boden  See,  or  Lake  of  Constance,  which  may  in- 
deed be  regarded  as  the  river  itself  augmented  in  its  course 
between  Rheineck  and  Constance  by  the  confluence  of 
numerous  streams.  Emerging  from  the  Upper  Lake  at 
Constance,  the  R.  enters  the  Unter  See,  or  Lower  Lake,  a 
few  m.  below,  and  following  a  westerly  course,  forms  the 
boundary-line  between  Switzerland  and  the  grand  duchy 
of  Baden;  and  after  receiving  the  Thur,  Toss,  and  Aar  on 
the  left,  and  the  mountain  torrents  of  the  Wutach  and  Alb 
on  the  right,  pursues  its  course  to  Basel.  At  Schaffhausen, 
about  13  m.  from  the  western  extremity  of  the  Unter  See, 
the  waters  of  the  river,  rushing  over  a  rock  70  ft.  high, 
form  the  cataract  known  as  Falls  of  Schaffhausen;  while 
lower  down  the  narrowing  of  the  channel  through  the  pro- 
jection of  rocks  on  either  side  gives  rise  to  rapids  both  at 
Laufenburg,  and  at  a  point  ten  m.  below  it,  at  Hollen- 
hacken,  where  the  navigation  is  impeded  for  a  considera- 
ble distance  by  the  force  of  the  cataracts.  Below  Basel, 
the  R.,  turning  again  due  n.,  separates  Alsace-Lorraine 
from  Baden,  forms  the  e.  boundary  of  Rhenish  Bavaria, 
cuts  the  province  of  Rhine-Hesse  in  two,  and  flows 
between  Hessen-Nassau  and  Rhenish  Prussia,  through 
which  it  afterward  pursues  a  n.w.  course.  Before 
it  reaches  Cologne,  it  receives  numerous  tributaries — the 


RHINE. 


Ill,  Wiese,  Elz,  Kinzig,  Murg,  Neckar,  Main,  Lahn, 
Moselle,  etc.;  and  passes  the  cities  Breisach,  Strasburg, 
Germersheim,  Spires,  Mannheim,  Worms,  Oppenheim, 
Mainz,  Bingen,  Coblenz,  and  Bonn.  In  this  middle  part 
of  its  course,  the  river  makes  great  bends,  the  current  is 
rapid,  and  navigation  is  rendered  difficult  by  numerous 
small  islands  and  sandbanks,  subject  to  changes  of  form 
and  position.  By  agreement  1840  between  France  and 
Baden,  the  R.  has  been  brought  into  its  proper  channel 
and  considerably  shortened.  The  valley  through  which 
the  R.  runs  between  steep  banks  from  Mainz  to  Bonn, 
contains  the  picturesque  scenery  which  has  made  this 
river  so  celebrated,  and  the  vineyards  whence  the  famous 
Rhenish  wines  are  obtained.  From  Cologne  to  its 
mouths,  the  R.  flows  through  a  low  level  country,  and 
soon  after  entering  the  Netherlands,  divides  into  two 
arms;  the  left,  called  the  Waal,  uniting  with  the  Maas 
near  Fort  Loevestein,  and  forming  the  Merwede  or  Merwe, 
which  below  Dordrecht  takes  the  name  Old  Maas;  the 
right  arm,  called  the  R.,  a  little  above  Arnheim,  throws 
off  the  New  Yssel,  originally  a  canal,  cut  by  Drusus  to 
connect  the  R.  with  the  Old  Yssel.  Flowing  on  to  Wijk 
bij  Duurstede,  the  R.  divides  again  into  the  Lek,  which 
unites  with  the  New  Maas  near  Ysselmonde,  and  the 
Kromme  R.,  which  at  Utrecht  parts  into  the  Vecht  and 
the  Old  R.,  the  latter  as  a  small  stream  entering  the 
North  Sea  by  the  Katwijk  canal  n.w.  of  Leyden.  The 
delta  of  the  R.,  which  extends  from  about  51°  35'  to 
52°  20'  n.  lat.,  and  occupies  nearly  50,000  sq.  m.  of 
territory,  belonging  to  the  Dutch  provinces  of  N.  and  S. 
Holland,  Utrecht,  and  Guelderland,  requires  to  be  pro- 
tected by  strong  embankments.  Several  canals  connect 
the  R.  with  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  the  Scheldt,  Meuse, 
and  Danube,  thus  opening  communication  with  France 
and  Belgium  on  one  side,  and  with  the  Netherlands  and 
every  part  of  Germany  on  the  other.  The  commerce  and 
navigation  of  the  Rv  which  are  of  vast  extent  and  great 
importance,  were  formerly  regulated  by  treaties  between 
the  different  states  through  which  it  passes,  all  of  which 
levied  tolls  on  vessels  and  goods  entering  their  respective 
territories,  which  accumulation  of  duties  pressed  heavily 
on  the  transit  trade.  Steam-navigation  is,  however,  con- 
ducted with  greater  regularity  and  energy  on  the  R. 
than  on  any  other  river  of  Germany;  and  of  late  years, 
since  the  main  lines  of  railway  on  either  side  of  the  R. 
have  been  connected  by  railway  bridges  across  the  river, 
additional  importance  and  extension  have  been  given  to 
the  commercial  relations  of  all  the  countries  connected 
with  the  Rhine.  Pontoon  or  boat  bridges  cross  the  river 
at  Cologne,  Mainz,  Mannheim,  and  a  few  other  places. 

RHINE,  Confederation  of  the:  see  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine. 

RHINE,  Province  of  the:  see  Rhenish  Prussia. 


TiHINEN  CEPHALIC— RHINOCEROS. 

RI-IINEHCEPHALIC,  ai  rinen-sef  'a-lik  [Gr.  rids  ot 
rhina,  the  i:ose;  engkeph'alos,  the  brain— from  en,  in; 
keph'ale,  toe  head]:  belonging  to  the  nose  and  brain, 
applied  to  the  prolongation  of  brain-substance  which  forms 
the  olfactory  nerves. 

RHINE- WINE:  term  of  very  general  signification, 
applied,  however,  most  frequently  to  wines  produced  in  the 
Rheingau  (q.v.).  The  most  valued  and  costly  of  these  are 
the  Schloss-Johannisberger,  Hochheimer,  Kloster-Er- 
bacher,  Rudesheimer,  Steinberger,  Grafenberger,  Rauen- 
thaler,  Rothenberger,  Scharlachberger,  and  Markobrunner. 
The  red  Rhine-wines,  of  which  the  Asmannshauser  is  most 
celebrated,  are  not  nearly  so  much  prized  as  the  white; 
neither  have  they  the  strength  or  bouquet  of  the  latter. 
The  wines  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  below  Dusseldorf,  are 
generally  inferior. 

The  term  R.-W.,  in  its  general  signification,  includes  the 
Pfalz  and  Moselle  wines.  It  is  now  generally  held  in  Ger- 
many that  Rhine-wines  that  have  been  properly  kept  for 
three  or  four  years  are  in  the  most  wholesome  condition  for 
use;  the  very  old  stocks  no  longer  find  ready  market  except 
in  Russia  and  England. 

RHINO-,  prefix,  rl-nb  [Gr.  r7iis,  rhinos,  the  nose,  the 
nostrils]:  of  or  belonging  to  the  nose  or  nostrils. 

RHINO,  n.  rind:  a  common  cant  term  for  'money.' 

RHINOCEROS,  n.  rl-nos'er-os  [L.  rhlnoc 'eros ;  Gr. 
rhlnok'eros — from  Gr.  rhis  or  rhina,  the  nose;  keras,  a 
horn]:  large  animal  of  Asia  and  Africa,  named  from  the 
one  or  two  solid  fi  brous  horns  which  arm  its  snout.  Rhino- 
cerial,  a.  rVnd-serl-al,  or  Rhinocekical,  a.  -ser'l-kal, 
pertaining  to  or  resembling  a  rhinoceros. — Rhinoceros  is  the 
name  of  a  genus  of  perissodactyl  ungulates,  containing  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  of  terrestrial  mammalia,  except 
the"  elephants.  There  are  at  least  seven  or  eight  existing 
species,  all  natives  of  warm  parts  of  Asia,  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  Africa;  and  numerous  fossil  species  have 
been  discovered  in  the  newest  geological  deposits.  The 
form  of  the  R.  is  clumsy  and  uncouth;  its  aspect  dull  and 
heavy.  The  limbs  are  thick  and  strong;  each  foot  is  termi* 
nated  by  three  toes  covered  with  broad  hoof-like  nails. 
The  tail  is  small,  and  terminated  by  a  small  tuft.  The  ears 
are  moderately  large;  the  eyes  very  small.  The  head  is 
large,  the  muzzle  prolonged,  and  the  nasal  bones  combine 
into  an  arch  for  the  support  of  a  horn,  which,  however, 
does  not  spring  from  them,  but  merely  from  the  skin;  a 
second  horn,  in  some  species,  growing  above  it,  in  like 
manner  springing  from  the  skin,  and  resting  for  support 
on  the  bone  of  the  forehead.  The  upper  lip  is  more  or  less 
prolonged  and  prehensile,  in  some  of  the  species  so  much 
so  that  it  is  capable  of  being  used  to  pick  up  very  small 
objects.  The  whole  body,  head,  and  limbs  are  covered 
with  extremely  thick  and  hard  skin,  which  in  none  of  the 
existing  species  exhibits  more  than  mere  traces  of  hair, 
chough  there  is  evidence  that  some  of  the  extinct  ones  were 
covered  with  fur;  and  the  hardness  of  the  skin  being  such 


PLATE  3. 


Rhinoceros 


Javan  Rhinoceros, 


RHINOCEROS. 

that  in  some  species  it  has  not  pliancy  enough  to  permit 
the  movements  of  the  animal,  it  is  in  a  manner  jointed  by 
means  of  folds  on  the  neck,  behind  the  shoulders,  in  front 
of  the  thighs,  and  on  the  limbs. 

The  horn  of  the  R.  is  a  remarkable  organ,  and  a  power- 
ful weapon  of  offense  and  defense.  With  it  the  animal 
can  root  up  bushes  or  small  trees,  the  foliage  or  fruit  of 
which  it  desires  to  eat.  It  is  of  a  perfectly  homogeneous 
structure  (see  Horns),  and  solid,  consisting  of  a  material 
like  consolidated  hair. 

The  different  species  show  some  differences  of  dentition. 
None  of  the  species  have  much  intelligence,  Althougn 
usually  harmless,  they  are  easily  provoked,  and  show  great 
capaciousness  of  temper.  When  irritated,  they  become 
very  dangerous;  and  though  usually  slow  in  their  move- 
ments, they  can,  on  occasion,  run  rapidly.  Their  great 
weight  and  strength  enable  them  to  force  their  way 
'through  jungles,  breaking  down  the  smaller  trees  before 


Rhinoceros  (R.  Indicus). 
them.  The  hide  is  proof  against  the  claws  of  the  iion  or 
tiger,  and  is  not  to  be  penetrated  by  a  leaden  bullet,  except 
at  very  short  distance,  or  in  some  of  the  thinner  parts 
about  the  neck  and  chest.  Bullets  of  iron  or  tin  are  used 
for  shooting  ihem. 

The  species  of  R.  agree  in  being  found  sometimes  solitary 
or  in.pairs,  sometimes  in  little  companies,  never  in  large 
herds. 

The  Indian  R.  (R.  Indicus).  native  of  the  continental 
parts  of  the  E  Indies,  lives  chiefly  in  marshy  jungles  on  the 
banks  of  lakes  and  rivers,  often  wallowing  in  the  mud, 
with  which  it  encases  itself,  apparently  as  a  protection 
against  insects,  which  annoy  it  notwithstanding  the  thick- 
ness of  its  hide.  It  is  the  largest  known  species  of  R  ,  a 
large  specimen  being  vather  more  than  five  ft.  in  height. 
The  horn  is  sometimes  3  ft.  in  length,  and  18  inches  in  cir- 
cumference at  the  base.  The  Indian  R.  was  known  by 
very  imperfect  description  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  receiving 
the  inappropriate  name  Indian  Ass;  and  from  accounts  of 
it  the  fable  of  S-hs!  unicorn  probably  originated.  Individ- 
uals have  from  lime  to  time  been  brought  alive  to  Europe, 


KHINOPLASTIC— RHINOPLASTY  OPERATION . 

and  have  proved  moderately  quiet  and  tractable,  feeding 
with  apparent  satisfaction  on  moistened  hay,  vegetables, 
pulse,  grain,  etc. — The  Javanese  R.  (B.  Javanicus,  or  B. 
Sondaicus)  is  a  somewhat  smaller  species,  also  one-horned. 
Sumatra  has  a  two-horned  species  (B,  8umairensis).—D\i- 
ferent  species  of  R.,  all  two-horned,  are  found  in  almost 
all  parts  of  Africa,  and  one  or  more  of  them  were  known 
to  the  ancient  Romans. — The  Bovele,  or  Black  R.  (B. 
bicornis,  or  B.  Africanus),  of  s.  Africa,  is  the  smallest  of 
the  known  species.  It  is  of  black  color,  and  its  first  horn 
is  rather  thick  than  long,  its  second  short  and  conical.  It 
is  a  fierce  and  dangerous  animal,  capable  of  great  activity, 
and  more  dreaded  by  the  s.  African  hunter  than  the  lion 
itself. — The  Keitloa  (B.  Keitloa),  also  of  s.  Africa,  is 
larger,  and  has  the  two  horns  nearly  equal  in  length,  the 
foremost  horn  curved  backward,  the  other  forward.  It  is 
much  dreaded  for  its  strength  and  ferocity. — The  White 
R.  (B  Simus),  or  Mtjchuco,  or  Monooho,  is  the  largest  of 
the  well-ascertained  African  species. 

No  species  of  R.  is  prolific:  one  young  one  only  is  pro- 
duced at  a  birth,  and  the  intervals  are  long.  The  flesh  of 
the  R.  is  used  for  food,  the  different  species  being  vari- 
ously esteemed.  The  skin  is  used  in  the  E.  Indies  for 
shields;  in  s.  Africa,  it  is  sliced  into  thongs. 

The  earliest  remains  of  the  R.  are  found  in  Miocene 
strata,  and  in  the  subsequent  Tertiary  deposits  they  fre- 
quently occur.  Ten  species  have  been  described.  A  two- 
horned  species  was  found  by  Pallas  in  the  frozen  gravel  of 
Siberia,  with  the  mammoth,  still  covered  with  a  shaggy 
coat  of  long  wool,  and  having  its  flesh  preserved. 

RHINOPLASTY,  a.  rind-plasm  [Gr  rhis  or  rldna, 
the  nose;  plasiikos,  plastic — from  plasso,  I  form]:  nose- 
forming,  applied  to  an  operation  in  surgery  by  which  the 
nose  is  renewed  (see  Rhinoplasty  Operation).  Rhino- 
scope,  n.  rindskdp  [Gr.  skoped,  I  view],  an  instrument, 
consisting  of  an  adapted  oval  or  circular  mirror,  by  which 
*h^  back  part  of  the  nostrils  may  be  examined.  Rhinos'- 
copy,  n.  -nos'ko-pl,  the  examination  of  the  back  parts  of  the 
soft  palate,  the  nose,  etc.,  by  means  of  the  rhinoscope. 

RHINOPLASTY  OPERATION,  rl'no-plds'tik:  in 
surgery,  operation  for  restoration  of  a  portion  or  the 
whole  of  the  nose  destroyed  by  accident  or  disease:  it  con- 
sists in  transplantation  of  skin  from  an  adjoining  healthy 
part.  When  the  whole  nose  has  to  be  replaced,  the  fol- 
lowing course  is  usually  adopted.  A  triangular  piece  of 
leather  is  cut  into  the  shape  of  the  nose,  and  is  extended  on 
the  forehead  with  its  base  uppermost;  its  boundaries,  thus 
flattened,  are  marked  out  on  the  skin  with  ink.  Any 
remains  of  the  old  nose  are  then  pared  away,  and  a  deep 
groove  cut  round  the  margins  of  the  nasal  apertures. 
When  the  bleeding  from  these  incisions  has  stopped,  the 
marked  portion  of  the  skin  of  the  forehead  must  be  care- 
fully dissected  away,  till  it  hangs  by  a  narrow  strip 
between  the  eyebrows.  When  the  bleeding  from  the  fore- 
head ceases,  the  flap  must  be  twisted  on  itself,  so  tiur  the 


RHIPXPTERA— RHIZANTHS. 

surface  which  was  originally  external  may  remain  external 
in  the  new  position,  and  its  edges  must  be  fastened  with 
stitches  into  the  grooves  prepared  for  their  reception.  The 
nose  thus  made  is  to  be  supported  with  oiled  lint, 'and 
well  wrapped  in  flannel,  to  keep  up  the  temperature. 
When  complete  adhesion  has  taken  place,  the  twisted  strip 
of  skin  may  be  cut  through,  or  a  little  slip  may  be  cut  out 
of  it,  so  that  the  sui  face  may  be  uniformly  smooth.  When 
only  a  part  of  the  nose,  as  one  side  only,  or  the  septum, 
requires  to  be  restored,  modifications  of  the  operation  are 
required,  and  the  skin,  instead  of  being  taken  from  the 
forehead,  is  take:i  from  the  cheek  or  the  upper  lip.  Foi 
further  details,  see  Fergusson's  Practical  Surgery. 

The  R.  O.  is  popularly  known  as  the  Taliacoiian  Opera- 
tion,  from  its  having  been  performed  first  by  Taliacotius, 
prof,  of  anatomy  and  surgery  at  Bologna  where  he  died 
1553.  The  work  in  which  the  operation  is  described  was 
not  published  ill  more  than  40  years  after  his  death.  In- 
stead of  taking  the  skin  from  the  forehead,  he  took  it  from 
the  arm  of  his  patient,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  his 
operation,  though  inferior  in  many  respects  to  that  now 
adopted,  should  not  be  successful.  The  difficulty  of  keep- 
ing the  arm  sufficiently  long  in  apposition  with  the  face 
(about  20  days),  was  doubtless  one  reason  for  selecting  the 
forehead  as  the  part  from  which  to  take  the  skin.  Talia- 
cotius discusses  but  does  not  commend  the  plan  of  taking 
the  skin  from  the  arm  of  another  person.  Even  if  a  nose 
were  manufactured  from  the  skin  of  another  person,  there 
is  not  the  slightest  reason  for  apprehending  that  it  would 
suddenly  die  and  drop  off  on  the  death  of  the  original  pro- 
prietor of  the  skin,  notwithstanding  the  cases  to  the  con- 
trary recorded,  as  illustrative  of  the  power  of  sympathy, 
by  Van  Helmot,  Cam  panel  la,  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  and 
others.  This  astounding  notion  was  resuscitated  by  Ed- 
mund  About  in  his  popular  novel  Le  Nez  d'un  Notaire. 

RHIPIP'TERA:  see  Stuepsipteka. 

RHIZA,  n.  rl'za  [Grc]:  a  root. 

RHIZANTHS,  n.  plu.  rizanths  [Gr.  rlriza,  a  root;  an- 
tlios,  a  flower]:  class  of  flowering  plants  growing  on  the 
roots  of  other  plants,  including  the  largest  known  flower, 
Rafflesia.  Rhizanthe^  (Rhizogens  of  Lindley),  remark- 
able nat.  order  of  plants.  They  are  parasitical,  brown, 
yellow,  or  purple,  never  of  green  color,  destitute  of  true 
leaves,  and  having  cellular  scales  instead.  The  stem  is 
amorphous  and  fungus-like;  sometimes,  as  in  Rafflesia 
fc.v.),  there  is  no  stem.;  but  the  flowers  arise  immediately 
from  the  surface  of  the  branch  or  stem  to  which  the  plant 
is  parasitically  attached.  Spiral  vessels  are  either  few  or 
lacking,  and  the  substance  is  chiefly  cellular  tissue.  While 
their  general  structure  thus  associates  them  with  fungi, 
which  they  resemble  also  in  their  mode  of  decay,  they 
have  the  flowers  and  sexual  organs  of  phanerogamous 
plants.  The  flowers  are  monoecious,  dioecious,  or  herma- 
phrodite. Lindley  regards  these  plants  as  forming  a  class 
Rhizogens)  distinct  from  the  other  Phanerogamous  plants 


BH1ZINE-RHIZ0PHAG0US. 


(Bxogens  and  Endogens),  and  as  one  of  the  connecting  links 
be'ween  them  and  the  Crypt ogamo us  plants  (Thallogens 
and  Acrogens).  There  are  not  many  more  than  50  known 
species  in  all,  of  which  one  or  twro  are  found  in  s.  Europe, 
the  others  in  Africa  and  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  Amer- 
ica. Cynomorium  coccineum  (Balanophoracem)  is  found  in 
Malta,  and  is  the  Fungus  Melitensis  of  apothecaries,  long 
noted  for  arresting  hemorrhages.  Others  are  likewise 
used  as  styptics.  Cytinus  hypocistis  {Cytinacem)  grows  on 
the  roots  of  species  of  Cistus  in  s.  Europe.  Its  extract 
(Succus  hypocistidis)  is  used  as  an  astringent  in  hemor 
rhages  and  dysentery.  A  species  of  Ombrophytum  {Bala- 
nop/wracece)  springs  up  suddenly  after  rain  in  Peru  like  a 
fungus,  is  insipid,  and  is  cooked  and  eaten  under  the  name 
Mays  del  Monte.  Different  species  of  Balanophora  are 
abundant  in  n.  India:  they  are  found  in  the  Himalaya  at 
an  elevation  of  10,000  ft.,  producing  great  knots  on  root*? 
of  maple  trees,  oaks,  etc.,  which  are  sought  after  by  tne 
Tibetans,  and  carried  into  Tibet,  where  they  are  made  into 
very  beautiful  cups. 

RHIZINE,  n.  rl'zln  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  rootj:  the  root  of  u 
moss  or  a  lichen ;  called  also  Rhizula. 

RHIZOCARPOUS,  a.  rl'zo-kdr'pns  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  root, 
karpos,  fruit]:  in  hot.,  applied  to  Rhi'zocar'pe^s,  n.  plu. 
-pe-e,  a  group  of  cryptogams  including  Marsil'ea,  the  pep- 
perworts,  etc.,  which  have  their  organs  of  fructification 
between  the  root-fibres. 

RHIZODUS,  n.  rl'zo-dus  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  root;  odotis  or 
odonta,  a  tooth]:  in  geol.,  a  genus  of  carboniferous  sauroid 
fishes.  Rhi'zodont,  n.  -ddni,  a  reptile  whose  teeth  are 
planted  in  sockets,  as  the  crocodile. 

RHIZOGEN,  a.  rVzo-jen  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  root;  genntw,  I 
produce]:  in  hot,  producing  roots.  Rhi'zogens,  n.  plu. 
same  as  Rhizanths,  which  see.  Rhizoids,  n.  plu.  rl'zoyds 
[Gr.  eidos.  resemblance]:  the  rootlike  outgrowths  of  many 
Alga?. 


mor'foyd  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  root;  mor- 
Rhizome  or  Rootstock  of  Iris,   phe,  shape;  eidos,  resemblance]: 
in  hot.,  root-like  in  shape. 
RHIZOPHAGOUS,  a.  rl-zof'a-gua  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  root; 
phagein,  to  eat]:  feeding  on  roots. 


RHIZOME,  n.  ri'som,  Rhi'- 
zomes,  n.  plu.  -zbmz,  or  Rhi- 
zoma,  n.  rl-zoma,  Rhizo'mata, 
n.  plu.  -zo  ma-la  [Gr.  rhizdma, 
the  mass  of  a  tree's  roots — from 
rhiza,  a  root]:  in  hot.,  a  thick 
stem  running  along  or  under 
ground,  and  sending  forth  shoots 
above  and  roots  below. 


KHIZOPHOROUS-UHIZOPODA. 

RHIZOPHOROUS,  a.  H-zof'd-rus  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  root, 
phoros,  bearing— from phero,  I  bear]:  in  bot.,  root-bearing. 
Rhizophora,  n.  plu.  -d-m,  a  genus  of  tropical  plants 


Mangrove  (Rhizophora  Mangle}. 


which  root  in  the  mud,  and  send  down  from  their  branches 
stems  and  new  roots,  forming  thus  a  dense  thicket  to  the 
very  verge  of  the  water;  the  mangrove. 

RHIZOPODA,  rl-zop'o-da,  or  Rhi'zopods,  n.  plu.  [Gr. 
rhiza,  a  root;  pous  or  poda,  a  foot]:  important  class  of  the 
lowest  of  the  animal  sub-kingdoms,  the  Protozoa.  In  all 
jrganisms  of  this  class,  the  body  is  composed  of  a  simple 
gelatinous  substance,  to  which  the  term  '  sarcode '  is 
applied;  and  in  all,  locomotion  is  performed  by  the  protru- 
sion of  processes  which,  from  their  function,  are  termed 
'  pseudopodia/  or  false  feet.  As  in  the  case  of  all  the 
Protozoa,  except  the  Infusoria,  there  is  no  mouth  or  intes- 
tinal tube. 

As  a  typical  form  of  rhizopod,  the  Amoeba  (fig  1),  a 
minute  animal  readily  obtained,  may  be  taken.    On  piac- 


Fig.  1.— Amoeba  radiosa. 
a,  young  Amoeba,  with  five  pseudopodia  protruded;  fe,  another 
specimen. 

ing  the  light  sediment  from  a  watering  trough,  or  any 
stagnant  water,  under  a  microscope,  careful  search  will 


BHIZOPODA. 

bring  to  view,  here  and  there,  a  minute  roundish  mass*  of 
semi-transparent  jelly,  seemingly  devoid  of  life.  Soon, 
however,  the  animal  begins  to  push  out  in  various  direc- 
tions portions  of  the  gelatinous  mass  of  which  it  consists, 


Fig.  2.— Sun-animalcule      Fig.  3.— Difflugia        Fig.  4. 
in  the  act  of  feeding:        proteiformis.        Arcella  acu- 
minata. 

At  a  is  seen  a  captured  Infusorian  entering  the  substance  of  the 

body. 

;ind  by  the  alternate  expansion  and  retraction  of  these 
prolongations,  it  effects  a  slow  irregular  locomotion — the 
most  striking  fact  being  a  very  thin  transparent  expansion 
in  some  direction,  followed  by  a  flow  of  internal  granules. 
Should  these  processes  come  in  contact  with  anything  fit 
for  food,  they  coalesce  around  it,  and  the  morsel  soon 
becomes  inclosed  in  the  interior  of  the  body,  much  as  (to 
use  nn  illustration  employed  by  Prof.  Greene  in  Manual  of 
the  Protozoa)  a  stone  may  be  forced  into  the  interior  of  a 
lump  of  clay,  or  similar  plastic  material.  When  all  that  is 
nourishing  is  absorbed,  the  indigestible  remains  are  ejected 


Fig.  5. — Structure  of  Orbitolites  complanatus: 

a,  simple  disk  of  Orbitolites  laid  open  to  show  its  interior;  6, 
<*<n!ral  cell;  c,  circumambient  shell,  surrounded  by  concentric 
zo  les  of  shells  connected  with  each  other  by  annular  and  radiat- 
ing passages. 

through  some  part  of  the  body.  A  nucleus  may  generally 
be  observed,  and  at  times  (but  not  permanently)  one  or 
more  clear  vesicles  may  be  noticed,  containing  a  fluid  fur- 
nished apparently  during  the  process  of  digestion.  The 
animal  extemporizes  a  stomach  for  the  occasion,  much  as 
it  puts  forth  temporary  legs  or  arms.    The  members  of  the 


RHIZOTAXIS— RHODANTHE. 

genus  Amoeba  may  be  regarded  as  representing  the 
simplest  forms  of  animal  life.  Closely  allied  to  the  Amoeba 
is  the  ActinopJirys,  or  Sun-animalcule  (fig.  2),  and  both 
these  genera  are  completely  naked — the  sun-animalcule 
putting  forth  more  permanent,  straight,  rod-like  pseudo- 
podia  (said  to  be  provided  with  suckers  at  the  end)  capable 
of  being  rapidly  elongated  or  shortened,  in  the  procure- 
ment of  food.  In  Difflugia  (tig.  3),  the  'sarcode'  is  in- 
vested with  a  membranous  oval  coat  with  an  aperture  at 
one  end,  from  which  the  pscudopodia  project.  In  Arceila 
(tig.  4),  the  soft  parts  are  protected  by  a  discoid,  or  hemi- 
spherical shield,  open  below;  while  in  the  Foraminifera 
(q.v.),  the  soft  part  is  invested  with  a  calcareous  shell, 
sometimes  simple,  but  more  commonly  an  agglomeration 
of  minute  chambers  (fig.  5). 

The  class  Rhizopoda  is  divided  into  Order  1.  Foramini- 
fera, which,  Amceba,  etc.,  excepted,  have  chambered,  cal- 
careous, or  horny,  rarely  arenaceous,  shells  (examples, 
Orbitolites,  Nummularia,  Globigerina,  etc.,  q.v.);  and 
Order  2.  Radiolaria,  formerly  called  Polycystines,  with 
siliceous  shells,  and  branched,  usually  anastomosing,  gran- 
ular pseudopodia.  All  the  Amoeba  are  microscopic,  and 
seldom  exceed  ^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  Forami- 
nifera (q.v.)  are  somewhat  larger. — See  Schultze,  Ueber 
den  Organismus  der  Polythalamien,  1854;  Williamson,  On 
the  Recent  Foraminifera  of  Great  Britain,  1858;  Claparede 
et  Lachmann,  Etudes  sur  les  Infusoires  et  les  Rhizopodes, 
1858-00;  Carpenter,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  For- 
aminifera, 1861;  and  Hackel,  Die  Radiolarien,  1862. 

RHIZOTAXIS,  n.  rizo-tdks'is  [Gr.  rhiza,  a  root;  taxis,  a 
putting  in  order — from  tassein,  to  arrange]:  in  hot.,  the 
arrangement  of  the  roots. 

RHODANIC,  a.  rd-ddn'ik  [Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose],  denoting 
an  acid,  also  called  sulphocyanic  acid,  producing  a  red 
color  with  persalts  of  iron. 

RHODANTHE,  n.  rd-ddn'the  [Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose; 
anthos,  a  flower]:  a  beautiful  flowering  annual,  mucli 
esteemed. 


RHODE  ISLAND. 


RHODE  ISLAND,  rod  i'land  (officially  6  The  State  of 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  ' )  :  a 
state;  one  of  the  13  original  states  in  the  American 
Union. 

Location  and  Area, — R.  I.  is  in  lat.  41°  IS' — 42°  3'  n., 
long  71°  8' — 71°  53'  w.;  bounded  n.  and  e.  by  Mass.,  s. 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  w.  by  Conn.;  extreme  length  n. 
to  s.  47.5  m. ;  extreme  breadth  e.  to  w.  40  m. ;  land  and 
water  area  1,250  sq.  m.  (800,000  acres)  ;  cap.  Providence. 

Topography. — The  surface  is  much  diversified;  about 
one-tenth  is  water;  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  is 
islands;  a  small  part  of  the  land  surface  is  level  and 
marshy;  the  greater  part  is  broken  and  hilly.  The  state 
is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  Narragansett  Bay, 
the  larger  part  being  in  the  w.  The  highest  parts  of  the 
state  are  Mounts  Hope,  Pine,  Easchahoague,  Hopkins, 
Chopmist,  Neutaconkanet,  Woonsocket,  and  Diamond. 
The  principal  islands  are  Aquidneck  ( the  *  Eden  of 
America'),  Cononicut,  Prudence,  Block  (summer  resort), 
Patience,  Goat,  Dutch,  and  Perry.  R.  I.  is  drained 
chiefly  by  the  Paw  tucket,  Pawtuxet,  and  Pawcatuck 
rivers,  all  navigable  for  short  distances  and  affording 
excellent  water  power.  Newport  has  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  the  world,  and  can  give  anchorage  to  a  large 
fleet  of  the  heaviest  vessels.  The  soil  is  moderately  fer- 
tile, and  the  flora,  fauna,  and  vegetation  generally  are 
similar  to  those  of  Mass.  and  Conn.  The  most  valuable 
crop  is  hay. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  nearly  like  that  of  the  ad- 
joining states,  being  modified  by  Narragansett  Bay,  and 
the  summer  season  is  delightful,  particularly  at  Newport. 
The  rainfall  averages  40  in.  in  the  e.  and  44  in  the  w.; 
mean  annual  temperature  ranges  47° — 51°;  average 
mean  at  Providence  for  43  years,  47.94°,  and  average  an- 
nual range  about  (or  less  than)  100°. 

Geology. — The  islands  and  part  of  the  w.  section  show 
carboniferous  formation,  and  are  believed  to  form  the  e. 
limit  of  the  anthracite  region  in  the  United  States.  The 
greater  part  of  the  w.  section  and  a  small  part  of  the  e. 
are  of  Eozoic  origin.  The  economic  properties  are  coal, 
iron  ore,  limestone,  sandstone,  serpentine,  marble,  gran- 
ite, and  brickclay. 

Zoology. — Duck,  brant,  and  teal  abound  in  Narragan- 
sett Bay;  snipe,  woodcock,  and  grouse  in  the  neighbor- 
ing swamps  and  marshes. 

Agriculture. — Farming  has  not  kept  pace  with  other 
Rhode  Island  industries,  the  number  of  acres  included  in 
farms  having  decreased  17.8  per  cent  between  1850  and 
1900.  Much  of  this  land  taken  from  farms,  however, 
has  become  sites  for  factories  and  villages,  or  been  added 
to  the  suburbs  of  growing  cities  and  towns.  The  average 
size  of  farms  has  decreased  from  103  acres  in  1850  to  83 
Vol.  32  — t> 


RHODE  ISLAND. 


in  1900,  while  the  improved  land  of  farms  in  1900  is  but 
a  little  more  than  one-half  as  large  as  the  improved  area 
in  1850.  This  is  due  in  some  degree,  doubtless,  to  the 
fact  that  many  farms  are  occupied  by  persons  who  do 
not  depend  on  them  for  a  living,  and  do  not  cultivate 
their  land  to  any  extent.  Farmers  who  do  get  a  living 
from  their  land  generally  keep  cows,  and  from  these  de- 
rive much,  if  not  most  of  their  income,  and  this  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  hay  and  forage  form  the  most  im- 
portant crop,  occupying  69,776  acres  in  1899,  while  corn 
in  1900  amounted  to  only  8,149  acres,  and  potatoes  in 
1899  to  5,817  acres.  Cranston  has  probably  the  largest 
market  garden  in  the  United  States,  and  farmers  raise 
considerable  quantities  of  vegetables  for  the  local  mar- 
kets, while  fruit-raising  is  receiving  increased  attention. 
The  number  of  dairy  cows  kept  is  very  large,  being  23,- 
660  in  1900,  while  the  number  of  sheep  has  diminished 
from  11,400  in  1890  to  6,629  in  1900,  owing  to  the  in- 
creasing difficulty  of  keeping  sheep  where  dogs  are  nu- 
merous, as  in  the  vicinity  of  factory  towns,  and  also  be- 
cause their  care  on  a  small  scale  in  the  East  is  no  longer 
a  sufficiently  profitable  occupation  in  competition  with 
the  large  flocks  of  the  West.  In  1904  the  chief  crops 
were:  Corn  337,999  bu.,  value  $283,919;  oats  40,742  bu., 
value  $19,149;  potatoes  935,984  bu.,  value  $711,348;  and 
hay  75,681  tons,  value  $1,315,336.  In  1905  the  farm 
animals  consisted  of  15,764  horses  valued  at  $1,430,699; 
milch  cows  25,466,  value  $1,061,932;  other  cattle  10,444, 
value  $184,939;  sheep  8,216,  value  $33,748;  and  swine 
12,569,  value  $153,593. 

Fisheries. — Oysters,  scup,  menhaden,  and  squeteaque 
are  the  most  important  products  of  the  Rhode  Island 
fisheries,  which  employ  about  1,700  persons,  and  ap- 
proach in  value  one  million  dollars  annually.  The  fish- 
eries of  Narragansett  Bay  were  menaced  for  a  number  of 
years  by  the  pollution  of  the  upper  part  of  the  bay  with 
the  sewage  from  Providence.  This  evil  has  geen  greatly 
alleviated,  if  not  altogether  removed,  as  a  result  of  the 
methods  of  clarifying  sewage  recently  adopted. 

Manufactures. — Manufacturing  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry of  Rhode  Island,  which  ranked  second  in  1900 
in  the  production  of  cotton  goods,  and  third  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  woolens,  which  last-named  industry  is  giving 
way  to  worsted  and  knit  goods,  in  which  large  fortunes 
have  been  made  by  manufacturers  who  had  the  discern- 
ment to  note  the  change  in  popular  taste. 

Rhode  Island  is  the  parent  state  of  cotton-spinning  in 
America.  English  laws  forbade  any  one  making  a  model 
or  drawing  of  English  cotton  machinery,  and  sending  it 
out  of  the  country.  Samuel  Slater,  an  apprentice  to  cot- 
ton-spinning, under  Strutt,  partner  of  Arkwright,  the 
great  inventor  of  spinning  machinery,  mastered  the  im- 
provements on  which  he  was  employed,  and  came  to  the 


RHODE  ISLAND. 


United  States.  Moses  Brown  invited  him  to  Rhode  Isl- 
and. Slater  went,  and  with  the  aid  of  Moses  Brown's 
wealth  he  succeeded  in  producing  by  the  close  of  1790,  at 
Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  cotton-yarn  equal  to  the  best  made  in 
England.  Cotton-spinning  became  a  great  Rhode  Island 
industry,  and  continued  to  be  the  leading  industry  until 
the  attention  of  manufacturers  was  turned  largely  to 
woolens  and  worsteds.  In  1900  the  number  of  cotton 
spindles  in  the  State  was  1,920>522.  The  dyeing  and 
finishing  of  textiles,  the  silk  and  silk  goods  industry, 
and  the  manufacture  of  rubber  boots  and  shoes,  and  of 
electrical  apparatus  are  also  among  the  important  and 
growing  industries  of  the  State.  In  the  manufacture  of 
the  cheaper  quality  of  jewelry  Rhode  Island  stands  first 
in  the  United  States.  In  solid  silverware  the  State  has 
no  superior.  Iron  industries  are  flourishing,  and  include 
locomotives,  Corliss  engines,  screws — the  gimlet-pointed 
screw  being  a  Rhode  Island  invention — and  all  varieties 
of  metal  tools.  In  1905  there  were  1,617  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  capitalized  at  $215,901,375;  employ- 
ing 97,318  wage-earners,  whose  wages  aggregated  $43,- 
112,637;  the  cost  of  materials  used  was  $112,872,261; 
and  the  value  of  the  product  was  $202,109,583.  The  lead- 
ing industry  was  the  combined  textile,  the  total  value  of 
the  product  being  $103,096,311,  the  chief  items  being 
worsted  goods  $44,477,596,  cotton  goods  $30,628,843,  dye- 
ing and  finishing  textiles  $9,981,457,  woolen  goods  $8,- 
163,167,  cotton  small  wares  $3,944,607,  and  hosiery  and 
knit  goods  $3,344,655.  Other  important  industries  were 
foundry  and  machine  shop  products  $16,338,512;  jewelry 
$14,431,756;  electrical  machinery  apparatus  and  supplies 
$5,435,474;  and  silversmithing  and  silverware  $.323,264. 

Banks. — The  Providence  Bank,  founded  in  1791,  is 
the  oldest  Rhode  Island  bank.  The  Providence  Institu- 
tion for  Savings  dates  from  1819.  The  banking  institu- 
tions of  Providence  include  36  national,  3  state  banks 
and  24  savings  banks.  The  national  banks  had  a  total 
capital,  according  to  the  report  of  the  Comptroller  of  the 
Currency  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1903,  of  $12,305,- 
000;  surplus,  $3,788,000;  cash,  etc.,  $1,523,000;  loans, 
$27,472,000;  deposits,  $19,154,000.  The  state  banks 
has  capital  of  $395,000;  no  surplus;  cash,  $92,000;  loans, 
$1,003,000;  deposits,  $735,000.  The  savings  banks  had 
surplus  $3,338,000;  cash,  $2,343,000;  loans,  $31,789,000; 
deposits,  $71,900,000.  A  very  large  share  of  the  banking 
business  is  in  the  hands  of  trust  companies,  with  large 
capital  and  surplus.  Since  the  liquidation  of  several 
banks  carried  down  in  the  failure  of  A.  &  W.  Sprague, 
30  years  ago,  no  suspicion  has  been  attached  to  the  sol- 
vency of  Rhode  Island  financial  institutions. 

Railways. — The  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
Railway  controls  the  more  important  steam  lines  within 
the  limits  of  the  State,  and  the  railway  mileage  was  209 


L 


RHODE  ISLAND. 

miles  in  1900.  After  many  years  of  controversy  over  lo- 
cation and  terms  for  the  disposal  of  the  Cove  lands,  a 
Union  Station  was  erected  in  the  city  of  Providence 
which  added  greatly  to  the  convenience  of  travel  in  tiie 
State.  A  complete  system  of  electric  lines  .extends 
throughout  the  State. 

Commerce. — The  export  commerce  from  Rhode  Island 
ports  is  insignificant.  Foreign  imports  at  the  port  of 
Providence  for  the  year*  ending  30  June,  1905,  amounted 
in  value  to  $1,044,036,  and  there  are  customs  districts 
also  at  Newport,  Bristol,  and  Warren.  Congress  has 
made  liberal  appropriations  for  the  improvement  of  har- 
bor facilities  at  Block  Island.  The  wharves  at  Provi- 
dence and  other  ports  which  once  gave  room  to  India- 
men,  whalers  and  privateers  now  accommodate  steamers 
and  other  vessels  used  in  the  coastwise  trade  and  summer 
travel.  The  boat-building  industry  of  Bristol  is  known 
the  world  over  on  account  of  the  Herreshoffs,  who  have 
constructed  several  successful  defenders  of  the  America's 
Cup.  Narragansett  Bay  has  become  a  pleasure  resort 
from  Providence  River  to  Newport  in  the  east  and  Point 
Judith  in  the  west,  and  in  this  way  a  large  amount  of 
money  is  brought  into  the  State,  while  wealthy  men 
from  New  York  and  elsewhe're,  with  summer  homes  in 
Rhode  Island,  have  selected  the  State  as  their  legal  resi- 
dence, and  pay  personal  taxes  there. 

Finance. — Since  the  State  recovered  from  the  financial 
disorder  occasioned  by  the  War  for  Independence  its 
credit  has  always  been  of  the  highest,  and  its  obligations 
promptly  met.  The  construction  of  the  new  State  House 
at  Providence,  and  other  improvements  due  to  the  grow- 
ing needs  of  the  commonwealth  have  led  to  extraor- 
dinary expenditures  within  recent  years,  and  in  January 
1903,  the  net  indebtedness  was  $2,475,935.48.  In  1906 
there  were  23  national  banks  in  operation  in  the  State 
with  combined  resources  of  $37,594,203.55,  capital  stock 
paid  in  $7,200,250,  surplus  fund  $3,032,938.10,  undivided 
profits  $2,126,653.89,  individual  deposits  of  $17,896,688.- 
94,  and  national  bank  notes  outstanding  $4,025,205.  By 
latest  reports  there  were  in  Providence  three  State  banks 
and  24  savings  banks. 

Education. — Rhode  Island  has  excellent  public  schools, 
supported  by  local  taxation,  and  administered  by  local 
authority,  and  under  the  general  supervision  of  a  com- 
missioner of  schools.  Education  is  compulsory,  and 
while  there  is  much  illiteracy  among  certain  classes  of 
foreigners,  parents,  almost  without  exception,  show 
eagerness  to  have  their  children  educated.  In  1900-1  the 
school  population  of  the  State  was  85,084,  of  whom 
69,087  were  enrolled  in  schools.  The  large  majority  of 
teachers  are  females,  the  male  teachers  numbering  only 
9.1  per  cent  of  the  1,690  employed  in  the  schools  in 
1900-1,  and  the  average  monthly  salaries  were  $115.32 


RHODE  ISLAND. 

for  the  males  and  $51.14  for  the  females,  the  difference 
being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  males  are  usually  in  the 
more  responsible  places.  The  State  Normal  School  at 
Providence  is  a  handsome  building,  and  the  State  also 
maintains  a  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanical 
Arts.  The  leading  educational  institution  of  the  State, 
and  one  of  the  best  in  the  United  States,  is  Brown  Uni- 
versity. A  private  corporation  in  the  State  is  having 
constructed  a  school-ship  called  'Young  America/  to 
give  Rhode  Island  boys  and  such  others  as  desire  it  a 
first  class  nautical  and  preparatory  education.  The 
Rhode  Island  School  of  Design  furnishes  educational 
advantages  in  the  arts  of  the  highest  order.  In  1904  the 
estimated  number  of  children  of  school  age  (5-18  years) 
was  108,471,  the  number  enrolled  was  70,843,  the  average 
daily  attendance  was  51,692  and  the  average  school  term 
was  193  days.  There  were  2,055  school  teachers,  of 
whom  177  were  male  and  1,878  were  female;  the  salaries 
of  superintendents  and  teachers  aggregated  $1,151,455; 
and  the  total  expenditures  for  school  purposes  was  $1, 
804,762. 

Religion. — The  First  Baptist  Church  of  Providence, 
said  to  be  the  first  in  America,  dates  back  to  1639,  March 
16.  Roger  Williams  was  one  of  its  organizers.  The 
Quakers  were  among  the  early  settlers,  seeking  refuge 
from  persecution  in  Massachusetts,  and  the  Friends' 
School  at  Providence  is  one  of  Rhode  Island's  best-known 
educational  institutions.  The  Congregational ists  did  not 
venture  into  Rhode  Island  until  1721,  and  while  their 
proposal  to  come  there  was  received  with  some  bitter- 
ness by  the  descendants  of  those  whom  their  ancestors 
had  driven  into  the  wilderness,  they  have  become  one  of 
the  leading  denominations  in  the  State.  While  Roman 
Catholics  were  as  free  to  worship  in  Rhode  Island  as 
members  of  any  other  creed,  it  was  not  until  1813  or 
1814  that  mass  was  publicly  celebrated  in  the  city  of 
Providence,  and  the  Church  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul 
was  completed  in  1838.  The  present  handsome  Cathedral 
stands  partly  on  the  site  of  the  old  church,  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faith  now  includes  one-fourth  the  popula- 
tion of  the  State.  The  Baptists  have  almost  one-third 
of  the  total  Protestant  church  membership,  and  the 
Episcopalians,  who  celebrated  in  1872  the  150th  anni- 
versary of  old  St.  John's  Church  at  Providence,  have 
about  one-fifth.  The  Methodists  date  back  in  Rhode  Is- 
land to  1787,  and  have  a  large  membership  and  pros- 
perous churches.  The  Universalists  settled  in  Providence 
in  1772,  and  have  since  had  a  prominent  share  in  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  State,  besides  having  been  instru- 
mental in  fostering  many  important  public  charities. 
The  Presbyterians  are  increasing  in  numbers,  and  have 
flourishing  places  of  worship.  Rhode  Island  contains  its 
proportion  of  other  sects  and  creeds,  including  Jews,  who 


RHODE  ISLAND. 

were  among  the  early  settlers  of  Newport,  where  some 
of  them  achieved  eminence. 

State  Government. — There  are  33  towns  and  5  cities 
within  the  State.  The  governor  is  elected  for  one 
year,  and  a  lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of  State  and 
other  State  officers  are  elected  for  the  same  period.  The 
governor  presides  over  the  Senate,  has  no  veto  power, 
and  can  pardon  criminals  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate.  The  members  of  the  legislature, 
known  officially  as  the  General  Assembly,  are  elected  for 
one  year.  In  the  upper  house,  called  the  Senate,  there 
is  one  senator  from  each  city  and  town.  In  the  lower 
house,  or  House  of  Representatives,  every  town,  no  mat- 
ter how  small,  has  at  least  one  member,  but  as  no  town 
or  city  can  have  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  72  members 
to  which  the  house  is  limited,  the  representation  is  not 
proportionate  to  population.  Members  of  the  General 
Assembly  are  paid  for  actual  attendance,  with  a  max- 
imum limit  of  60  days.  The  House  alone  has  the  power 
to  impeach,  and  the  Senate  tries  cases  of  impeachment. 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  General  Assembly  may 
from  time  to  time  establish.  Preliminary  examination 
of  persons  charged  with  serious  crimes,  and  trials  for 
minor  offenses  are  held  in  the  district  courts,  the  jus- 
tices of  which  are  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly.  The 
justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  elected  by  the  General 
Assembly  in  grand  committee,  and  continue  in  office 
until  their  positions  are  declared  vacant  by  a  resolution 
of  the  General  Assembly.  In  practice  this  has  meant 
election  for  life,  or  until  retirement  by  voluntary  resig- 
nation. 

History. — It  is  believed  that  portions  of  R.  I.  were  dis- 
covered and  explored  by  the  Northmen  about  a.d.  1000, 
and  that  the  Vinland,  which  occurs  so  often  in  their  rec- 
ords, was  this  immediate  region  (see  Massachusetts). 
Narragansett  Bay  was  visited  by  Giovanni  da  Verazzano 
1524;  but  the  settlement  of  the  state  was  effected  1636, 
June,  by  Roger  Williams  (q.v. ),  who  had  been  ordered 
to  depart  from  Mass.  on  account  of  his  persistent  public 
teaching  against  certain  laws  of  that  colony.  In  1638  he 
obtained  a  grant  of  territory  from  the  Narragansett 
Indians,  and  1644  was  given  a  parliamentary  charter, 
under  which  the  separate  settlements  were  united  under 
one  govt.  1647,  styled,  6  The  Incorporation  of  Providence 
Plantations  in  the  Narragansett  Bay  in  New  England/ 
Cromwell  confirmed  this  charter  1655,  and  Charles  II. 
granted  a  new  one  1663  to  the  'colony  of  Rhode  Island 
and  Providence  Plantations,'  which  was  continued  in 
force  till  1843,  when  the  present  constitution  was 
adopted.  Both  the  parliamentary  and  royal  charters 
guaranteed  complete  freedom  of  conscience  in  religious 
matters.    In  1675-6  the  'Narragansett  country'  was  the 


RHODE  ISLAND. 


scene  of  an  Indian  war  in  which  King  Philip  was  killed 
and  1,000  of  his  warriors  either  killed  or  captured.  Dur- 
ing the  war  between  Great  Britain  and  France  (1756), 
R.  I.  sent  out  50  privateers,  manned  by  about  1,500  men. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  revolutionary  war,  the  first 
patriot  naval  squadron  was  fitted  out  at  Providence,  and 
sailed  under  command  of  Esek  Hopkins  (q.v. ).  Newport 
was  occupied  by  the  British  1776,  Dec,  who  successfully 
defended  it  against  a  combined  American  and  French  at- 
tack 1778,  Aug.  8,  and  abandoned  it  near  the  close  of 

1779,  the  French  allies  making  it  their  headquarters 

1780,  July  11.  R.  I.  was  the  last  colony  to  ratify  the 
federal  constitution,  and  did  not  enter  the  Union  till 
1790,  May  29.  The  present  constitution  was  an  out- 
growth of  .the  Dorr  rebellion  (see  Dorr,  Thomas  Wil- 
son ) ,  and  has  been  amended  several  times  since  adop- 
tion. A  prerevolutionary  dispute  with  Mass.  concerning 
the  boundary  line  was  settled  1861  by  the  cession  to 
Mass.  of  the  town  of  Fall  River  in  exchange  for  the 
towns  of  Pawtucket  and  E.  Providence.  During  the  civil 
war  R.  I.  sent  23,236  troops  to  the  Union  armies.  In 
the  civil  war  Rhode  Island  supplied  more  than  its  quota 
to  the  National  armies.  General  Ambrose  E.  Burnside, 
for  a  time  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and 
whose  equestrian  statue  is  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the 
city  of  Providence,  joined  the  service  from  this  State, 
of  which,  however,  he  was.  not  a  native,  and  later  was 
honored  by  its  people  by  being  elected  governor  and  United 
States  Senator.  Rhode  Island  spared  no  expense  in 
sending  troops  to  the  front,  and  since  that  great  conflict 
has  been  generous  in  caring  for  her  disabled  and  depend- 
ent defenders.  The  Soldiers'  Monument  opposite  the 
City  Hall  in  Providence  (now  about  to  be  re-located), 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  United  States,  bears  the  names 
of  the  gallant  dead  who  fell  in  defense  of  their  country. 
In  the  Spanish-American  War  also,  and  the  conflict  in 
the  Philippines,  Rhode  Island  has  been  well  represented. 

Governors. — The  successive  govs.,  with  their  terms  of 
service,  are  as  follows:  John  Coggeshall  1647-8;  Will- 
iam Coddington  1648-9;  John  Smith  1649-50;;  Nicholas 
Easton  1650-1;  Providence  and  Warwick:  Pres.  John 
Smith,  1622-3;  Pres.  Gregory  Dexter,  1653-4;  Ports- 
mouth and  Newport:  Pres.  John  Sandford  1652-54; 
United  Towns:  Nicholas  Easton  1654;  Roger  Brenton 
1654-57;  Benedict  Arnold  1657-60;  William  Brenton 
1660-62;  under  Royal  Charter:  Benedict  Arnold  1662-66; 
William  Brenton  1666-69:  Benedict  Arnold  1669-72; 
Nicholas  Easton  1672-74;  William  Coddington  1674-76; 
Walter  Clarke  1676-7:  Benedict  Arnold  1677-8;  William 
Coddington  1678;  John  Cranston  1678-80:  Peleg  San- 
ford  1680-83;  William  Coddington,  Jr.,  1683-85; 
TTrmy  Bull  1685-6:  Walter  Clarke  1686:  Henry 
Bull   1690;    John  Easton  1690-95;    Caleb  Carr  1695'; 


RHODE  ISLAND. 


Walter  Clarke  1696-7;  Samuel  Cranston  1698-1728; 
Joseph  Jencks  1728-32;  William  Wanton  1732-3; 
John  Wanton  1734-40;  Richard  Ward  1740-43; 
William  Greene  1743-45;  Gideon  Wanton  1745-6; 
William  Greene  1746-7;  Gideon  Wanton  1747-8; 
William  Greene  1748-55;  Stephen  Hopkins  1755-57; 
William  Greene  1757-8;  Stephen  Hopkins  1758-62;  Sam- 
uel WTard  1762-3;  Stephen  Hopkins  1763-65;  Samuel 
Ward  1765-67;  Stephen  Hopkins  1767-8;  Josias  Lyn- 
don, 1768-9;  Joseph  Wanton  1769-75;  state  organiza- 
tion: Nicholas  Cooke  1775-78;  William  Greene,  Jr., 
1778-86;  John  Collins  1786-90;  Arthur  Fenner  1790- 
1805;  Paul  Mumford,  actg.  1805;  Henry  Smith,  actg. 
1805-6;  Isaac  Wilbur,  actg.  1806-7;  James  Fenner 
1807-11;  William  Jones  1811-17;  Nehemiah  R.  Knight 
1817-21;  William  C.  Gibbs  1821-24;  James  Fenner 
1824-31;  Lemuel  H.  Arnold  1831-33;  John  B.  Francis 
1833-38;  William  Sprague  1838-9;  Samuel  W.  King 
1839-43;  under  constitution:  James  Fenner  1843-45; 
Charles-  Jackson  1845-6;  Byron  Diman  1846-7;  Elisha 
Harris  1847-49;  Henry  B.  Anthony  1849-51;  Philip  Al- 
len, 1851-2;  William  B.  Lawrence,  actg.  1852;  Philip 
Allen  1852-3;  Francis  M.  Dimond,  actg.  1853-4;  William 
W.  Hoppin  1854-57;  Elisha  Dyer  1857-59;  Thomas  G. 
Turner  1859-60;  William  Sprague  1860-1;  John  R.  Bart- 
lett,  actg.  1861-2;  William  C.  Cozzens,  actg.  1863;  James 
Y.  Smith  1863-66;  Ambrose  E.  Burnside  1866-69;  Seth 
Padelford  1869-73;  Henry  Howard  1873-75;  Henry  Lip- 
pitt  1875-77;  Charles  C.  Van  Zandt  1877-80;  A.  H.  Lit- 
tlefleld  1880-83;  A.  O.  Bourn  1883-85;  George  P.  Wet- 
more  1885-87;  John  W.  Davis  1887-8;  Royal  C.  Taft 
1888-9;  Herbert  W.  Ladd  1889-90;  John  W.  Davis 
1890-1;  Herbert  W.  Ladd  1891-92;  D.  Russell  Brown 
1892-95;  Charles  W.  Lippitt  1895-1897;  Elisha  Dyer 
1897-1900;  William  Gregory  1900-1;  Charles  D.  Kimball, 
1901-3;  Lucius  F.  C.  Garvin,  1903-5;  George  H.  Utter, 
1905-7 ;  James  H.  Higgins. 

Politics. — The  votes  of  R.  I.  for  pres.  and  vice-pres. 
have  been  as  follows:  1792,  George  Washington  and  John 
Adams  4;  1796,  John  Adams  and  Oliver  Ellsworth ;  1800, 
John  Adams,  pres.,  Charles  C.  Pinckney  3,  John  Jay  1, 
vice-pres.;  1804,  Thomas  Jefferson  and  George  Clinton; 
1808,  Charles  C.  Pinckney  and  Rufus  King;  1812,  De 
Witt  Clinton  and  Jared  Ingersoll;  1816,  James  Monroe 
and  Daniel  D.  Tompkins;  1820,  James  Monroe  and  Dan- 
iel D.  Tompkins;  1820,  James  Monroe  and  Daniel  D. 
Tompkins;  1824,  John  Q.  Adams,  pres.,  John  C.  Calhoun 
3,  blank  1;  vice-pres.;  1828,  John  Q.  Adams  and  Richard 
Rush;  1832,  Henry  Clay  and  John  Sergeant;  1836,  Mar- 
tin Van  Buren  and  Richard  M.  Johnson;  1840,  William 
Henry  Harrison  and  John  Tyler;  1844,  Henry  Clay  and 
Theodore  Frelinghuysen ;  1848,  Zachary  Taylor  and  Mil- 
lard Fillmore;  1852,  Franklin  Pierce  and  William  R, 


RHODES. 


King;  1856,  John  C.  Fremont  and  William  L.  Dayton; 
1860,  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Hannibal  Hamlin;  1864 
Abraham  Lincoln  and  Andrew  Johnson;  1868,  Ulysses  S. 
Grant  and  Schuyler  Colfax;  1872,  Ulysses  S.  Grant  and 
Henry  Wilson;  1876,  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  and  William 
A.  Wheeler;  1880,  James  A.  Garfield  and  Chester  A. 
Arthur;  1884,  James  G.  Blaine  and  John  A.  Logan; 
1888,  Benjamin  Harrison  and  Levi  P.  Morton;  1892, 
Benjamin  Harrison  and  Whitelaw  Reid;  1896,  William 
McKinley  and  G.  A.  Hobart;  190C,  Wm  McKinley  and 
Theo.  Roosevelt;  1904,  Theodore  Roosevelt  and  Charles 
W.  Fairbanks. 

RHODES,  rodz:  ancient  and  famous  maritime  city, 
cap.  of  the  island  of  R.,  and  on  its  n.e.  extremity.  The 
harbors,  of  which  there  are  two,  are  well  fortified  and 
separated  by  a  narrow  quay.  At  their  entrances  are  two 
large  towers  of  quadrangular  shape.  The  harbors,  how- 
ever, have  long  been  neglected,  and  this  once  flourishing 
mart  of  the  East  is  now  comparatively  desolate,  with- 
out industry  or  active  commerce.  The  town,  overlooked 
by  mosques  and  minarets,  consists  of  ill-built  houses  and 
gloomy  streets.  The  earthquakes  of  1851,  56,  and  63,  as 
well  as  the  frightful  powder-explosion  of  1856,  caused  by 
a  flash  of  lightning,  did  much  to  devastate  the  town.  By 
the  powder-explosion  the  church  of  St.  John,  built  1500, 
and  the  great  tower  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  were 
shattered,  together  with  300  houses,  under  whose  ruins 
1,000  townspeople  lost  their  lives;  and  the  earthquake  of 
1863  destroyed  2,000  houses  and  many  lives.  The  palace 
of  the  grand  master  is  now  in  ruins,  and  the  hospital  of 
the  knights  serves  as  a  granary.    Pop.  about  20,000. 

The  city  of  R.  was  founded  B.C.  408,  when  the  three 
more  ancient  towns  were  abandoned  and  the  whole  popu- 
lation joined  to  found  R.  as  their  capital.  It  was  built  on 
a  regular  plan,  the  unity  and  harmony  of  its  architecture 
being  secured  by  committing  the  design  of  the  whole  to 
one  man,  Hippodamus  of  Miletus,  who  had  planned  the 
Piraeus  at  Athens.  It  was  girt  about  by  strong  walls,  sur- 
mounted by  towers,  and  was  provided  with  two  excellent 
harbors.  But  it  was  remarkable  for  the  number  and  ex- 
cellence of  its  paintings,  sculptures,  and  statues,  as  well 
as  for  the  beauty  and  strength  of  its  architecture.  The 
new  city  soon  became  one  of  the  most  splendid  in  the 
world.  At  the  entrance  of  one  of  its  ports  stood  a  gigantic 
brazen  statue  of  Helios,  70  cubits  high,  called  the  Colossus 
of  Rhodes,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  ancient  world. 
3,000  other  statues,  of  which  100  were  colossal,  adorned 
the  city.  The  capital  of  a  fertile  and  flourishing  island, 
and  the  great  centre  of  the  commerce  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, R.  long  prospered  abundantly.    The  arts  were 


RHODES. 

prosecuted  with  assiduity,  and  iutellectual  activity  mani- 
fested itself  here  long  after  it  had  declined  in  most  parts  of 
Greece.  From  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  to 
the  middle  of  B.C.  4th  c.  R.  was  alternately  in  league 
with  Athens  and  in  arms  against  that  city.  Like  the  rest 
of  Greece,  it  submitted  to  the  victorious  Alexauder,  and 
received  a  Macedonian  garrison;  but  on  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, B.C.  323,  the  Rhodians  expelled  the  intruders. 
From  this  time  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Macedonian  mon- 
archy, R.  largely  extended  its  territories,  and  rose  to  great 
commercial  and  naval  importance.  After  the  death  of 
Ctesar,  whose  side  the  Rhodians  had  taken  against  Pompey 
in  the  civil  war,  they  were  defeated  in  a  naval  engagement 
by  Cassias,  who  b.c.  42  entered  the  city  by  force,  mas- 
sacred the  hostile  leaders,  seized  the  public  property,  and 
rirled  the  temples.  This  visitation  broke  the  power  of  R., 
but  it  long  maintained  its  prestige  as  a  seat  of  learning. 
During  several  centuries,  R.  remained  in  the  power  of  the 
Greek  emperors.  In  1310  the  grand  master  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  settled  here,  and,  here 
the  brethren  remained  till  the  16th  c.  (see  Saint  John  op 
Jerusalem,  Knights  of).  Siuce  this  period ,  R.  has  re- 
mained a  possession  of  Turkey. 

RHODES,  Island  of:  island  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  uow 
belonging  to  Asiatic  Turkey;  long  an  important,  wealthy, 
and  independent  state  of  ancient  Greece;  off  the  s.w.  coast 
of  Anatolia,  Asia  Minor,  about  12  m.  from  its  nearest  point; 
between  35°  52'  and  36°  28'  n.  lat.,  and  27°  40'  and  28°  15' 
e.  long.;  45  m.  in  length,  22m.  in  greatest  breadth;  about 
424  sq.  m.  It  is  traversed  in  the  direction  of  its  length 
— n.e.  to  s.w. — by  a  chain  of  mountains,  which  reach  in 
Mt.  Artemira  (anc.  Atabyros)  a  height  of  4,070  ft.,  and  in  Mt. 
Artamiti  nearly  6,000  ft.  The  mountains  are  covered  with 
forests,  the  valleys  are  fertile,  and  the  well-watered  plains 
form  rich  and  beautiful  pasture-lands.  Of  all  the  islands  in 
the  Levant,  R.  possesses  the  most  delightful  and  the  most 
temperate  climate.  It  produces  oil,  oranges,  citrons,  etc., 
and  might  raise  in  profusion  most  necessaries  and  luxuries. 
But  owing  to  the  insecurity  and  extortion  from  which  the 
Rhodians  have  long  suffered,  agriculture  is  depressed; 
much  fertile  laud  lies  waste,  and  the  island  does  not  even 
raise  corn  enough  for  its  scanty  population.  A  little  mar- 
ble is  quarried.  The  harbors  are  neglected,  and  the  trade 
is  inconsiderable. 

R  ,  anc.  Rhodos,  was  inhabited  at  a  very  early  period 
The  Telchines,  asserted  by  tradition  its  most  ancient  in- 
habitants, are  said  to  have  migrated  hither  from  Crete.  It 
was  not,,  however,  until  the  immigration  of  a  branch  of 
the  Doric  race  that  the  distinctive  national  character  of  the 
Rhodians  became  fixed.  The  first  immigration  of  Dorians 
seems  to  have  taken  place  before  the  Trojan  war,  for  R  is 
said  to  have  sent  nine  ships  to  Troy  under  the  leadership 
of  the  Heracleid  Tlepolemus.  Situated  between  the  three 
ancient  continents,  a  position  highly  favorable  to  the 
development  of  commercial  enterprise,  the  Rhodians  at  an* 
early  period  rose  to  great  prosperity  and  affluence.  Their 


RHODI  AN— RHom  U"M. 

three  most  ancient  towns  were  Lindus,  Ialysus,  and  Cami 
rus,  and  they  planted  numerous  colonies  not  only  on  the 
shores  in  their  vicinity,  but  also  on  the  coasts  of  Lycia, 
Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain.  At  the  end  of  B.C.  5th  c.  they 
founded  the  city  of  Rhodes  (q.v.);  and  after  this  event, 
(he  history  of  the  island  is  comprised  in  that  of  the  city. — 
Pop.  (1890)28,000;  of  whom  6,000  are  Turks,  1,000  Jews, 
the  remainder  Greeks. 

RHODIAN,  a.  rodl-an:  pertaining  to  the  island  of 
Rhodes,  in  the  Mediterranean:  N.  a  native  or  inhabitant. 

RHO'DIAN  LAW:  earliest  system  of  marine  law  known 
to  history;  said  to  be  compiled  by  the  Rhodiaus  after  they 
had  by  their  commerce  and  naval  victories  obtained  the 
sovereignty  of  the  sea,  about  b  c.  900.  Cicero  refers  to 
the  Rhodians  as  illustrious  for  their  naval  discipline.  The 
collection  of  marine  institutions  termed  R.  L.  is  found  in 
Vinnius,  but  their  authenticity  is  doubted.  Some  say  that 
the  Romans  adopted  these  laws  during  the  first  Punic  war; 
others  say  that  Justinian  incorporated  them  with  the  Ro- 
man law.  The  leading  points  supposed  to  be  borrowed 
from  the  Rhodiau  law  relate  to  the  shares  of  the  officers 
and  crew  of  a  ship,  the  punishment  of  barratry  and  of  plun- 
dering wrecks,  and  compensation  payable  to  the  heirs  of 
mariners  who  lost  their  lives  in  the  service  of  the  vessel. 

RHODIUM,  n.  ro'dl-um  [Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose]  (symb.  R., 
Rh,  and  Ro,  according  to  different  chemists;  at.  wt.,  104 — 
sp.  gr.  106-12):  one  of  the  metals  of  the  platinum  group. 
It  is  a  white,  very  hard  metal,  resembling  aluminium  rather 
than  silver.  It  fuses  less  easily  than  platinum.  It  is  duc- 
tile and  malleable  when  pure  and  after  fusion,  and  insolu- 
ble in  all  acids;  but  when  alloyed  in  small  quantity  with 
platinum,  copper,  bismuth,  or  lead,  it  dissolves  with  them 
in  aqua  regia.  It  usually  forms  about  one-half  percent,  of 
the  ore  of  platinum.  To  obtain  R.  the  solution  from  which 
platinum,  palladium,  and  iridium  have  been  separated  is 
mixed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  evaporated  to  dryness,  and 
the  residue  treated  with  alcohol  of  sp.  gr.  0*837,  which 
dissolves  everything  except  the  double  chlorides  of  R.  and 
sodium  After  filtering,  heating  the  residue  1o  redness, 
and  boiling  with  water,  metallic  R.  remains.  Two  oxides, 
two  sulphides,  and  three  chlorides  of  R.  have  been  ob- 
tained and  examined  by  chemists.  The  sesquichloride 
unites  with  several  soluble  chlorides  to  form  crystallizable 
double  salts,  which  are  of  ro^e-color  (whence  the  name  R. 
from  the  Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose).  An  alloy  of  steel,  with  a 
small  quantity  of  R.,  is  said  to  possess  extremely  valuable 
properties;  and  according  to  Deville,  an  alloy  ot  80  or  more 
parts  of  R.  with  70  of  platinum,  is  easily  worked,  and  is 
not  attacked  by  aqua  regia,  and  hence  is  excellent  material 
for  crucibles.  This  metal  was  discovered  1803  by  Wollas- 
ton 


RHODODENDRON. 

RHODODENDRON,  n.  ra' do-den' dron  [Gr.  r7iodo?ira  rose; 
dendron,  a  tree — lit.,  the  rose-tree]:  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs 
of  nat.  order  Ericece,  having  ten  stamens,  a  very  small  calyx, 
a  bell-shaped  or  somewhat  funnel-shaped  corolla,  and  a 
capsule  splitting  up  through  the  dissepiments.  The  buds 
in  this  and  nearly  allied  genera,  as  Azalea  (q.v.),  are  scaly 
and  conical.  The  species  are  numerous;  they  have  ever- 
green leaves,  and  mauy  are  of  great  beauty  in  foliage  and 
flowers.  A  few  small  species  are  natives  of  continental 
Europe  and  of  Siberia;  but  the  greater  number  belong  to 
temperate  parts  of  N.  America,  and  to  the  mountains  of 
India.  R.  maximum,  so  designated  when  the  far  larger 
Indian  species  were  unknown,  is  a  common  ornamental 
shrub.  It  is  a  large  shrub  or  small  tree,  which  forms  im- 
penetrable thickets  on  mauy  parts  of  the  Alleghauies  and 
in  mountainous  parts  of  New  England,  and  has  a  magnifi- 
cent appearance  when  in  flower.  The  leaves  are  large, 
oblong,  acute,  stalked,  leathery,  dark  green  and  shining 
above,  rusty  brown  beneath.  The 
flowers  are  large,  in  umbellate 
corymbs,  varying  in  color  from 
pale  carmine  to  lilac.  R.  po?iti- 
cum  is  a  very  similar  species,  with 
narrower  and  more  pointed  leaves, 
which  are  of  the  same  color  on 
both  sides,  native  of  w.  Asia,  ap- 
parently also  of  s.  Spain.  R. 
Catawbiense,  3-6  ft.  high,  with 
smooth  oval  leaves,  rounded  at 
both  ends,  native  of  the  southern 
Alleghauies,  with  large  purple 
flowers;  R.  Caucasicum,  whose 
name  indicates  its  origin;  and 
Rhododendron  Chrysan-  r%  arboreum,  native  of  Nepaul, 
n'  with  very  dense  heads  of  large 

scarlet  flowers,  and  leaves  4-6  iu.  long,  attaining  in 
its  native  country  a  height  of  30  or  40  ft.,  also  are  fine 
species,  and  well  known :  most  of  the  extremely  numer- 
ous varieties  common  in  gardens  and  shrubberies  have 
been  produced  from  them  by  hybridizing  or  otherwise. — 
Many  splendid  species  of  R.  have  recently  been  discovered 
in  the  Himalaya,  the  Khasia  Hills,  and  other  mountainous 
parts  of  India,  by  Dr.  Hooker  and  others;  and  some  of 
them  have  been  introduced  into  Europe.  R.  Falconeri  is 
described  as  in  foliage  the  most  superb  of  all,  the  leaves 
being  18  or  19  inches  long.  It  is  a  tree  30-50  ft.  high, 
with  leaves  at  only  the  extremities  of  the  branches.  It 
grows  in  e.  Nepaul  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  ft.  R.  argen- 
teum  has  flowers  4£  in.  long,  and  equally  broad,  clus- 
tered, and  very  beautiful.  R.  Maddeni,  R.  Aucklandii,  R, 
Edgeworthii,  aud  others,  have  white  flowers.  R.  Dalhoasice 
is  remarkable  as  an  epiphyte,  growing  on  magnolias,  laurels, 
and  oaks.  It  is  a  slender  shrub,  bearing  from  three  to  six 
white  lemon-scented*  bells,  4£  inches  long,  at  the  end  of 
each  bianch.  R.  Nuttalii  has  fragrant,  while  flowers,  said 
to  be  larger  than  those  of  any  other  R.    All  these  belong 


RHODOLITE— RHODORA. 

to  the  Himalaya.  In  more  s  latitudes,  as  on  the  Neil- 
gherry  Hills  and  on  the  mountains  of  Ceylon,  R.  nobile  is 
found,  a  timber-tree  50-70  ft.  high,  every  branch  covered 
with  ablaze  of  crimson  flowers. — R.  Keysii  and  R.  Thiban- 
diense,  also  natives  of  n.  India,  have  flowers  with  nearly 
tubular  corolla. — R.  ferrugineum  and  R.  hirsutum  are 
small  species,  shrubs  from  one  to  three  ft.  in  height,  na- 
tives of  the  Alps,  and  among  the  finest  ornaments  of  alpine 
scenery:  they  are  called  Alpenrose  (Alpine  Rose)  by  the 
Germans.  They  have  small  carmine-colored  flowers  in 
umbellate  clusters,  with  which  the  mountain  slopes  glow 
in  July  and  August;  but  they  are  not  cultivated  easily  in 
gardens.  The  flora  of  the  Himalaya  contains  a  number  of 
similar  small  species.  R.  anthopogon  and  R.  setosum, 
dwarf  shrubs  with  strongly-scented  leaves,  clothe  the 
mountains  in  e.  Nepaul  at  an  elevation  of  12.000  ft.  and  up- 
ward, with  a  green  mantle,  brilliant  with  flowers  in  sum- 
mer. R.  nivale  is  the  most  alpine  of  woody  plants,  spread- 
ing its  small  woody  branches  close  to  the  ground,  at  an 
elevation  of  17,000  ft.  in  Sikkim.  R.  Lapponicum,  pro- 
cumbent broadly  tufted  shrub,  6  in.  high,  with  violet- pur- 
ple flowers,  is  found  on  high  mountains  Me.  to  N.  Y.,  and 
grows  as  far  n.  as  human  settlements  have  reached  in  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  and  America.— Some  species  of  this  genus  pos- 
sess narcotic  properties.  An  oil  obtained  from  the  buds  of 
R.  ferrugineum  and  R.  hirsutum  is  used  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Alps,  under  the  name  Olio  di  Marmotta,  as  a  remedy 
for  pains  in  the  joints,  gout,  and  stone.  R.  chrysanthum, 
low  shrub,  with  golden-yellow  flowers,  native  of  Siberia, 
also  is  used  in  gout  and  rheumatism.  R.  cinnabar inum, 
Himalayan  species,  poisons  goats  which  feed  on  it,  and 
when  used  for  fuel,  causes  inflammation  of  the  face  and 
eyes.  But  the  flowers  of  R.  arboreum  are  eaten  in  India, 
and  Europeans  make  a  pleasant  jelly  of  them. 

RHODONITE,  n.  rodonlt  [Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose]:  man- 
ganese spar  or  silicate  of  manganese— so  named  from  its 
dark  rose  red  color. 

RHODOPSIN,  n.  ro-dop'sm  [Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose;  opsis, 
sight]:  a  purple  substance  on  which  images  are  formed  in 
the  eye;  visual  purple. 

RHODORA,  ro-do'ra  [Gr.  rhodon.  a  rose]:  genus  and 
common  name  of  shrubs,  distinguished  from  Azaleas  by 
10  stamens,  and  from  Rhododendrons  by  distinctly  2-lipped 
flowers,  the  upper  lip  3-lobed,  the  lower  2-parted  or  separate. 
R.  Canadensis,  New  England  to  Penn.  and  n.,  or  on  moun- 
tains, is  a  low  shrub,  with  clusters  of  rose-colored  flowers, 
sometimes  white,  opening  before  the  deciduous  leaves, 
which  are  whitish,  downy  beneath.  On  the  Rocky  and 
Cascade  ranges  there  is  a  species,  R.  albiflorum;  and  a  rose- 
colored  one,  R.  Californicum,  on  the  Pacific  slope.  Seed- 
lings of  a  southern  species,  R.  Catawbiense,  or  of  that 
crossed  with  R.  arboreum  of  Nepaul  and  R.  Ponticum  of 
Asia  Minor,  are  hardy,  and  adapted  to  good  loamy  soil  not 
impregnated  with  lime.  A  yellow-flowered  species  is 
reported  to  be  a  hurtful  narcotic 


RHODOSPERME^E— HffONE. 

RHODOSPERMEJE,  n.  rd-dd-sper'me-e  [prefix  rhodo-\ 
Gr.  sperma,  seed]:  one  of  the  three  divisions  into  which 
Alga  have  been  divided,  the  two  others  being  Melano- 
spermem  and  Chlorospermece.  With  one  or  two  exceptions, 
the  species  are  marine. 

RHOMB,  n.  rom,  usually  written  Rhom'bus,  n.  bus 
[L.  rhombus;  Gr.  rhombos,  a  spinning-top,  a  magical 
wheel]:  quadrilateral  figure  whose  sides  are  equal  and  the 
opposite  sides  parallel,  but  which  has  two  of  its  angles 
acute  and  the  other  two  obtuse  (see  Parallelogram). 
Rhom  bic,  a.  -blkt  shaped  like  a  rhombus.  Rhomb-spar, 

£7  '  zC7 

Rhomb.  Rhomboid. 

a  variety  of  dolomite  or  crystallized  magnesian  limestone. 
Rhom'boid,  n.  -boyd  [Gr.  eidos,  appearance]:  a  four-sided 
figure  having  only  its  opposite  sides  equal,  and  its  angles 
not  right  angles.  Rhom  boid,  or  Rhomboid' al,  a.  -dl, 
rhombus-like;  lozenge-shaped.  Rhomboid-ovate,  between 
rhomboid  and  egg-shaped. 

RHOMBOHEDRON,  n.  rbm'bb-he'drbn  [Gr.  rhombos,  a 
magical  wheel;  hedra,  a  base]:  a  solid  figure  bounded  by 
six  planes  in  the  form  of  rhombs.  Rhom'bohe  dral,  a. 
-dral,  pertaining  to  a  rhombohedron;  presenting  forms 
derived  from  a  rhombohedron. 

RHONCHUS,  n.  rong'kus  [L.  rhonchus;  Gr.  rhongchos, 
a  snoring — from  rhengkd,  I  snore]:  in  med.t  an  unnatural 
rat  tling  or  wheezing  sound  produced  in  the  air-passages  by 
obstructions. 

RHONE,  rbn:  small  but  important  inland  dept.  of 
France,  bounded  n.w.,  and  s.  by  thedepts.  Saone-et-Loire 
and  Loire;  1,077  sq.  m.;  lying  almost  wholly  in  the  basin  of 
the  Rhone  and  its  great  aflluent  the  Saone,  which  rivers 
form  its  e.  boundary.  The  surface  is  almost  entirely  mount- 
ainous or  hilly.  Of  the  689,536  acres,  more  than  one-half 
is  under  tillage.  The  principal  productions  are  vines  and 
mulberry- trees.  The  wines  are  famous  for  excellence.  Of 
the  M&con  wines,  grown  in  the  n.,  in  the  former  dist.  of 
Beaujolais,  the  best  are  the  fine  red  wines  of  Chenas;  of 
those  grown  in  the  s. ,  called  vim  du  Rhone,  the  finest  are 
the  red  wines  of  Cote  Rotie  and  the  white  wines  of  Con- 
drieu.  About  75,000  acres  are  in  vineyards,  and  the 
amount  of  wine  made  annually  is  about  17,000,000  gallons. 
Silks  (see  Lyons)  are  manufactured  extensively.  For  indus- 
tries of  the  dept.,  which  is  divided  into  the  two arrondisse 
ments  of  Lvon  and  Villefranche,  see  those  titles.  Can. 
Lyon.  Pop.  of  dept.  (1881)  741,470;  (1891)  806,737; 
843,179. 


RHONE— RHOPALIC. 

RllONE  (Rhodanus  of  the  Romans):  river  rising  in  the 
Swiss  Alps,  on  the  w.  side  of  Mt.  St.  Gothaid,  not  far  from 
the  sources  of  the  Rhine;  the  only  important  French  river 
flowing  into  the  Mediterranean.  Its  entire  length,  to  the 
Gulf  of  Lyon  at  its  embouchures,  is  644  m. ;  area  of  its  basin 
28,000  sq.  m.  The  R.  is  probably  the  most  rapid  river  of 
its  length  in  the  world.  It  flows  first  s.w.  through  the 
canton  of  Valais,  and  swollen  in  its  rapid  course  by  several 
tributaries,  it  takes  a  sudden  turn  to  the  n.  near  Martigny, 
and  throws  its  waters  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva  (q  v.). 
After  issuing  from  the  lake,  it  takes  up  the  turbid  stream 
of  the  Arve,  and  forcing  its  passage  through  a  rocky  gorge 
of  the  Jura  chain,  disappears  below  the  rocks  near  Fort 
l'Ecluse  for  a  length  of  800  ft,,  forming  the  subterranean 
channel  known  as  La  Perte  du  Rhone.  At  St.  Genis,  the 
R.  enters  a  less  mountainous  region,  and  passing  beyond 
the  Jura  district,  flows  through  a  low  valley  to  Lyon, 
where  it  receives  the  Saone.  From  Lyon  it  follows  a  s. 
direction  past  Vienne,  Valence,  Montelimart,  Avignon, 
and  Aries,  bifurcating  near  Beaucaire  and  Tarascon  into 
two  main  stream,  Greater  and  Lesser  Rhone,  which  in- 
close the  delta  known  as  He  de  la  Camargue,  and  finally 
merge  their  waters  with  the  Mediterranean.  The  most  im- 
portant affluents  of  the  R.  are,  on  the  right,  the  Ain,  Sadne 
Doubs,  Ardeche,  and  Gard;  on  the  left,  the  Arve,  Isere, 
Drome,  and  Durance.  From  Lyon,  the  R.  is  easily  navi- 
gable southward  for  good-sized  vessels;  but  the  up-navi- 
gatiou,  owing  to  the  rapid  fall  of  the  stream,  and  the 
sudden  shifting  of  sandbanks,  is  difficult,  and  at  times 
almost  impracticable.  On  account  of  these  and  other 
obstructions,  greatest  near  the  mouths  of  the  river,  the 
communication  with  the  Mediterranean  is  chiefly  by  canals, 
which,  communicating  with  several  shore-lakes,  as  TEtang 
de  Bene  and  others,  open  a  passage  between  the  sea  at 
Port  du  Bouc  and  the  river  at  Aries,  and  thus  obviate  the 
necessity  of  navigating  round  the  delta.  In  its  upper  and 
middle  course,  the  R.  presents  beautiful  and  varied  scenery, 
enriched  with  luxuriaut  southern  vegetation,  including 
grapes  of  superior  quality,  from  which  some  of  the  finest 
wines  of  France  are  obtained;  but  below  Avignon  it  passes 
through  a  broad,  arid  track  and  is  bounded  by  swampy 
banks.  The  great  natural  commercial  advantages  of  the 
R.  have  been  considerably  extended  by  numerous  canals, 
which,  joining  it  to  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  and  the  Rhine, 
connect  it  with  the  Atlantic  and  the  German  Ocean. 

RHONE,  Bouches  du:  see  Bouches-du-Rhone. 

RHOPALIC,  a.  rd-pal'ik  [Gr.  rhopalon,  club  which 
gradually  becomes  larger  from  the  handle  to  the  top]:  in 
prosody,  applied  to  a  line  in  which  each  successive  word 
has  a  syllable  more  than  the  one  preceding  it. 


RHUBARB. 

RHUBARB,  n.  robdrb  [L.  rha  barbarum,  rhubarb;  Rha, 
old  name  of  river  Volga,  in  Russia,  on  whose  banks  first 
found,  and  L.  barb&rus,  foreign:  F.  rhubarbe],  (Rheum): 
genus  of  plants  of  nat.  order  Polygonem,  closely  allied  to 
Rumex  (dock  and  sorrel),  from  which  it  differs  in  having 
nine  stamens,  three  shield-like  stigmas,  and  a  three-win ired 
achenium.  The  species,  which  are  numerous,  are  large 
herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  central  Asia,  with  strong, 
branching,  almost  fleshy  roots;  erect,  thick,  branching 
stems,  sometimes  6  or  8  ft.  high;  stems  and  branches  while 
in  the  bud  covered  with  large  membranous  sheaths.  The 
leaves  are  large,  stalked,  entire  or  lobed;  the  flowers  are 
small,  whitish  or  red,  generally  very  numerous,  in  large 
loose  panicles  of  many-flowered  clusters.  The  roots  are 
medicinal;  but  those  of  different  species  seem  to  possess 


Medicinal  Rhubarb  (Rheum  officinale). 

their  medicinal  properties  in  very  different  degrees,  or  these 
properties  are  developed  very  variously  in  different  soils  and 
climates,  or  according  to  other  circumstances  not  at  all 
understood.  It  is  not  known  what  species  of  R.  yields  the 
valued  R.  of  commerce,  which  comes  from  inland  China 
or  Chinese  Tartary.  Some  of  it  reaches  Europe  by  way  of 
Canton,  but  the  best  is  brought  through  Russia.  It  is  com- 
monly known,  however,  as  Turkey  R.,  because  it  was 
formerly  shipped  from  the  ports  of  the  Levant.  R.  is  said 
to  have  been  cultivated  in  England  first  in  1778,  but  it  was 
not  much  used  for  the  table  till  1800,  and  did  not  become 
popular  as  a  market  crop  till  about  1840.  It  is  now  largely 
grown  in  temperate  regions  for  the  stalks,  which  contain  an 
agreeable  mixture  of  citric  and  malic  acid  and  are  used  for 
sauce,  tarts,  and  pies:  in  some  localities  R.  is  known  as  the 
Pie-plant.  The  juice  is  sometimes  used  for  manufacture 
of  wine.    The  stalks  of  the  cultivated  varieties  grow  one  to 


RHUBARB. 

three  ft.  in  length,  and  in  their  widest  portion  have  a 
diameter  of  one  to  three  inches.  R.  thrives  in  a  variety  of 
soils,  but  best  in  one  that  is  deep  and  rich.  It  is  propa- 
gated by  seeds,  and  by  pieces  of  roots.  The  latter  is  the 
more  common  method  when  but  few  plants  are  wanted, 
and  it  gives  a  crop  a  year  earlier  than  can  be  obtained  from 
seed.  In  three  years  from  seed  R.  will  give  a  moderate 
yield,  and  if  well  manured,  and  not  cut  too  closely,  the 
plants  will  remain  productive  15  years.  Unless  wanted 
specially  for  seed,  all  the  seed  stalks  should  be  removed  as 
soon  as  they  appear.  Plants  should  be  set  four  ft.  apart 
each  way,  in  a  rich  and  deeply-plowed  soil,  and  should  be 
kept  free  from  weeds  by  frequent  cultivation.  R.  is  easily 
forced  in  cold-frames  and  greenhouses,  and  the  early  supply 
in  large  cities  is  obtained  usurlly  in  this  manner.  Farmers 
and  small  gardeners  often  hasten  growth  and  produce 
Hender  stalks  by  placing  barrels,  from  which  the  heads 
have  been  removed,  over  the  plants  early  in  spring. 
About  half  a  dozen  varieties  of  R.  are  cultivated  in  the 
United  States. 

R.  root  {Rheum,  Rhei  Radix)  may  be  briefly  described  as 
a  cathartic,  an  astringent,  and  a  tonic.  As  a  cathartic,  it 
operates  chiefly  by  increasing  the  muscular  action  of  the 
intestines;  and  when  the  cathartic  action  is  over,  there 
is  generally  more  or  less  constipation,  arising,  as  is  usually 
supposed,  from  the  astringent  action  then  coining  into 
play.  In  small  doses  it  has  a  tonic  effect.  The  appetite  is 
improved,  and  the  digestive  process  rendered  more  active, 
by  the  action  of  this  drug.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  coloring-matter  of  R.  passes  into  the  serum  of  the 
blood  and  the  secretions;  and  urine  rendered  red  by  its 
absorption  has  not  unfrequently  been  confounded  with 
bloody  urine  by  practitioners  ignorant  of  the  very  different 
chemical  reactions  of  rhein  and  the  coloring- matter  of 
blood.  Powdered  R.  is  sometimes  used  as  a  dressing  for 
sores.  It  is  often  adulterated  with  materials  which  greatly 
decrease  its  value.  The  different  varieties  also  vary  con- 
siderably in  their  strength  and  the  methods  of  their  action. 
Several  special  preparations  are  in  use  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses. The  R.  most  in  use  in  the  United  States  is  from 
the  species  Chinese  or  India  R.,  Russian  or  Turkey  or 
Bucharian  R.,  and  European  R.  The  Pie  R.  (Pie-plant) 
consists  of  hybrids  between  R.  rhaponticum,  R.  undula- 
ium,  and  R  palmatwm. 

R.  root  is  one  of  the  best  aperients  for  general  use  in 
infancy,  because  of  the  certainty  of  its  action,  and  of  its 
tonic  and  astringent  properties,  which  are  important  in 
treatment  of  many  infantile  diseases  attended  with  imper- 
fect digestion  and  irritation  of  the  intestinal  canal.  In 
adults,  it  is  serviceable  in  chronic  diarrhea  and  dysentery, 
when  it  is  expedient  to  clean  out  the  bowels.  It  is  a  useful 
aperient  also  in  convalescence  from  exhausting  disease,  as 
being  free  from  the  risk  of  overacting;  and  for  the  same 
reason,  it  is  a  useful  medicine  for  persons  constitutionally 
Jiable  to  over-purgation  from  trivial  causes. 


RHUMB— RHYSIMETER. 

RHUMB,  n.  rum,  or  Rhumb-line  [a  form  of  Rhomb: 
It.  rombo;  F.  rumb,  a  point  of  the  compass — in  old  charts 
marked  by  large  lozenges  or  rhombs,  whence  the  name 
rhumb  is  said  to  be  given  to  a  point  of  the  compass]:  a 
lozenge-shaped  figure.  The  term  was  introduced,  accord- 
ing to  Vitalis,  into  navigation  by  the  Portuguese,  denot- 
ing at  first  a  meridian,  especially  the  principal  meridian 
of  a  map.  It  then  came  to  signify  any  vertical  circle, 
whether  meridian  or  not,  thence  any  point  of  the  compass. 
A  ship  is  therefore  said  to  sail  on  a  R.  when  its  head  is 
kept  constantly  directed  to  the  same  point  of  the  compass. 
The  R.-line  thus  crosses  all  meridians  at  the  same  angle, 
and  corresponds  exactly  to  the  Loxodromic  Lines  (see  Loxo- 
dromic).  In  Mereator's  chart,  the  R.-line  is  a  straight  line 
(though  not  so  in  nature);  but  it  must  be  carefully  noticed 
that  equal  portions  of  it  on  the  chart  do  not  indicate  equal 
distances  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  the  divisions  which 
are  lowest  in  latitude  always  representing  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, and  vice  versa. 

RHUSMA,  n.  rus'ma:  in  leather -manuf. ,  a  mixture  of 
caustic  lime  and  orpiment  or  tersulphide  of  arsenic,  used  in 
depilation  or  un hairing  of  hides:  see  Rusma. 

RHYME,  or  Rhime:  see  Rime. 

RHY'MER,  Thomas  the:  see  Thomas  the  Rhymer. 

RHYNCHONELLA,  n.  ring'kd-nel'la  [Gr.  rhungchos,  a 
beak]:  genus  of  brachiopodous  mollusca,  characterized  by 
its  trigonal  acutely-beaked  shell,  the  dorsal  valve  of  which 
is  elevated  in  front,  and  depressed  at  the  sides,  and  the 
ventral  valve  is  flattened  or  hollowed  along  the  centre. 
The  genus  is  represented  by  two  living  species,  one  from 
the  icy  seas  of  the  north,  the  other  from  New  Zealand:  the 
shells  of  both  are  black.  No  less  than  250  species  of  fossil 
shells  have  been  referred  to  the  genus.  They  occur  in  all 
formations  from  the  Lower  Silurian  upward.  Rhyn'cho- 
lites,  u.  plu.  -llts  [Gr.  lithos,  a  stone]:  in  geoL,  fossil  re- 
mains of  the  beaks  of  certain  cephalopods. 

RHYNCHOPH'ORA:  see  Weevil. 

RHYNCHOPS,  rin'Mps,  commonly  called  Skimmer: 
genus  of  web-footed  birds  of  the  Laridce  (q.v.)  family,  to 
which  the  gulls,  etc.  belong.  The  bill  is  broad  at  the  base, 
but  thence  to  the  tip  is  laterally  compressed.  The  upper 
mandible  is  the  shorter.  There  are  three  or  four  species; 
the  best  known  being  the  black  Skimmer,  found  on  the 
east  coasts  of  N.  and  S.  America,  and  said  to  be  on  the  w. 
coast.  It  is  dark  brownish,  black  above,  the  front  and 
lower  portions  white,  the  wing  quills  margined  with  white; 
the  basal  half  of  the  bill  is  red,  and  the  rest  black.  In  all, 
the  flight  is  swift  and  graceful;  they  rarely  swim;  and 
they  feed,  chiefly  by  night,  on  fish  and  crustaceans. 

RHYrSIMETER,  n  rl  sim'e-ter  [Gr.  rhusis,  a  flowing,  a 
stream;  Eng.  meter,  measure]  :  instrument  for  measuring 
the  velocity  of  fluids  or  the  speed  of  ships.  It  presents  the 
open  end  of  a  tube  to  the  impact  of  the  current,  which 
raises  a  column  of  mercury  in  a  graduated  tube. 


RH  YiHM. 


RHYTHM,  n.  ntfAwa  [Gr.  r/iutfivios,  regulated,  recur- 
ring,  hence  measured  motion,  proportion— from  rheein,  to 
flow:  L.  rhythmus:  F.  rhythme\.  in  its  widest  sense,  meas- 
ured or  timed  movement,  regulated  succession;  specially, 
agreement  of  measure  and  time  in  prose  and  poetry;  also 
in  music  and  in  motion,  as  in  dancing.  It  seems  to  be  a 
necessity  for  man,  if  movements  of  any  kind  are  to  be  sus- 
tained for  a  length  of  time,  that  some  more  or  less  strict 
law  of  interchange  should  regulate  the  succession  of  the 
parts.  It  is  believed  that  the  ground  of  this  necessity  may 
be  discovered  even  in  the  structure  and  functions  of  the 
human  body.  See  Bain,  The  Senses  and  the  Intellect, 
More  particularly,  in  order  that  a  number  of  parts  may 
constitute  a  whole,  or,  at  all  events,  a  pleasing  whole,  a 
certain  relation  or  proportion  must  be  felt  to  pervade  them. 
When  exemplified  in  the  arrangement  of  matter  into  visi- 
ble objects,  as  in  sculpture,  architecture,  and  other  plastic 
arts,  R.  is  usually  called  symmetry,  R.  applied  to  the 
movements  of  the  body  produces  the  dance.  '  The  rhyth- 
mical arrangement  of  sounds  not  articulated  produces 
music,  while  from  the  like  arrangement  of  articulate 
sounds,  we  get  the  cadences  of  prose,  and  the  measures  of 
verse.  Verse  may  be  defined  as  a  succession  of  articulate 
sounds,  regulated  by  a  R.  so  definite  that  we  can  readily 
foresee  the  results  which  follow  from  its  application.  R. 
is  also  met  with  in  prose;  but  in  the  latter  its  range  is  so 
wide  that  we  never  can  anticipate  its  flow,  while  the  pleas- 
ure we  derive  from  verse  is  founded  on  this  very  anticipa- 
tion.' 

The  R.  or  verse  is  marked  in  various  ways,  in  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  during  their  classic  periods,  quantity,  or 
the  regulated  succession  of  long  and  short  syllables,  was 
the  distinguishing  mark  of  verse.  In  the  languages  de- 
scended from  these  three  ancient  tongues,  as  well  as  in  all 
the  other  Aryan  languages,  the  R.  depends  on  accent:  see 
Meter.  The  recurrence  of  similar  sounds,  or  rime,  also  is 
used,  with  accent,  to  render  certain  points  of  the  R.  more 
distinct,  as  well  as  to  embellish  it:  see  Rime. — R.  in  music 
is  the  disposition  of  the  notes  of  a  musical  composition  in 
respect  of  time  and  measure.  To  R.  chiefly  music  is  in- 
debted for  its  order,  perspicuity,  intelligibility,  and  con- 
sequently its  power  and  effect.  The  rhythmical  value  of  a 
musical  sound  is  the  ratio  which  its  duration  bears  to  that 
of  other  sounds:  see  Note.  A  musical  composition  is  made 
up  of  portions  of  equal  rhythmic  value,  called  measuresy 
separated  by  vertical  lines  called  bars,  the  length  of  the 
measure  being  indicated  by  a  sign  at  the  beginning  of  the 
movement.  For  the  varieties  of  time  and  their  signatures, 
see  Music.  The  first  note  in  each  measure  is  distinguished 
by  a  greater  force  or  stress  than  the  rest:  that  stress  is  called 
accent,  and  of  the  four  measure- notes  in  common  time  the 
third  has  also  a  subordinate  accent,  as  has  the  third  meas- 
ure-note in  triple  time.  There  is  also  an  irregular  or  rhe- 
torical accent  in  music  called  emphasis,  which  may  be  laid 
on  any  part  of  the  measure,  and  whose  use  is  regulated  by 
taste  and  feeling.  Rhythm  ic,  a.  rith'mik,  or  Rhythmical, 


RHYTHMICAL   DISEASES- RIAD. 

a.  -mi-kal,  pertaiming  to  rhythm;  having  rhythm;  har- 
monical;  in  mea.y  denoting  the  regular  healthy  discharge  of 
the  functions  of  an  organ,  e.g.,  the  pulsations  of  the  heart: 
also,  see  Rhythmical  Diseases.    Rhyth'mically,  ad.  41. 

RHYTHMICAL  DISEASES:  certain  periodically  re- 
current morbid  affections;  of  which  some  become  aggra- 
vated or  mitigated  at  particular  hours;  others  appear  in  par- 
oxysms, to  a  certain  extent  of  regular  duration  and  recur- 
rence; and  a  third  class  is  named  quotidian,  quartan,  etc., 
from  the  precise  and  unvarying  periods  of  their  returns. 
The  element  of  time,  and  of  regular  intervals  of  time,  is 
chiefly  characteristic  of  morbid  conditions  of  the  nervous 
system.  In  chorea  and  involuntary  shrieking,  singing, 
e\c. ,  a  rhythm  may  often  be  detected,  of  which  the  patient 
is  altogether  unconscious.  Not  merely  have  movements  of 
the  eyelids  and  of  the  limbs  presented  perfectly  timed  suc- 
cession, but  cases  are  recorded  where  the  wild  gesticula- 
lions  and  jactations  of  St.  Yitus's  Dance  have  been  regu- 
lated to  correspond  to  popular  airs.  A  person  has  been 
known  o  strike  his  breast  with  the  hand  for  hours  with 
the  same  exactitude  as  if  measured  by  a  time  piece.  Those 
affected  with  Tarantism  are  prompted  to  dance  by  the 
sound  of  music;  and  their  movements  are  determined,  it  is 
affirmed,  not  by  volition,  but  by  the  cadences  of  the  tunes 
played  in  their  hearing.  The  victims  of  the  dancing 
mania  in  the  15th  c.  were  similarly  affected.  In  many 
forms  of  insanity  there  is  seen  a  tendency  to  riming  in 
words,  as  well  as  to  rhythmical  movemeuts.  A  patient  for 
three  consecutive  days  vociferated  incessantly  words  termin- 
ating in  -ation. — Laycock,  Nervous  Diseases  of  Women,  185, 
314;  Sauvage,  Nosologia  Methodica,  II.  281;  Medical  Critic. 

RHYTHMOMETER,  n.  rith-mdrri'e-ter  [Gr.  rhuthmos, 
measured  motion;  metron,  a  measure]:  an  instrument  for 
marking  time  to  movements  in  music. 

RHYTINA  STELLERI,  rit'i-nd  stel'er-l  (improperly  bor~ 
ealis):  monster  that  became  extinct  in  the  18th  c  ;  belong- 
ing to  the  singular  herbivorous  order  Sirenia,  'sea-cows,' 
closely  related  to  whales,  but  in  some  features  of  skull, 
dentition,  and  habit,  like  Ungulates.  Living  representa- 
tives of  the  order,  the  Manatees  (q.v.)  of  Fla.  and  s.  to  the 
Amazon,  and  (another  species)  on  the  w.  coast  of  Africa5 
and  the  Dugongs  (q.v.)  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  are  8-10  ft. 
Jong,  sometimes  20  ft.,  and  have  true  teeth;  but  the  Rhyt- 
hm, otherwise  called  Stellerine,  was  25-35  ft.  long,  and  20 
ft.  circumference,  and  had  only  a  horny  palatine  plate, 
with  a  corresponding  one  on  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw,  in 
place  of  teeth.  It  was  discovered  1741  by  Behring  (q.v.) 
.on  an  island  named  after  him;  and  it  was  described  by 
Steller,  wiiose  name  it  bears.  The  herds  were  rapidly  ex- 
terminated by  sailors,  the  last  having  been  seen  1768.  A 
few  bones  are  preserved  at  St.  Petersburg. 

RIAD,  re-dd',  or  Riyad,  re-ydd' :  city,  cap.  of  the  Waha- 
bite  kingdom:  see  Waiiabis. 


RIAL— RIB. 
RIAL,  n.  re'al:  see  Real  2. 

RIAL,  n.  rial  [an  old  spelling  of  Royal]:  a  royal — a 


Gold  Rial  of  Mary. 


gold  coin  at  one  time  current  in  Great  Britain,  varying  in 
value  from  ten  to  thirty  shillings. 

RIANT,  a.  riant  or  r'e'dng  [F.  riant,  smiling — from  L. 
ridens  or  rideriiem,  laughing;  ridere,  to  laugh]:  in  0E.t 
laughing;  exciting  laughter. 

RIAZAN,  re-a  zan':  central  govt,  of  Great  Russia,  ex- 
tends s.e.  from  the  govt,  of  Moscow;  16,221  sq.  m.  The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Oka,  which,  after  forming  the  boundary 
between  the  govts,  of  Moscow  and  Tula,  and  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Moscow  and  R.,  flows  s.e.  to  the 
middle  of  R.,  then  turning  n.,  disappears  across  the  border 
on  the  n.e.  The  Oka  divides  the  govt,  into  two  unequal 
parts,  of  which  the  n  is  low  in  surface  and  sandy  in  soil, 
while  the  s.  has  an  elevated  surface  and  a  most  fertile 
soil.  The  Don  crosses  the  s.w.  of  R.,  but  is  not  here 
navigable.  The  chief  products  are  iron  ores,  limestone, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  millet,  buckwheat,  and  vegetables.  There 
are  many  remarkably  good  studs  of  horses.  Though  the 
chief  occupations  are  agriculture  and  horticulture,  there 
are  important  industrial  establishments,  e.g.,  needle,  cloth, 
and  glass  factories;  cotton-mills,  iron- works,  tanneries,  and 
soap  and  tallow  works.  Manufactured  goods  and  corn  are 
exported. — Pop.  1,827,550. 

RIAZAN':  town  of  Great  Russia,  cap.  of  the  govt,  of  R.; 
on  a  branch  of  the  Oka,  near  its  junction  with  that  river, 
130  m.  s.e.  of  Moscow.  It  was  founded  1208,  became  1487 
the  residence  of  the  princes  of  R  ,  and  was  made  chief  town 
of  the  govt,  of  R.  1778.  The  chief  fragment  of  antiquity 
is  the  interesting*  old  fort  called  the  Kreml.  There  is  a 
ferry  here  across  the  Oka,  at  which  the  products  of  the 
vicinity  are  shipped:  5,770,000  bushels  of  corn  are  exported 
annually.   Pop.  44,550. 

RIB,  n.  rib  [Dut.  ribbe,  a  rib,  a  beam  :  Ger.  rippe,  a  rib  : 
AS.  ribb,  a  rib]  :  one  of  the  curved  bony  hoops  or  bars 
which  protect  the  lungs,  heart,  etc.  (see  Ribs).  In  arch., 
one  of  the  curved  timbers  in  an  arched  roof  to  which  the 
laths  are  nailed  ;  also,  a  projecting  band  or  molding  on  an 
arched  or  flat  ceiling.  It  is  of  universal  use  in  all  styles  of 
Gothic  architecture  ;  the  early  Norman  examples  are  simple 
square  bands  crossing  the  vault  at  right  angles,  the  groins 
being  plain  angles.  In  early  English  also,  the  groins  and 
ridffe.  &r&  ribbed  «*nd  *H  th*.  ribs  are  molded.  The. 


RIBALD— RlBxYULT. 


ribs  and  their  moldings  are  multiplied  as  the  style  ad 
vauces,  till  the  whole  surface  be- 
comes covered  with  them  in  the 
Fan-traceiy  Vaulting  (q.v  ).  Plas- 
ter ceilings  are  sometimes  elabo- 
rately ornamented  with  patterns 
formed  by  ribs,  especially  in  the 
styles  of  the  times  of  Elizabeth 
and  James  1.  In  hot.,  the  central 
longitudinal  nerve  or  vein  of  a 
leaf;  in  a  ship,  one  of  the  curved 
timbers  which  give  form  and 
strength  to  its  side:  something 
long,  thin,  aud  narrow:  jocu- 
lar term  for  a  wife:  V.  to  furnish  or  surround  with 
ribs;  to  form  with  rising  lines  or  ridges,  as  cloth.  Rib'- 
bing,  imp.  Ribbed,  pp.  ribd :  Adj.  furnished  with  ribs- 
in  bot,  a  term  applied  to  a  leaf  having  strongly  marked 
nerves  or  veins.  Ribgrass,  or  Ribwort,  very  common 
species  of  plantain — the  Plantago  lanceold'ta,  often  found 
in  meadows  (see  Plantagine^e).  Ribroast,  v.  rWrdst,  to 
beat  soundly;  to  thrash.  Rtb  roaster,  n.  a  smart  or  severe 
blow,  especially  with  a  riding  whip.  True  ribs,  the  seven 
ribs  which  are  attached  to  the  sternum  or  breastbone,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  five  false  ribs,  which  are  not  so 
attached;  the  last  two  false  ribs  are  called  floating  ribs, 
because  they  are  not  attached  to  anything  in  front:  see  Ribs. 

RIBALD,  a.  rib' aid  [OF.  ribald  or  ribauld;  It.  ribaldo, 
any  loose  character:  mid.  L.  ribalda,  a  loose  woman:  Dut. 
rabaud,  a  worthless  fellow:  Gael,  raip,  debauchery]:  low; 
base;  filthy;  obscene:  N.  a  low,  vulgar,  foul-mouthed 
creature.  Rib  aldry,  n.  -ald-rl,  mean,  vulgar,  or  obscene 
language;  lewdness.  Rib'aldrous,  a.  -riis,  containing 
ribaldry.  Note. — The  American  term  rowdy  is  exactly 
synonymous  with  OF.  ribauld. 

RIBAND,  RIBBAND,  n.  rib  and:  see  Ribbon. 

RIBAULT,  re-bo'  (or  Ribaut),  Jean:  navigator:  1520-65 
Sep.  23;  b.  France.  He  came  to  this  country  in  charge  of 
two  ships  1562,  explored  the  s.  Atlantic  coast,  cast  anchor 
at  Port  Royal,  and  near  the  present  site  of  Beaufort,  S.C., 
erected  a  building  named  Fort  Charles.  Leaving  26  mem- 
bers of  his  party,  he  sailed  to  France,  intending  soon  to  re- 
turn. The  civil  war  prevented  his  leaving  for  some  time, 
and  in  his  absence,  the  settlement  was  abandoned.  Mean- 
while a  colony  of  French  Protestants  had  located  on  the  St. 
John's  river.  R.,  with  7  ships,  reached  the  coast  1565  and 
took  charge  of  the  settlement.  Soon  afterward  a  Spanish 
force,  which  had  been  sent  to  destroy  the  Protestants,  ap- 
peared aud  R.  sailed  foi  St.  Augustine,  but  his  fleet  was 
wrecked  in  a  storm.  The  Spanish  leader  (see  Menendez 
de  Aviles,  Pedro)  had  seized  the  French  fort  and  mas- 
sacred many  of  the  people.  He  also  surprised  and  killed 
R.  and  most  of  the  party  with  him  who  were  on  their  way 
to  the  settlement. 


P T    A  T  A.  Ribbon  Pish 

±j  JX  X  Sh      ±  .       Rhinoplasties  Operation 


Ribbon  Fish  (Trachypterus  tmnia^ 


Ribbon  Fish  (Young  Trachypterus). 


Rhinoplastio  Operation. 


RIB-BAND — RIBBONISM. 

RIB-BAND,  n.  ribband  [compounded  of  rib  and  band\. 
a  long,  narrow,  and  thin  piece  of  timber  nailed  upon  the 
outside  of  the  ribs  of  a  ship  from  the  stem  to  the  stern-post, 
or  uailed  to  the  timbers  of  a  square  body  Lunder  which 
shores  are  fixed. 

RIBBON,  n.  rib'on,  or  Riband,  or  Ribband,  n.  rib' and 
[F.  ruban,  a  ribbon:  Gael,  ribean;  Ir.  ribin,  a  ribbon:  W. 
rhibin,  a  streak— from  rhib,  a  streak]:  a  narrow  web  of  silk 
or  other  texture— generally  used  as  trimming  for  some  part 
of  a  lady's  attire  (see  Silk:  Silkworm):  a  long  narrow  strip 
of  anything:  in  her  ,  a  diminutive  of  the  ordinary  called 
the  Band,  of  which  it  is  one-eighth  in  width.  Rib  boned, 
a.  -and,  adorned  with  ribbons.  Ribbonism,  n.  -dn-izm 
(see  below).  Rib  bonman,  a  member  of  the  secret  society 
in  Ireland  holding  the  principles  of  Ribbonism.  Ribbon- 
jasper,  a  variety  of  jasper,  exhibiting  colors  of  various 
shades,  and  arranged  in  stripes  of  parallel  layers.  Blue 
ribbon,  a  term  used  to  designate  the  highest  order  of 
British  knighthood — viz.,  the  order  of  the  Garter — so  called 
from  the  color  of  the  ribbon  by  which  the  badge  is  sus- 
pended; the  symbol  of  the  highest  degree  of  excellence. 
Red  ribbon,  the  order  of  the  Bath — so  called  from  the 
^olor  of  the  ribbon  which  suspends  the  badge;  a  symbol  or 
badge  of  the  second  degree  of  excellence.  Note. — Ribbon 
or  Ribbonism,  is  probably  a  mere  corruption  of  OE.  ribald 
[see  Ribald],  a  word  used  to  designate  the  humblest  class 
of  foot-soldiers  in  the  composition  of  the  armies  of  former 
times,  and  thus  applied  to  the  soldiers  of  the  army  of 
James  II.  as  an  opprobrious  epithet,  or  to  his  partizans  : 
OF.  ribauld,  a  loose  brutal  character.  Dut.  rabaud,  a 
rascal  :  the  supposed  origin  from  some  distinguishing 
badge  or  piece  of  bunting  is  not  so  probable. 

RIB'BON  FISH:  popular  name  of  a  family  of  acanthop- 
terous  fishes,  called  Tamiidw,  or  more  properly  Tmnioidv, 
by  naturalists  [from  tamia,  a  tape-worm],  on  account  of 
their  compressed  and  elongated  form.  Notwithstanding 
their  peculiarity  of  form,  they  are  nearly  allied  to  the 
Seomberidm,  or  Mackerel  family.  They  are  of  very  delicate 
structure,  with  naked  and  silvery  skin,  long  dorsal  fin 
often  uniting  with  the  tail-fin,  small  mouth,  and  protractile 
snout.  They  are  widely  distributed  from  polar  to  tropical 
seas,  but  are  nowhere  found  in  abundance,  being  deep-sea 
fishes,  and  only  occasional  visitants  of  the  coasts.  The 
delicacy  of  their  frame  prevents  perfect  specimens  from 
being  often  obtained.  Species  exist  nine  or  ten  ft.  long, 
not  six  inches  deep,  and  scarcely  an  inch  thick.  See  Band- 
fish;  Dkalfish:  Gymnetrus. 

RIB'BONISM:  system  of  secret  associations  among  the 
peasantry  in  Ireland,  the  objects  of  which  have  long  been 
a  subject  of  suspicion  and  of  controversy.  The  origin  of 
the  associations  known  under  this  name  is  obscure.  From 
the  middle  of  the  18th  c,  secret  organizations,  variously 
designated,  but  mostly  connected  with  agrarian  discontent, 
have  arisen  in  Ireland.  The  earliest  appears  to  have  been 
that  of  the  Whiteboys,  about  17*>9.  L.-iter  the  fierce  and 
sanguinary  strife  t"  which  the  relaxation  of  some  of  the 


RIBBONISM. 

penal  laws  under  which  the  Rom  C  1  holies  had  long  suffered 
gave  occasion  in  the  uorih.  and  which  resulted  in  the  Prot. 
Orange  organization  (see  Orangeman),  led  to  the  Rom. 
Cath.  counter  organization,  the  Defenders;  but  this  assoc. 
seems  to  have  been  for  the  time  purely  local  in  Armagh, 
and  the  neighboring  counties  in  which  the  violences  of  the 
Prot.  party  had  originated.  The  severely  repressive  meas- 
ures adopted  by  the  govt,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion 
of  1798,  and  their  continuance  for  several  years,  prevented 
any  notable  progress  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  organization;  and 
when  at  length,  about  1806,  such  an  organization  wTas  initi- 
ated (then  called  the  4  Thr  shers '),  it  was  with  the  utmost 
secrecy.  The  associations  called  (it  is  supposed  from  the 
badge  worn  by  the  members)  by  the  name  of  Ribbon  soci- 
eties appeared  first  about  1808,  and  originated  in  Armagh, 
whence  they  spread  to  Down,  Antrim,  T}Tone,  and  Fer- 
managh. Their  real  object  was  doubtless  combined  action, 
partly  for  self-defense,  partly  ak-o  probably  for  directly 
counteracting  the  wide-spread  and  formidable  Orange  con- 
federacy. Their  operations  from  the  first  were  usually  lim- 
ited to  the  counties,  chieriy  in  the  n.  and  n.w.,  in  which 
the  Orange  associations  were  formidable;  nor  do  they 
appear  at  any  time  to  have  had  a  footing  in  the  purely  Rom. 
Cath.  counties,  where  there  were  few  or  no  Orangemen  to 
be  encountered.  The  secret  associations  of  the  other  dis- 
tricts— the  midland,  s  ,  and  s  e.  counties— were  due  mainly 
to  discontents  arising  from  alleged  agrarian  and  social 
grievances. 

The  Ribbon  Assoc.  also  addressed  itself  to  the  same 
agrarian  and  social  grievances;  but  its  direct  object  was 
antagonism  to  the  Orange  confederation,  to  which  it  bore 
considerable  resemblance.  The  Ribbon  Association  was 
divided,  like  the  Orange,  into  lodges,  and  the  members  of 
each  lodge  were  bound  by  a  secret  oath  to  '  be  true  to  each 
other,'  and  *  to  assist  each  other  in  all  things  lawful;'  and 
they  were  known  to  each  other  by  secret  signs  and  pass- 
words. But  they  seem  to  have  lacked  the  complete  scheme 
of  a  '  Central  Grand  Lodge,'  with  its  subordinate  hierarchy 
of 'county,  'district,'  and  'private'  lodges,  which  char 
acterized  the  great  rival  confederation.  The  Ribbon 
societies  consisted  exclusively  of  the  very  lowest  classes, 
the  humbler  peasantry,  farm-servants,  and  operatives  of  the 
least  intelligence.  No  trace  appears  among  them  of  what 
is  so  striking  in  the  Orange  Association — the  co-operation, 
or  even  the  countenance,  of  the  gentry,  the  clergy,  the 
commercial  class,  hardly  even  of  the  farming  class,  except 
a  few  of  the  sons  of  farmers  of  the  lowest  grade;  and  an 
asserted  connection  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  clergy  with  them 
was  officially  and  completely  disproved  1839. 

The  present  number  of  these  societies  in  Ireland  is  not 
known:  they  come  to  light  on  every  occasion  of  party -strife; 
but  they  appear  to  have  been  replaced  in  several  parts  of 
the  country  by  newer  associations,  such  as  the  'Pheni- 
cians,'  the  'Brotherhood  of  St.  Patrick,'  and  the  *  Fenians.' 
See  Fenian. 


RIBEAUYILLE— RIBOT. 

RIBEAUVILLE,  re-bo-vey"  (Ger.  Rappoltsioeihr )  : 
small  manufacturing  town  of  Alsace,  pleasantly  sit- 
uated amid  vineyards,  34  m.  s.s.w.  of  Strasburg.  Excel- 
lent wines  are  made,  and  cotton  goods  are  manufactured. 
The  town  is  overlooked  by  the  Vosges  Mts.,  along  whose 
crests  runs  a  wall  or  rampart,  built  of  unhewn  stones 
without  cement,  eight  to  ten  ft.  high.  It  is  of  unknown 
antiquity,  and  is  called  the  Heidenmauer,  or  Pagan  wall. 
—Pop.  6,100. 

RIBERA,  re-va'-rd,  Jusepe  (in  Italian,  Giuseppe), 
commonly  called  Lo  Spagnoletto  ( '  the  Little  Span- 
iard'): 1588,  Jan.  12 — 1656;  b.  Xativa,  near  Valencia. 
He  studied  a  few  years  with  Francesco  Ribalta,  a  Span- 
ish painter  of  eminence;  visited  Italy;  studied  at  Rome 
and  other  cities;  then  went  to  Naples,  where,  attracted 
by  the  novelty  and  boldness  of  Caravaggio's  style,  he 
adopted  it,  and  ultimately  became  the  ablest  painter 
among  the  naturalisti  or  artists  whose  treatment  of  sub- 
jects was  based  on  "a  vigorous  and  powerful,  but  gen- 
erally coarse  and  vulgar  representation  of  nature,  in 
opposition  to  that  formed  on  conventional  or  academic 
rules.  He  settled  in  Naples,  where  he  lived  at  first  in 
poverty,  till  his  ability  was  discovered  by  a  rich  picture- 
dealer  whose  daughter  he  married,  and  who  exhibited 
R.'s  Martyrdom  of  St.  Bartholomew  to  admiring  crowds. 
He  became  court-painter,  and  executed  numerous  im- 
portant commissions  in  Naples;  and  there  his  best  works 
are  seen.  Salvator  Rosa  and  Guercino  were  among  his 
pupils.  He  executed  18  or  20  etchings,  all  marked  by 
force  and  freedom. 

RI'BES:  see  Currant:  Gooseberry. 

RIBOT,  re-bo,  Alexandre  Felix  Joseph:  French 
statesman:  1842,  Feb.  7:  b.  Saint  Omer.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Lycee  of  St.  Omer  and  studied  law  in  Paris 
where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1863.  He  entered 
public  official  life  in  1870  and  in  1878  entered  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  for  Boulogne-sur-Mer.  He  was  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  in  the  cabinet  of  de  Freycinet,  1890-3, 
assisting  in  forming  the  alliance  between  France  and 
Russia,  concluded  during  that  period.  In  January  1893 
he  was  made  president  of  the  cabinet  and  held  this  office 
during  the  investigation  of  the  Panama  scandals;  also 
again  in  1895  after  the  election  of  Faure  as  president. 
He  was  superseded  by  Bourgeois  in  October  of  that  year. 
His  most  important  speeches  were  on  finance,  foreign 
affairs,  and  freedom  of  education.  In  the  latter  cause 
he  took  a  position  opposing  the  persecution  of  the  re- 
ligious orders  and  published  in  1900  a  work  entitled 
Reform e  de  VEnseignement  secondaire  embodying  his  ob- 
servations as  chairman  of  the  committee  appointed  to 
make  inquiry  into  the  state  of  secondary  education.  He 
also  published  Biographie  de  Lord  Erskine  (1866);  and 
Acte  du  5  Aoui  1813  }><>nr  VEstablissement  dhme  Cour 
supreme  de  Justice  en  Angleterre  (1874). 


RIBS,  rlbz:  elastic  arches  of  bone,  wnicn,  wunthe  vaov 
bral  column  behind,  and  the  sternum  or  breastbone  in 
front,  constitute  the  osseous  part  of  the  walls  of  the  chest. 
In  man,  there  are  12  ribs  on  each  side.  The  first  7  are  more 
directly  connected  through  intervening  cartilages  with  the 
.sternum  than  the  remainder,  hence  they  are  termed  vertebra- 


Fig.  1.— The  Ribs,  in  situ: 
1  and  2  are  the  upper  and  middle  parts  of  the  sternum  or  breast- 
bone; 3,  its  ensiform  cartilage;  4,  the  first  dorsal,  and  5  the  last  (or 
twelfth)  dorsal  vertebra;  6,  the  first  rib;  7,  its  head;  8,  its  neck, 
resting  against  the  transverse  process  of  the  first  dorsal  vertebra; 
|  9,  its  tubercle;  10,  the  seventh  or  last  true  rib;  11,  the  costal  carti- 

lages of  the  true  ribs;  12,  the  last  two  false  ribs  or  floating  ribs;  13, 
the  grooves  along  the  lower  border  of  the  ribs  (from  Wilson's 
Anatomist's  Vade-Mecum.) 
sternal  or  true  ribs;  while  the  other  5  are  known  as  false 
ribs,  and  the  last  two  of  these,  from  being  quite  free  at 
their  anterior  extremities,  are  termed  floating  ribs.  A  glance 
at  a  skeleton,  or  at  a  plate  representing  the  articulated 
bones,  will  show  that  the  ribs  vary  considerably  in  direc- 
tion and  size.  The  upper  ribs  are  nearly  horizontal,  but 
the  others  lie  with  the  anterior  extremity  lower  than  the 
posterior;  this  obliquity  increasing  to  the  9th  rib,  then 
slightly  decreasing  They  increase  in  length  from  the  first 
to  the  eighth,  then  diminish.  The  spaces  between  the  ribs 
are  termed  intercostal  spaces.  On  examining  a  rib  taken 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  series  we  find  that  it  presents 
two  extremities  (posterior  or  vertebral,  and  anterior  or 
sternal),  and  an  intervening  portion  termed  the  body  or 
shaft.  The  posterior  extremity  presents  a  head,  a  neck, 
and  a  tuberosity.  The  head  is  marked  by  two  concave 
articular  surfaces  divided  by  a  ridge,  the  lower  facet te 
being  the  larger.  These  surfaces  tit  into  the  cavity  formed 
by  junction  of  two  contiguous  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  the 


RIBS. 

ridge  serves  for  attachment  of  a  ligament.  The  neck  is  a 
flattened  portion  proceeding  from  the  head;  it  is  about  an 
inch  long,  and  terminates  at  an  eminence  termed  the  tuber- 
osity or  tubercle,  whence  the  shaft  commences.  On  the 
lower  surface  of  this  tubercle  is  a  small  oval  surface,  which 
articulates  (see  fig.  2)  with  a  corresponding  surface  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  transverse  process  of  the  lower  of  the  two 
contiguous  vertebrae.  The  shaft  presents  an  external  con- 
vex, and  an  internal  concave  surface.  A  little  in  front  of 
the  tubercle,  the  rib  is  bent  inward,  and  at  the  same  time 
upward,  the  point  where  this  bending  takes  place  being 
called  the  angle.  The  upper  border  of  the  rib  is  thick  and 
rounded,  while  the  lower  border  is  marked  by  a  deep 
groove>  which  lodges  the  intercostal  vessels  and  nerve. 


Fig.  2.— A  Front  View  of  the  Articulations  of  the  Ribs  with  he 
Spinal  Column: 

1,  1,  Dorsal  vertebrae;  2,2,  intervertebral  cartilages;  3,  3,  the  ante- 
rior common  ligament,  extending  like  a  ribbon  along  the  whole  of 
the  front  of  the  vertebral  column;  4,  the  neck,  and  5  the  hend  of 
rib;  6,  7.  8,  three  flat  bundles  of  ligamentous  fibres,  radiating  from 
the  head  of  the  rib  to  the  adjacent  vertebrae  and  interveterbral 
substances  (they  are  removed  in  the  lowest  rib,  seen  in  the  figure); 
9,  the  articulation  between  the  tubercle  of  the  ribs  and  the  trans- 
verse vertebral  process  (from  Gray's  Anatomy). 

The  ribs  of  Mammals  are  mostly  connected,  as  in  man 
with  the  bodies  of  two  vertebrae,  and  with  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  posterior  one.  In  the  Monotremata,  how- 
ever, they  articulate  with  the  vertebral  bodies  only;  while 
in  the  Cetacea,  the  posterior  ribs  hang  down  from  the  trans 
verse  processes  alone.  Their  number,  on  each  side,  corre- 
sponds with  that  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae.  The  greatest  num- 
ber, 23,  occurs  in  the  two  toed  sloth,  while  in  the  Cheirop- 
tera, 11  is  the  ordinary  number.  In  Birds,  each  rib  articu- 
lates by  means  of  a  small  head  with  the  body  of  a  single 
vertebra  near  its  anterior  border,  aud  with  the  correspond- 
ing transverse  process  by  means  of  the  tubercle.  Moreover, 
each  rib  possesses  a  '  diverging  appendage,'  which  projects 
backward  over  the  next  rib,  so  as  to  increase  the  consolv 


RIBWORT-RICa. 

dation  of  the  thoracic  framework,  necessary  for  flying.  The 
dorsal  vertebrae  here  never  exceed  11,  and  are  usually  7  or 
8  in  number;  and  the  ribs  proceeding  from  them  are  con- 
nected with  the  sternum,  not  by  cartilage,  as  in  Mammals, 
but  by  true  osseous  sternal  ribs,  regularly  articulated  at 
one  end  with  the  sternum,  and  at  the  other  with  the  ter- 
ination  of  the  spinal  ribs.  In  the  Chelouian  Reptiles,  the 
ribs  (as  well  as  the  vertebra  and  the  sternum)  deviate  re- 
markably from  the  normal  type,  the  lateral  parts  of  the 
carapace  consisting  mainly  of  anchylosed  ribs  uniled  by 
dermal  plates.  In  the  Crocodiles,  there  are  only  12  pair 
of  true  or  dorsal  ribs;  while  in  the  other  Saurians,  and  in  the 
Ophidians,  the  ribs  are  usually  very  numerous.  In  the 
Frogs,  there  are  no  true  ribs;  the  reason  probably  being, 
that  any  bony  element  in  their  thoracic  walls  would  inter- 
fere with  the  enormous  thoracico-abdominal  enlargement 
which  these  animals  periodically  undergo  at  the  breeding 
period. 

In  the  language  of  the  transcendental  anatomists,  a  rib 
is  to  be  regarded  as  a  Pleur  apophysis— one  of  the  elements 
of  a  typical  Vertebra  (q.v). 

Fracture  of  the  Ribs  is  a  frequent  result  from  blows 
or  falls  on  the  chest.  Ribs  may,  moreover,  be  broken  by 
mere  pressure,  as  when  persons  are  severely  crushed  in  a 
crowd;  and  instances  are  on  record  of  fracture  in  aged 
persons  by  violent  coughing.  The  treatment  consists  in 
application  of  a  broad  flannel  roller  round  the  chest,  so 
tightly  as  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  all  movement  of 
the  ribs,  and  to  render  the  respiration  abdominal  rather 
than  thoracic.  The  bandage  must  be  prevented  from  fall- 
ing by  addition  of  shoulder-straps;  and  to  prevent  the 
shoulder-  blade  from  moving,  and  thus  disturbing  t  he  broken 
ribs,  some  surgeons  confine  the  arms  to  the  side  of  the 
body.  If  one  or  both  of  the  extremities  of  the  fractured 
rib  should  perforate  both  the  pleurae,  and  wound  the  lung, 
air  escapes  in  the  act  of  inspiration  from  the  lung  into  the 
pleural  cavity,  and  thence  through  the  wound  in  the  costal 
pleura  into  the  cellular  or  areolar  tissue  of  the  trunk,  giving 
rise  to  emphysema,  in  the  form  of  a  soft  puify  tumor,  that 
crepitates  and  disappears  on  pressure. 

RIBWORT:  see  under  Rib. 

RICA,  n.  rl'ka  [L.  rlca,  a  veil  thrown  over  the  head]:  the 
ceremonial  veil  worn  by  ladies  in  Greece  aud  Rome  on 
occasions  of  religious  solemnity. 


RlCARDO. 

MCARDO,  re-Mr' do,  David:  eminent  political  econo- 
mist and  statesman:  1772,  Apr.  19—1823,  Sep.  11;  b.  Lon- 
don; of  Jewish  extraction.  His  father,  a  respectable  mem- 
ber of  the  stock  exchange,  brought  him  up  to  his  own 
business.  There  was  alienation  between  them  on  account 
of  the  son  marrying  out  of  the  Jewish  persuasion,  and 
conforming  to  Christianity.  Young  R.  practiced  as  a 
broker  in  the  exchange  until  1818,  where  his  ability  and 
integrity  opened  for  him  a  successful  career,  so  that  at  the 
age  of  25  he  was  rich.  While  thus  practically  occupied, 
he  was  ardently  investigating  the  first  principles  of  political 
economy,  to  which  his  attention  had  been  turned  by  perusal 
of  Adam  Smith's  great  work,  1799:  especially  the  finance 
department  drew  his  attention.  In  1810  he  produced  a 
notable  sensation  by  his  pamphlet  The  High  Price  of  Bul- 
lion, a  Proof  of  the  Depreciation  of  Bank-notes.  The  title 
was  a  condensation  of  the  principle  worked  out  in  the 
treatise,  which  gave  one  of  the  earliest  distinct  announce- 
ments of  the  principle  of  a  metallic  basis,  and  the  propen- 
sity that  a  paper  currency  always  has  to  redundance,  if  it 
be  not  in  some  form  or  other  restrained  by  the  operation 
of  such  a  basis.  This  was  followed  by  several  pamphlets, 
each  commanding  attention  and  exerting  influence.  In 
1817  appeared  his  principal  work,  On  the  Principles  of  Polit- 
ical Economy  and  Taxation.  He  had  previously  in  one 
of  his  pamphlets  touched  on  the  most  important  feature 
of  this  work — the  elucidation  of  the  true  theory  of  rent,  as 
being  not  incidental  and  casual,  like  the  profits  of  stock, 
but  a  fund  that  must,  under  certain  conditions  of  popula- 
tion, come  into  existence,  whoever  may  draw  it  (see  Rent). 
It  is  usual  to  call  the  theory  by  the  name  of  Ricardo;  but 
he  distinctly  ascribes  it  to  Mai  thus;  and  it  is  now  recog- 
nised that  the  elements  of  the  theory  were  given  in  2 he  Bee 
by  Dr  Anderson  (see  Anderson,  James).  R.'s  work  is 
considered  one  of  the  clearest  and  least  tedious  of  all  the 
earlier  books  on  political  economy;  and  undeniably  it  sup- 
plies a  valuable  series  of  statements;  but  it  has  beeu  criti- 
cised in  the  clearer  light  of  recent  days  and  by  a  larger 
experience,  as  narrowing  the  influence  of  the  elements  from 
which  the  world's  riches  may  be  increased,  and  especially 
as  identifying  the  interest  of  the  capitalist  class  with  the 
interest  of  the  whole  nation — an  ethical  mistake  common 
to  R.  's  time,  which  invalidates  to  some  extent  whole  libraries 
of  elaborate  economic  science. 

In  1819  R.,  having  retired  from  business  and  become  a 
large  landed  proprietor,  entered  parliament,  where  his  in- 
fluence contributed  to  establish  the  policy  of  free  trade. 
His  clear  method  of  announcing  a  principle,  and  his  great 
success  in  business,  combined  with  his  singularly  estimable 
character  for  candor,  modesty,  and  generosity,  to  give  him 
perhaps  more  influence  in  all  matters  of  trade  and  money 
than  those  of  any  other  member  in  the  present  century. 
He  was  a  zealous  student  of  geology,  chemistry,  and  other 
sciences.  He  died,  greatly  regretted,  at  his  place  in 
Gloucestershire. 

R/s  mind  was  acute  rather  than  broad.    His  view  of 


RICASOLI. 

social  problems  seems  narrow.  He  develops  the  mechan- 
ical theory  of  human  society— magnifying  the  selfish 
principle  as  practically  the  controlling  factor  in  all  political 
economy  and  in  all  human  life — an  utter  misconception 
which  hie  own  personal  excellencies  should  have  taught 
him  to  avoid.  His  system  is  devoid  of  sympathy  with  the 
working-classes:  men  are  pawns:  he  frames  his  hypothesis 
in  accordance  with  his  view  of  the  4  economic  man' — that 
monstrous  figment,  set  forth  as  so  real  by  successive 
writers  on  economics,  but  never  yet  seen  alive  on  the  face 
of  the  earth.  In  many  special  departments  R.'s  conclu- 
sions or  suggestions  have  much  value,  e.g.,  in  finance  and 
currency;  but  his  broader  generalizations  are  not  in  har- 
mony with  the  more  ethical  and  vital  principles  of  the  day 
that  has  since  dawned. 

RICASOLI,  re-kd'zd-le,  Bettino,  Baron:  Italian  stales- 
man:  18u9.  Mar.  9— 1880,  Oct.  23;  b.  Florence;  descended 
from  a  very  ancient  Lombard  family,  which  established 
itself  in  Tuscany  in  the  13th  century.  R.  studied  at  Pisa 
and  Florence;  and  early  was  stirred  with  a  desire  to  ameli- 
orate the  condition  of  his  country;  but  being  averse  to  revo- 
lution, he  quietly  subsided  into  one  of  the  best  agricultu- 
rists in  Italy,  wrote  works  on  the  cultivation  of  the  vine, 
of  the  olive,  and  of  the  mulberry,  and  gained  for  his 
wines  of  Chianti  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Join- 
ing with  other  Tuscan  gentlemen,  after  the  defeat  of 
No  vara,  he  overthrew  the  govt,  of  Guerrazzi,  and  recalled 
the  grand  duke,  trusting  to  the  constitutional  promises 
given  by  the  latter.  Leopold  returned,  accompanied  by 
the  Austrians;  and  R.,  indignant  at  this  treachery,  sent, 
back  his  decoration  to  the  prince,  and  shut  himself  in  his 
castle  of  Brolio.  For  ten  years  he  worked  successfully  at 
the  drainage  of  the  Tuscan  Maremme  (q.v.).  In  1859, 
when  Tuscany  wished  to  take  part  in  the  war  of  Italian 
independence,  R.  reappeared.  The  grand  duke  fled,  and 
R.  was  made  dictator  of  Tuscany.  After  Villafranea,  he 
remained  alone  in  the  government,  beset  by  the  French  emis- 
saries, who  were  advising  him  to  recall  Leopold  II.  R. 
fiercely  refused  to  do  so;  he  wished  the  annexation  to 
Piedmont;  and  his  obstinacy  saved  Italy,  and  produced 
the  unity  of  the  Peninsula.  On  the  death  of  Cavour 
(1861),  R.  was  called  to  the  ministry,  and  by  another 
abrupt  and  decided  act,  he  promulgated  political  and 
administrative  unity.  His  cabinet,  undermined  by  Rat- 
tazzi,  did  not  stand;  he  therefore  resigned  1862,  Mar.  In 
1866  he  retumed  to  power,  retiring  1867  in  ill  health. 


R1CCT. 

KICCI,  ret'che,  Matteo:  eminent  Jesuit,  founder  of 
modern  Christian  missions  to  China:  1552,  Oct.  6—1610, 
May  11;  b.  Macerala,  in  the  Marches  of  Ancona.  After 
studying  law  at  Home,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
1571.  Six  years  later,  he  accompanied  to  India  Pere  Va- 
liguan,  'Inspector  general  of  the  Eastern  Missions.'  On 
account  of  R.'s  tine  combination  of  zeal  and  tact,  he  was 
chosen  by  his  superior  to  introduce  the  Christian  religion 
into  China,  and  after  preparing  himself  for  the  undertaking 
by  a  study  of  the  Chinese  language  at  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ment of  Macao,  he  sought  entrance  into  the  empire.  But 
his  first  efforts  were  vain,  and  it  was  not  till  1583  that  the 
Jesuit  Fathers  obtained  permission  to  settle  at  Tchao-kiug- 
fu.  R,  in  his  efforts  for  converting  the  Chinese,  sought  to 
accommodate  himself  to  their  intellectual  tastes  and  be- 
liefs; and  aware  how  highly  the  mandarins  estimated  liter- 
ary skill,  he  executed  and  published  a  Chinese  Map  of  the 
World,  and  also  a  little  Catechism,  in  which  he  set  forth 
only  such  portions  of  Christianity  as  embody  the  general 
principles  of  morality,  withholding  those  portions  which 
directly  concern  Christ  Jesus — a  fact  which  probably  ex- 
plains the  bitter  attacks  on  R.'s  theology  years  after  his 
death.  These  two  productions  wron  R.  a  high  reputation 
among  the  Chinese  literati;  the  most  illustrious  mandarins 
came^  to  visit  him,  and  expressed  their  esteem  for  his 
character  and  talents.  In  1595  he  boldly  resolved  to  go  to 
Peking,  believing  that  he  could  accomplish  far  more  as  a 
religious  propagandist  in  the  metropolis  than  elsewhere. 
Having  obtained  permission  from  his  superiors  to  assume 
the  dress  of  a  Chinese  scholar,  he  set  out  in  the  train  of  a 
mandarin,  who  did  not  allow  him,  however,  to  proceed 
further  than  Nanking.  Expelled  thence,  he  was  obliged 
to  return  homeward;  but  at  Nau-tchang-fu,  the  indomitable 
and  adroit  priest  composed  two  treatises,  entitled  the  Art 
of  Memory,  and  a  Dialogue  on  Friendship,  in  imitation  of 
Cicero,  which  so  pleased  the  taste  of  the  Chinese,  that  they 
ranked  them  with  their  most  esteemed  books,  and  the  for- 
tunate author  was  allowed  to  proceed  north.  He  reached 
Peking,  and  was  permitted  to  fix  his  residence  at  Nan- 
king, the  second  city  in  the  empire,  where  his  fame  as 
a  scholar  increased  from  day  to  day.  In  1600  he  and  his 
companions  were  allowed  to  settle  at  Peking,  and  even  to 
build  a  church.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
teaching  mathematics  and  other  sciences,  in  writing  works 
secular  and  religious,  and  in  using  his  great  influence  with 
the  king,  the  court,  and  the  learned  classes  generally  to 
obtain  a  favorable  attention  to  the  claims  of  his  religion. 
R.  made  several  striking  conversions,  and  through  his  zeal, 
missionary  establishments  w7ere  set  up  in  the  principal 
cities  of  China.  At  his  death  he  was  universally  mourned. 
In  the  annals  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  he  is  designated  some- 
times Li-ma-teou,  and  sometimes  Si-thai,  The  most  im- 
portant (for  us)  of  his  numerous  writings  nre  his  Memoirs, 
published  by  Pere  Trigault,  under  the  title  of  Be  Chris- 
tiana Expeditione  apud>  Sinas  suscepta  ab  Societate  Jesu,  ex 
M.  Riccii  Commentariis  Libri  V.  (Augsb.  1615;  Lyon  1616). 


RICE. 

RICE,  rls  [F.  riz;  It.  riso,  rice:  L.  ory'za;  Gr 
oruza ;  Ar.  aruzz,  rice]:  a  well-known  grain,  only  produced 
in  warm  climates  and  from  a  moist  soil ;  the  Ory'za  sail- 
va,  ord.  Gramiri ece.  Rice-bird,  n.  the  Bobolink  (q.v.). 
Rice' -flour,  ground  rice  for  puddings,  etc.  .Rice- 
glue,  n.  cement  said  to  be  made  in  Japan  by  mixing 
rice-flour  with  cold  water,  and  boiling  the  mixture.  It 
is  white,  becomes  nearly  transparent,  and  is  useful  for 
cementing  paper  in  layers.  Rice'-grains,  n  in  astron., 
certain  forms  of  what  may  be  bright  clouds  floating  in 
the  sun's  atmosphere,  with  a  dark  background.  Rice  - 
paper,  a  paper  prepared  from  the  pith  of  a  certain 
plant,  and  brought  from  China — the  Tetrapanax  papyrif- 
Brum,  ord.  Aralidcece.  Rice'-tendrac,  n.  in  zoo/.,  Ory^ 
eorictes  hova  tetradactyla,  an  insectivorous  mammal  de- 
scribed by  (rrandidier  1870.  It  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  a  hedgehog,  grayish  brown  in  color,  and  having 
the  snout  prolonged  into  a  short  trunk.  Its  damage  to 
rice-crops  is  due  doubtless  to  its  burrowing  in  pursuit 
of  worms  and  insects.  Rice'-troopial,  n.  the  same  as 
Rice-bird.  Rice'-weevil,  n.  in  entom.,  Calandra  oryzce, 
an  insect  which  attacks  the  rice-plant  in  the  southern 
states :  called  also  Sitophilus  oryzce. 

RICE  (Oryza) :  genus  of  grasses,  having  panicles  of 
one-flowered  spikelets,  with  two  very  small  pointed 
glumes ;  the  florets  compressed,  the  pale89  strongly 
nerved,  awned  or  awnless,  six  stamens,  one  germen,  and 
two  feathery  stigmas.  The  only  important  species  is 
the  Common  R.  (O.  sativa),  one  of  the  most  useful  and 
extensively  cultivated  of  all  grains,  supplying  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  nearly  one-half  of  the  human  race.  It 
seems  to  be,  originally,  a  native  of  the  E.  Indies,  but  is 
now  cultivated  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  It  is  adapt- 
ed to  tropical  and  sub-tropical  climates,  rather  to  the 
latter  than  the  former.  R.  is  an  annual,  from  one  ft.  to  six 
ft.  in  height.  There  are  many  distinguishing  characters 
of  the  varieties  in  cultivation :  some  having  long  awns, 
and  some  being  awnless ;  some  having  the  chaff  (palece), 
when  ripe,  yellow,  white,  red,  black,  etc.  The  seed  or 
grain  of  R.  grows  on  little  separate  stalks  springing 
from  the  main  stalk ;  and  the  whole  appearance  of  the 
plant,  when  the  grain  is  ripe,  is  -  intermediate  between 
that  of  barley  and  oi  oats.  Some  varieties  of  R.  require 
a  moist  soil,  sometimes  flooded ;  and  its  cultivation  has 
in  many  places  been  attended  with  increase  of  intermit- 
tent fevers,  and  of  general  unhealthfulness,  the  rice- 
fields  being  artificially  flooded  at  certain  seasons.  The 
cultivation  is  most  extensive  in  India,  China,  Cochin- 
China,  and  other  s.e.  parts  of  Asia,  in  Japan  and  Egypt, 
and  in  the  southern  states  of  this  country.  Small  quan- 
tities are  grown  in  s.  Europe.  Like  most  cultivated 
plants,  R.  is  very  liable  to  variation ;  and  50  or  more 
known  varieties  are  cultivated,  of  which  the  Carolina 
R.,  largely  grown  in  the  United  States,-  is  the  best. 

R.  is  known  in  India  as  Paddy.  Another  use  of  this 
name  is  to  designate  R.  in  the  husk.  In  China  R.  i# 
Vol.  32  —  7 


RICE. 


generally  sown  thickly  on  very  wet  land,  and  afterward 
transplanted  to  the  land  which  it  is  finally  to  occupy. 
The  plants  tiller  or  spread  at  the  root  very  much,  so  that 
each  sends  up  several  stalks.  The  rice-grounds  are 
carefully  kept  clear  of  weeds,  though  often  so  wet  that 
a  man  cannot  walk  in  them  without  sinking  to  the 
knees.  In  many  parts  of  China,  and  in  other  warm 
countries,  it  is  common  to  obtain  two  crops  of  R.  in  a 
year. 

R.  contains  a  smaller  amount  of  flesh-forming  sub- 
stances, and  a  larger  amount  of  fat-forming  or  heat-giving 
substances,  than  any  other  grain.  As  a  food,  it  is  pecul- 
iarly well  adapted  for  hot  climates,  as  it  appears  to  be 
almost  a  cure  for  dysentery  and  other  bowel  complaints 


in  iependently  of  which  it  is  a  sufficiently  nutritious 
food  without  being  heating.  Owing  to  the  small  quan- 
tity of  gluten  which  it  contains,  it  is  capable  by  itself  of 
only  an  imperfect  fermentation,  and  is  unfit  for  being 
baked  into  bread.  It  is,  however,  subjected  to  fermen- 
tation in  many  countries.  The  beer  made  from  R.  by 
the  Japanese  is  called  Saki,  and  is  in  general  use  among 
them ;  but  before  being  drunk,4t  is  heated  in  kettles. 
Several  kinds  of  Rice-wine  are  made  by  the  Chinese, 
some  of  them  very  intoxicating.  A  spirit  is  distilled 
from  the  lees,  called  Shou-choo  or  Sam-choo.  The  com- 
mon Arrack  (q.v.)  of  the  East  is  made  from  rice,  and 
rice  is  used  largely  also  by  distillers  in  western  coun- 
tries. 


Rice  (jOryza  sativa). 


MCE. 


The  lowland  varieties  are  grown  by  the  *  water-cult 
ure  '  or  irrigation  system.  Many  of  the  fields  adjoin 
rivers  whose  waters  are  kept  back  by  levees,  through 
which  the  planter  makes  openings,  known  as  flumes, 
which  are  closed  by  gates.  The  water  is  conducted 
through  the  fields  in  canals  which  are  supplied  with 
dams,  so  that  the  surface  can  be  flooded  to  any  required 
depth.  The  deposits  of  alluvial  matter  supplied  by  this 
system  tend  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  the  soil.  The 
ground  is  plowed  to  a  depth  of  5  or  6  in.,  and  the  sur- 
face pulverized  by  harrowing.  The  season  for  sowing 
is  from  the  last  of  March  till  the  first  of  June,  varying 
somewhat  with  the  locality.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills 
at  the  rate  of  about  two  bushels  per  acre,  or  three 
bushels  are  sown  broadcast.  Some  growers  cover  the 
seed  with  soil,  others  allow  it  to  remain  on  the  surface : 
in  either  case  water  is  turned  on  till  the  ground  is  cov- 
ered to  a  depth  of  15  to  18  in.  After  the  seed  has  ger- 
minated, the  water  is  withdrawn,  but  it  is  turned  on 
again  when  two  leaves  have  appeared,  and  is  allowed  to 
remain  for  7  to  10  days,  when  it  is  lowered  so  that  the 
upper  leaves  will  float  over  the  surface.  At  this  height 
the  water  is  kept  for  several  weeks,  but  is  freshened  by 
frequent  changes.  The  only  cultivation  required  is  to 
pull  up  whatever  weeds  and  aquatic  plants  may  appear. 
As  the  stage  of  maturity  approaches,  indicated  by  the 
filling  of  the  heads  and  the  turning  of  the  straw  to  a 
yellow  shade,  the  water  is  drawn  off;  the  stalks  harden, 
and  the  ground  dries,  thus  facilitating  the  work  of  har- 
vesting. On  good  land  the  stalks  reach  a  height  of  4  to 
6  ft.,  and  are  cut  about  15  in.  from  the  ground.  When 
the  stalks  have  dried  for  a  day  or  two,  they  are  bound 
in  bundles  and  put  in  small  stacks.  After  the  crop  is 
removed,  the  ground  should  be  subjected  to  several 
light  floodings,  to  kill  the  *  volunteer  '  E.  and  any  weeds 
which  may  appear.  Threshing  does  not  remove  the 
inner  hull  of  the  grain.  For  this  purpose  special  and 
expensive  machines  are  required,  and  the  work  is  often 
done  at  large  factories.  The  small  and  the  broken 
grains  are  separated  from  the  large  ones,  which  form 
only  about  half  the  entire  quantity :  this  is  done  by 
means  of  machines,  fans,  and  screens. — Upland  R.  is 
grown  in  drills  and  is  kept  free  from  weeds  by  cultiva- 
tion. It  yields  15  to  40  bushels  per  acre.  Good  low- 
lands, properly  irrigated,  yield  40  to  80  bushels  per  acre, 
and  1J  to  3  tons  of  straw.  Clean  R.  weighs  45  to  48  lbs. 
per  bushel.  Most  of  the  lowland  R.  is  grown  on  fields 
which  would  not  produce  ordinary  farm  crops.  In  the 
Atlantic  states  the  cultivation  of  the  lowland  R.  is  very 
unheal thful,  but  it  is  not  found  as  injurious  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley.  R.  was  introduced  into  S.  C.  by  acci- 
dent. A  disabled  ship  from  Madagascar  found  refuge 
in  Charleston  1694,  and  the  capt.,  as  a  token  of  appre- 
ciation of  the  kindness  that  he  received,  gave  one  of  the 
citizens  a  sack  of  the  grain.  This  was  planted,  and 
thus  was  laid  the  foundation  of  an  extensive  industry. 


RICE-PAPER — RICE. 

It  is  claimed  that  a  little  R.  had  been  grown  in  Va.  pre- 
vious to  the  above  date.  The  cultivation  of  the  crop 
was  introduced  into  La.  1718. 

Rice-starch  is  largely  manufactured  in  various  Euro- 
pean countries,  in  which  it  is  sold  under  the  name  Patent 
Starch,  and  is  used  in  laundries  and  muslin  manufac- 
tories.— Rice-straw  is  used  to  make  straw-plait  for  bon- 
nets.— The  waste  of  the  mills,  known  as  R.-meal,  is  said 
to  be  used  largely  in  the  adulteration  of  cheap  flour.  It 
is  also  fed  to  horses  and  cows,  but  its  price  is  often  too 
high  to  make  it  profitable  for  this  purpose. 

Canada  R.  (Zizania  aquatica),  the  Wild  R.  of  N. 
America,  is  a  species  of  grass  quite  different  from  the 
true  R.,  and  of  different  genus.  It  is  common  in  N. 
America,  especially  in  the  n.w.  parts;  growing  in  miry 
places  or  shallow  water,  often  in  the  margins  of  lakes. 
It  has  a  culm  7-10  ft.  high,  with  broad  diffuse  leaves, 
and  a  large  terminal  panicle  of  male  flowers,  with  a 
spike  of  female  flowers  at  the  summit.  The  flowers  have 
six  stamens.  The  seeds  are  about  half  an  inch  long, 
slender,  farinaceous,  affording  very  good  meal,  and  much 
used  by  the  Indians.  In  dry  seasons  this  R.  is  some- 
times cured  for  hay.  On  account  of  it  value  for  wild- 
fowl, it  is  often  sown  in  marshes,  which  they  frequent. 
The  seed  is  sold  in  New  York  for  about  30  cents  a  pound. 

RICE  PAPER,  also  called  pith  paper,  and  more  prop- 
erly, as  the  substance  is  not  derived  from  rice.  The  pro- 
duct of  a  small  tree,  10  to  15  ft.  high,  known  botanically 
as  Aralia  (Fatsia)  papyrifera,  which  grows  in  many 
portions  of  Formosa.  Japanese  name,  Tsuso;  Chinese 
name,  Tung  Tsao.  The  pith  is  extracted  by  breaking  the 
bark  and  outer  woody  portion,  and  forcing  out  the  cylin- 
drical core.  Consul  Jas.  W.  Davidson  states  that  the 
paper  is  produced  by  skilfully  paring  these  cylinders  of 
pith  with  a  sharp  knife  as  they  are  rolled  upon  the  sur- 
face of  a  tile  or  other  hard  substance  that  will  serve  as 
a  bed  plate,  the  thickness  of  the  sheet  of  pith  paper  being 
regulated  by  the  angle  at  which  the  knife  is  held.  The 
sheets  are  put  under  heavy  pressure  for  a  time,  and  are 
finally  cut  into  squares  of  3%  inches,  and  packed  90  in 
a  package.  There  are  three  grades  of  the  paper,  which 
is  chiefly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  flowers, 
and  also  for  the  painting  of  small  fancy  pictures,  and  to 
some  extent  for  sun  hats. 

RICE,  Alice  Hegan:  American  humorous  writer: 
b.  Shelbyville,  Ky.,  11  Jan.  1870.  She  was  educated  at 
Hampton  College,  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  was  married  to 
C.  Y.  Rice,  of  Louisville,  in  1902.  Her  first  book,  *  Mrs. 
Wiggs  of  the  Cabbage  Patch  '  ( 1901 ) ,  attained  extraor- 
dinary popularitv,  and  was  followed  by  'Lovey  Mary' 
(1903) ;  '  Sandy'  (1904). 

RICE,  rls,  William  North,  ll.d.,  te.D.:  educator-. 
b.  Marblehead,  Mass.,  1845,  Nov.  21 ;  son  of  William  R. 
P.D.,  Meth.  Episc.  minister.     He  graduated  from  th^ 


RICH— RICH  HILL. 


Wesleyan  Univ.  1865;  studied  two  years  at  the  Scien- 
tific School  of  Yale  College,  and  one  year  at  the  Univ. 
of  Berlin ;  was  prof,  of  nat.  history  and  geology  at  Wes- 
leyan Univ.  1868-84,  and  has  since  been  prof,  of  geol. 
in  that  institution.  He  has  been  connected  with  the 
U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  and  has  conducted  scientific  in- 
vestigations in  the  Bermudas.  He  is  an  ordained  Meth. 
Episc.  minister,  is  a  member  of  various  learned  bodies, 
and  has  written  on  scientific  and  religious  subjects. 

RICE'-PAPER:  see  Paper:  also  under  Rice. — Rice- 
paper  Tree:  see  Aralia. 

RICH,  a.  rich  [AS.  rice,  noble,  rich:  Goth,  reiks, 
ruler:  Ger.  reich;  Icel.  rikr;  Dan.  rig,  rich;  Icel.  riki, 
power]:  wealthy;  having  ample  means  for  the  supply 
of  wants;  costly;  yielding  or  producing  largely;  fertile; 
highly  endowed;  made  with  costly  or  highly  seasoned 
ingredients,  as  a  rich  cake  or  dish;  abundant;  full  of; 
perfect;  having  something  precious:  V.  in  OE.,  to  enrich. 
Rich'es,  n.  -ez  [F.  richesse,  riches:  E.  riches  was  origi- 
nally a  noun  singular,  but  is  now  used  as  a  plural] : 
abundance  of  lands,  goods,  or  money;  wealth;  affluence; 
opulence;  great  plenty  beyond  wants.  Rich'ly,  ad.  -It, 
with  abundance;  with  ample  means;  amply;  truly. 
Rich'ness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of  being  rich;  any  good 
quality  existing  in  abundance;  fertility;  productiveness; 
abundance  of  good  ingredients,  as  in  food.  The  rich, 
persons  possessed  of  wealth. — Syn.  of  'rich';  wealthy; 
opulent;  affluent;  valuable;  estimable;  precious;  costly; 
splendid;  sumptuous;  fertile;  fruitful;  abundant;  gen- 
erous; luscious;  plentiful;  ample;  copious. 

RICH,  rich,  Claudius  James:  1787-1827;  b.  France. 
He  was  educated  in  England,  to  which  country  his 
parents  belonged,  and  became  proficient  in  various  ori- 
ental languages.  In  1804  he  went  to  Bombay  in  employ 
of  the  East  India  Co.  After  serving  a  year,  he  became 
sec.  to  the  consul-gen.  to  Egypt,  who  soon  afterward 
died.  R.  then  travelled  in  disguise  through  Syria  and 
Palestine,  spent  about  a  year  in  Bombay  with  Sir  James 
Mackintosh,  whose  daughter  he  afterward  married,  and 
was  in  Bagdad  1808-14,  collecting  MSS.,  coins,  etc.  He 
published  Memoirs  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon  (1811),  and 
a  Second  Memoir  on  Babylon  (1818).  His  death  oc- 
curred at  Shiraz,  Persia. 

RICH  HILL,  city  in  Bates  County,  Mo. ;  on  the  Osage 
River,  and  on  the  Kansas  City,  F.  S.  &  M.,  and  the  Mis- 
souri Pacific  R.R.V,  about  83  m.  south  of  Kansas  City. 
It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  coal  region;  in  the  vicinity 
pf  the  largest  coal  fields  in  Missouri.  Its  chief  indus- 
tries are  connected  with  the  mining  and  shipping  of  coal. 
It  has  vitrified  brick  works,  canning  factories,  a  foundry, 
distillery,  machine  shops,  and  zinc  smelters.  It  has  an 
extensive  trade  in  coal,  farm  products,  canned  goods, 
and  brick.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
churches  ami  schools.    Pop.  (1890)  4,008;  (1900)  4,053, 


RICHARD  I. 


RICHARD,  rich'erd,  I.,  King  of  England,  surnamed 
Cceur  de  Lion:  1157,  Sep.  8 — 1199,  Apr.  6  (reigned 
1189-99);  b.  prob.  at  Oxford;  third  son  of  Henry  II.  by 
his  queen  Eleanor.  In  the  treaty  of  Montmirail,  1169, 
Jan.  6,  between  Henry  and  Louis  VII.  of  France,  it  was 
stipulated  that  the  duchy  of  Aquitaine  should  be  made 
over  to  R.,  and  that  he  should  do  homage  for  it  to  the 
king  of  France ;  also,  that  he  should  marry  Adelais, 
youngest  daughter  of  Louis.  In  1173  R.  joined  his 
mother  and  his  brothers  Henry  and  Geoffrey  in  their 
rebellion  against  the  king.  The  rebels  submitted  1174, 
Sep.,  when  two  castles  in  Poitou  were  allotted  to  R. 
In  1183  a  second  family  feud  broke  out  in  consequence 
of  R.  refusing  to  do  homage  to  his  elder  brother  Henry 
for  the  duchy  of  Aquitaine.  In  this  war,  his  father 
sided  with  R.  against  Henry  and  Geoffrey.  It  was 
ended  by  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  when  R.,  actuated 
probably  by  jealousy  of  his  youngest  brother  John,  de- 
clared himself  the  liegeman  of  France  for  his  possessions 
in  that  country.  This  step  led  to  a  war  between  the 
king  of  Eugland  and  Philip  of  France,  in  which  R.  fought 
against  his  father.  The  balance  of  success  being  decid- 
edly with  France,  a  treaty  in  accordance  with  this  fact 
was  about  to  be  executed,  when,  by  the  death  of  Henry 
II.,  1189,  July  6,  R.  became  king  of  England.  He 
landed  in  his  own  country  1189,  Aug.  15,  and  was 
crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey  Sep.  3.  In  the  hope  of 
gaining  salvation,  and  with  the  certainty  of  following 
the  occupation  which  he  loved  best,  he  set  out  with  an 
army  to  join  the  third  crusade,  then  about  to  leave  Eu- 
rope. He  united  his  forces  to  those  of  France' on  the 
plains  of  Vezelay,  and  the  two  armies  (numbering  in  all 
100,000  men)  marched  together  as  far  as  Lyon,  where 
they  separated,  and  proceeded  by  different  routes  to 
Messina,  where  they  again  met.  Here  R.  betrothed  his 
nephew  Arthur  to  the  infant  daughter  of  Tancred,  King 
of  Sicily,  with  whom  he  formed  a  close  alliance.  The 
Sicilian  throne  was  at  that  time  claimed  by  Emperor 
Henry  VI. ;  and  the  alliance  with  Tancred  from  this 
cause  afterward  proved  very  unfortunate  for  R.  Hav- 
ing settled  a  difference  between  himself  and  Philip  re- 
specting his  old  engagement  to  Philip's  sister  Adelais, 
the  English  king,  1191,  Apr.  7,  sailed  from  Messina  for 
Cyprus,  carrying  with  him  Berengaria,  daughter  of 
Sancho  VI.,  King  of  Navarre.  He  had  fallen  in  love  with 
this  princess,  and  he  married  her  in  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus, where  he  halted  on  his  way  to  Palestine.  But 
even  love  did  not  make  him  forget  his  favorite  pastime 
of  war;  he  attacked  and  dethroned  Isaac  Comnenus  of 
Cyprus,  alleging  that  he  had  ill-used  the  crews  of  some 
English  ships  which  had  been  thrown  on  his  coasts. 
Having  then  presented  the  islind  to  Guy  of  Lusignan, 
he  set  sail  1191,  June  4,  and  on  the  10th  reached  the 
camp  of  the  crusaders  assembled  before  the  fortress  of 
Acre.  The  prodigies  of  personal  valor  which  he  per- 
formed in  the  Holy  Land  have  made  the  name  of  Rich- 


RICHARD  II. 

ard  the  Lion-hearted  more  famous  in  romance  than  in 
history.  The  man  was  the  creation  and  impersonation 
of  his  age,  and  the  reader  who  follows  his  career  may 
perhaps  be  more  interested  than  he  would  be  by  the 
lives  of  greater  men,  or  by  the  history  of  a  more  im- 
portant period.  He  accomplished  no  important  object 
of  his  undertaking  in  the  East,  except  the  capture  of 
Acre :  twice  he  was  in  sight  of  Jerusalem,  but  retired 
without  venturing  an  attack.  Because  of  Saladin's 
failure  to  fulfil  the  terms  of  his  surrender  at  Acre,  R. 
ordered  the  massacre  in  cold  blood  of  about  3,000  Mo- 
hammedan prisoners.  1192,  Oct.  9,  he  set  out  on  his 
return  to  England.  After  some  wanderings  and  advent- 
ures, he  became  the  captive  of  Emperor  Henry  VI., 
who  shut  him  up  in  a  castle  in  the  Tyrol.  The  story  of 
his  discovery  here  by  Blondel  originated  in  France  no 
further  back  than  the  century  after  R.'s  death.  John, 
meanwhile,  ruled  in  England,  and  he  and  Philip  of 
France  had  good  reasons  for  wishing  that  R.  should 
never  return  to  his  kingdom.  He  disappointed  them ; 
not,  however,  until  he  had  paid  a  heavy  ransom,  and 
even,  it  is  said,  agreed  to  hold  his  kingdom  as  a  fief  of 
the  empire.  1194,  March  13,  he  found  himself  once 
more  in  England.  His  brother  John,  who  had  acted  so 
treacherously  toward  him,  he  magnanimously  forgave, 
but  with  Philip  of  France  he  could  not  deny  himself  the 
pleasure  of  a  war.  In  the  contest  which  followed,  he 
was  generally  victorious,  though  in  the  end  it  was  fatal 
to  him :  he  was  killed  by  an  arrow  shot  from  the  castle 
of  Chalus,  which  he  was  besieging.  R.,  tall,  ruddy, 
muscular,  had  the  typical  virtues  and  vices  of  chivalry  : 
he  was  fearless  and  generous,  but  unscrupulous  and 
ferocious.  His  reign  wrought  no  service  for  England 
beyond  supplying  her  poetry  and  legend  with  the  name 
of  a  king  which  has  become  the  nucleus  of  a  hazy  fame. 
— See  Chronicles  and  Memorials  of  Richard  J.,  by  W. 
Stubbs,  from  MS.  in  Library  of  Corpus  Christi  Coll.,  1864. 

RICH' ARD  II.,  King  of  England  :  1366,  Apr.  13—1400, 
Feb.  (?)  (reigned  1377-99);  b.  Bordeaux;  second  son  of 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  Joanna  of  Kent.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
Edward  III.,  1377,  and  during  his  minority  the  govt, 
was  vested  in  a  council  of  12,  from  which  were  excluded 
the  king's  three  uncles,  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancas- 
ter, the  Earl  of  Cambridge,  afterward  Duke  of  York, 
and  the  Earl  of  Buckingham,  afterward  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter. This  arrangement  is,  however,  supposed  to  have 
been  collusive,  and  intended  to  lull  the  popular  suspicion 
of  Lancaster,  under  whose  control  the  council  really 
was.  The  reign  of  R.  is  interesting  and  important  to 
the  student  of  English  constitutional  history,  but  has 
not  yet  been  perfectly  elucidated.  We  find  the  recentl}r 
established  house  of  commons  eagerly  pressing  forward 
to  procure  a  share  of  political  power,  by  means  of  the 
efficient  engine  of  which  it  had  then  acquired  sole  con- 
trol—the right  of  taxation.    Again,  we  (ind  the  laboring 


RICHARD  II. 

classes  now  beginning  to  aspire  to  be  freed  from  their 
long  bondage.  The  famous  capitation  tax,  1380,  gave 
rise  in  the  following  year  to  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler 
(see  Tyler  Insurrection).  R.  was  married  1382  to 
Anne  of  Bohemia,  daughter  of  Emperor  Charles  IV. 
The  next  two  years  were  occupied  with  a  war  with 
France,  transferred  1385  to  Scotland,  where  for  a 
while  the  king  conducted  it  in  person.  In  the  absence 
of  John  of  Gaunt  in  Spain,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  had 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  affairs ;  and  an  attempt  which 
11.  made  at  this  time  to  free  himself  from  control  haviug 
been  defeated,  several  of  his  counselors  were  put  to  death ; 
which  action  was  approved  by  parliament,  by  whom 
further  executions  were  ordered  among  the  king's  ad- 
herents; and  the  sentences  were  carried  into  effect.  In 
1389,  however,  R.,  by  a  sudden  movement,  succeeded  in 
throwing  off  the  yoke.  Gloucester  was  compelled  to  re- 
tire ;  but  from  indolence  or  lack  of  capacity,  the  king 
booh  allowed  the  reins  of  govt,  to  slip  from  his  own 
hands  into  those  of  the  Duke  of  York,  and  Lancaster's 
son,  Henry  of  Bolingbroke.  In  1394  the  queen  died,  and 
soon  afterward  a  marriage  treaty  was  concluded  between 
R.  and  Isabella,  infant  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of 
France.  Gloucester  reprobating  this  marriage,  which 
seems  to  have  been  unpopular,  R.  caused  him  to  be  pri- 
vately arrested  and  conveyed  to  Calais,  where  he  died — ■ 
or  was  murdered,  as  has  been  conjectured.  On  the 
meeting  of  parliament,  the  king  had  his  own  way ;  the 
Earl  of  Warwick  was  banished,  and  the  Earl  of  Arundel 
beheaded.  Having  triumphed  over  his  foes,  R.  began 
to  quarrel  with  his  friends.  A  misunderstanding  having 
arisen  between  Bolingbroke  (Henry,  the  king's  cousin, 
son  of  John  of  Gaunt)  and  Mowbray,  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
the  king,  desirous  to  be  rid  of  both,  sent  the  former  into 
banishment  for  ten  years,  and  the  latter  for  life.  But 
Bolingbroke  had  been  assiduously  cultivating  the  pop- 
ularity which  his  cousin  had  been  carelessly  throwing 
away;  and  the  result  became  apparent  in  1399.  R.,  on 
his  return,  in  that  year,  from  a  military  expedition  in 
Ireland,  found  that  the  banished  Bolingbroke  had,  in  his 
absence,  landed  in  England,  that  he  had  soon  found  him* 
self  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  and  that  the  Duke 
of  York  had  yielded  and  gone  over  to  his  side.  The  army 
which  the  king  had  had  with  him  in  Ireland,  also,  no 
sooner  landed  than  it  almost  entirely  passed  over  to  t^e 
invader.  R.  found  himself  without  force  or  friend, 
while  Bolingbroke,  now7  styling  himself  Duke  of  Lancas- 
ter, was  at  the  head  of  80,000  men.  R.  surrendered  to 
his  successful  rival  at  Flint  Castle,  and  was  carried  cap- 
tive in  his  train  to  London.  1399,  Sep.  29,  he  formally 
resigned  his  crown :  on  the  following  day  the  resigna- 
tion was  ratified  by  parliament,  and  the  crown  conferred 
on  Lancaster  (see  Henry  IV. — of  England).  By  order 
of  the  peers,  R.  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprison 
ment,  i&ti  confined  secretly  in  a  castle.  In  the  Feb. 
following  his  resignation,  the  nation  was  told  that  he 


RICHARD  III. 

was  dead,  and  his  body,  or  what  was  supposed  to  be  it, 
was  brought  with  much  pomp  from  Pontefract  Castle, 
and  shown  to  the  people.  There  were  rumors  at  the 
time  of  his  having  been  murdered,  and  long  afterward 
of  his  being  alive  and  in  Scotland.  But  nothing  really  is 
known  regarding  the  end  of  Richard  II.  There  is,  how- 
ever, little  doubt  that  his  death  was  by  violence,  and 
that  it  was  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  against  Henry  IV. 
which  was  discovered  1400,  Jan.  R.  was  slight  and  fair, 
with  delicate  features.  His  character  was  a  combina- 
tion of  opposites,  and  is  one  of  the  enigmas  of  history. 

RICH' ARD  III.,  King  of  England  :  1452,  Oct.  2—1485, 
Aug.  22  (reigned  1483-85);  b.  Fotheringay  Castle; 
youngest  sou  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  great- 
grandson  of  Edmund,  Duke  of  York,  fifth  son  of  Ed- 
ward III.  On  the  defeat  and  death  of  their  father,  1460, 
he  and  his  brother  George,  afterward  Duke  of  Clarence, 
were  sent  by  their  mother  to  Utrecht,  where  they  re- 
mained under  protection  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  until 
the  crown  was  won  by  their  eldest  brother,  Edward  IV. 
In  1470  R.,  with  Edward,  remained  in  Flanders,  whither 
they  had  fled  on  the  success  achieved  for  Margaret  of 
Anjou  by  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  In  1471  he  led  the  van 
of  his  brother's  army  at  Barnet ;  he  also  rendered  effi- 
cient assistance  at  the  crowning  victory  of  Tewkesbury. 
It  is  said  that  he  and  Clarence  murdered  Prince  Edward, 
son  of  Henry  VI.,  after  the  battle.  It  has  also  been 
popularly  believed  that  he  murdered  Henry  himself  in 
the  Tower.  Now  Duke  of  Gloucester,  in  1472  he  mar- 
ried Lady  Anne  Neville,  daughter  of  Warwick  and  widow 
of  Prince  Edward.  He  has  been  generally  accused  of 
complicity  in  the  judicial  murder  of  his  brother  Clarence 
1478,  and  Shakespeare  has  placed  the  charge  almost  be- 
yond the  power  of  historical  criticism  to  efface.  The 
evidence,  however,  seems  to  be  almost  nothing.  In 
1483,  returning  from  an  expedition  into  Scotland,  he 
heard  <  i  the  death  of  his  brother  the  king.  He  met  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham  at  Northampton,  where  it  is  be- 
lieved that  those  measures  were  concerted  which  re- 
sulted in  the  beheading  of  Hastings  and  others,  the  con- 
finement in  the  Tower  of  the  infant  children  of  the  late 
king,  and  the  placing  of  the  English  crown  on  the  head 
of  Richard  III.  His  reign  dates  from  1483,  June  26  ;  and 
he  was  crowned  at  Westminster  July  6.  For  some 
time  he  seems  to  have  been  popular.  He  was  well  re- 
ceived on  a  tour  which  he  made  in  the  n.  counties.  On 
reaching  York,  however,  on  his  return,  he  heard  of  a 
formidable  insurrection  in  the  south  in  favor  of  his 
nephew,  Edward  V.  But  the  bold  and  remorseless  na- 
ture of  R.  on  this  occasion  took  full  sway,  It  was  soon 
known  over  the  land  that  the  royal  children  were  dead. 
Little  doubt  has  ever  been  felt  that  they  were  murdered, 
or  that  the  deed  was  done  at  the  instigation  of  their 
uncle.  The  insurrection  was  quelled,  and  Buckingham, 
who  had  been  at  the  head  of  it,  found  guilt>  of  treason 
ana  beheaded.    The  parliament,  which  met  1484,  Jan. 


RICHARD. 

23,  declared  the  issue  of  the  late  king  to  be  bastard,  and 
the  property  of  the  late  rebels  confiscated.  B.  now 
offered  to  marry  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  to  his  eldest  son,  Edward,  on  whose  premature  death 
he  offered  to  marry  the  princess  himself,  his  own  queen 
being  still  alive.  On  the  death  of  Anne,  however,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  murdered  by  poison,  1485,  Mar.  16, 
B.'s  counselors  dissuaded  him  from  marrying  Elizabeth, 
on  the  ground  of  the  popular  indignation  which  the  step 
was  sure  to  excite.  Meanwhile  the  crimes  to  which  his 
ambition  had  led  him  had  excited  the  disgust  and 
hatred  of  nobility  and  people.  One  by  one  his  adherents 
were  dropping  off  aud  crossing  to  France  to  join  the 
Earl  of  Richmond.  At  last  the  storm  burst :  1485,  Aug, 
7,  Richmond  landed  at  Milford  Haven.  Aug.  21  was 
fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Bosworth,  which  deprived 
R  ichard  of  his  crown  and  life,  and  decided  the  long  war 
of  the  Red  Rose  and  the  White  in  favor  of  the  House  of 
Lancaster.  R.  had  great  energy  and  ability,  but  was 
utterly  selfish,  unscrupulous,  and  ferocious.  It  must, 
however,  be  kept  in  view  that  his  age  was  one  in  which 
human  life  was  held  in  little  value,  and  deception  re- 
garded almost  as  an  accomplishment.  Traditional  ac- 
counts are  contradictory  regarding  his  personal  appear- 
ance :  the  story  of  his  being  a  hunchback  may  be  true, 
but  is  not  proved. — See  biographies  by  J.  H.  Jesse  (1862), 
J.  Gairdner  (1878),  and  Alf.  0.  Legge  (1885). 

RICH  ARD,  King  of  the  Romans,  Earl  of  Cornwall: 
see  Richard  Plantagenet. 

RICH  ARD  of  Cirencester,  sis'e-ter  (L.  Ricardus 
Corinensis) :  early  English  chronicler :  1335-1401 ;  b. 
Cirencester,  in  Gloucestershire.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
family  or  circumstances.  In  1350  he  entered  the  Ben- 
edictine monastery  of  St.  Peter,  Westminster — whence 
he  is  sometimes  called  the  4  Monk  of  Westminster ' — and 
remained  there  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  leisure  was 
given  to  the  study  of  British  and  Anglo-Saxon  history  and 
antiquities,  in  which  pursuit  R.  is  said  to  have  visited 
numerous  libraries  and  ecclesiastical  establishments  in 
England ;  and  we  know  that  1391  he  obtained  a  license  from 
his  abbot  to  visit  Rome.  One  of  R.'s  principal  works  is 
Historia  ab  Hengista  ad  Ann.  1348,  in  two  parts,  of  which 
;he  first  (in  the  univ.  library  of  Cambridge)  treats  of  the 
affairs  of  England  from  the  Saxon  invasion  to  the  death 
of  Harold  :  two  of  his  theological  productions  (formerly 
in  the  Peterborough  Library)  were  Liber  de  Officii*  Ee~ 
clesiasticis  and  Tractatus  super  Symbolum  Majus  et  Minus. 
Above  all  these  was  long  ranked  De  Situ  Britannice, 
treatise  on  the  ancient  state  of  Great  Britain.  This 
work — whose  authenticity  was  long  doubtful — was  (as 
was  claimed)  brought  to  light  by  Dr.  Charles  Julius  Ber- 
tram, prof,  of  English  at  Copenhagen,  1747,  who  pro- 
fessed to  have  discovered  it  in  the  royal  library  there, 
and  who  sent  a  transcript  of  it,  with  a  'fac-simile'  of 
the  original,  to  the  renowned  English  antiquary  Dr. 


IUCHABD  PLANTAGENET— BICHAEDS. 

William  Stukeley,  who  published  an  analysis  of  it  175?: 
and  fully  accepted  it  as  genuine.  It  is  new  commonly 
recognized  as  a  forgery,  having  been  demonstrated  as 
such  by  Prof.  J.  E.  B.  Mayor  in  his  ed.  of  B.'s  writings 
(3  vols.  1863-69).  A  reprint  of  this  forged  work  forms 
one  of  the  4  Six  Old  English  Chronicles'  in  Bonn's  'An- 
tiquarian Library '  (1848).  Gibbon,  the  historian,  was 
credulous  enough  to  accept  the  work  as  genuine. 

BICH'ABD  PL  A  N  T  AGE  N  ET .  plan-tdf  e-net,  titular 
King  of  the  Bomans,  Earl  of  Cornwall:  1209,  Jan.  5— - 
1272,  Apr.  2;  b.  Winchester;  second  son  of  John,  King 
Df  England.  In  1226  he  was  created  Earl  of  Cornwall 
by  his  brother  Henry  III.  In  1232  he  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  party  opposed  to  Hubert  de  Burgh, 
whose  influence  was  at  that  time  supreme  in  the  c  -un- 
cils  of  the  king.  Immense  wealth,  a  calm  practical  tem- 
perament, and  a  shrewd  eye  for  his  own  worldly  inter- 
est, were  the  elements  which  combined  to  make  B.  P. 
a  considerable  power  in  the  state.  His  influence  pre- 
vailed, and  De  Burgh  was  driven  from  his  position  with 
loss  of  honors  and  estate.  In  1256  B.  P.  was  elected 
titular  king  of  the  Bomans;  and  though  his  election 
was  disputed,  he  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle :  sub- 
sequently,  he  exercised  some  of  the  nominal  rights 
which  belonged  to  his  sovereignty.  In  the  great  strug- 
gle between  Henry  III.  and  his  nobles,  B.  P.  at  first 
acted  as  mediator ;  later  he  took  a  decided  part  with  his 
brother  against  the  party  headed  by  Simon  de  Montfort ; 
and  1261,  May  14,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  that  leader 
at  the  battle  of  Lewes.  De  Montfort  shut  him  up  in 
Kenilworth  Castle,  from  which  he  was  released  at  the 
end  of  a  year.  The  rest  of  his  life  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  marked  by  any  event  of  historical  importance. 
He  was  thrice  married  :  1230  to  Isabel,  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Pembroke ;  1243  to  Sanchia  of  Provence,  sister 
of  Queen  Eleanor;  and  1267  to  Beatrice,  daughter  of 
Theodoric  de  Falkmonte.  His  character  shows  no 
great  virtues  nor  great  vices. 

BICHABDS,  rlch'erdz,  James:  missionary:  1784- 
1823  ;  b.  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Williams  College 
1809,  and  3  years  later  from  Andover  Theol.  Seminary, 
In  college  he  became  interested  in  foreign  missions, 
and  with  Samuel  J.  Mills  and  Gordon  Hall  held  prayer 
and  conference  meetings  beside  a  haystack  in  one  of  the 
Williamstown  meadows — a  location  whion  has,  on  this 
account,  become  historic.  With  5  others  he  signed  the 
paper  to  the  Mass.  Gen.  Assoc.  (Congl.j  which  resulted  li- 
the organization  of  the  American  Board  of  Com  missioners 
for  Foreign  Missions.  He  was  commissioned  as  a  mis- 
sionary by  this  soc.  1815,  and  was  stationed  at  Ceylon. 
After  suffering  from  a  long  illness,  he  sailed  1823  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  which  place  he  died. 


RICHARDS— RICHARDSON. 

RICH'ARDS,  William  :  1792,  Aug.  22—1847,  JDec.  7  ; 
b.  Plainfield,  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Williams  Col- 
lege 1819,  and  from  Andover  TheoL  Seminary  1822.  In 
1822,  Nov.,  he  was  ordained,  and  went  as  a  missionary 
of  the  Amer.  Board  to  the  Sandwich  Ishiuds.  He  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  king  1 838,  and  also  officiated 
as  councilor  and  interpreter  ;  and  on  the  recognition 
of  the  govt,  by  foreign  nations  1842,  he  became  ambas- 
sador to  England.  Three  years  later  he  became  minis- 
ter of  public  instruction.    lie  died  at  Honolulu. 

RICHARDSON,  rich 'erdson,  Sir  Benjamin  Ward, 
m.d.,  ll.d  :  b.  Somerby,  Leicestershire,  England,  1828, 
Oct.  31.  He  studied  at  Anderson's  Univ.,  Glasgow,  but 
graduated  in  medicine  at  the  Univ.  of  St.  iVudrews.  He 
received  a  number  of  prizes  for  essays— one  of  £300  (the 
Astley  Cooper  prize  1856)  on  the  coagulation  of  the  blood. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
by  examination  1859,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  col- 
lege 1861,  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Soc.  1867,  Croonian  lec- 
turer 1873,  and  has  been  made  honorary  member  of  many 
other  learned  societies  in  Europe  and  America.  In  1865 
he  discovered  a  poisonous  product  common  to  the  poisons 
of  contagious  diseases,  and  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
septine,  and  1866  the  application  of  ether  spray  for  destroy- 
ing local  sense  of  pain  in  surgical  operations.  Dr.  R.  has 
written  much  on  public  health,  alcoholism,  action  of  poi- 
sons, and  other  medical  subjects.  He  originated  and  for  a 
number  of  years  edited  the  Journal  of  Public  Health,  and 
later  edited  the  Social  Science  Review.  His  best- known 
works  are  Diseases  of  Modern  Life  (1876)  ;  Results  of  Re- 
searches on  Alcohol  (1877)  ;  and  Temperance  Lesson-Book 
(1877).  In  1888  he  published  a  novel,  The  Son  of  a  Star, 
and  contributed  medical  articles  to  periodicals  1890.  He 
was  president  for  many  years  of  the  London  Med.  Soc. 
Between  1884  and  1892  he  published  quarterly  The  As- 
clepiad,  a  periodical  of  original  research  and  observation 
on  the  science,  art,  and  literature  of  medicine,  preventive 
and  curative,  all  the  work  being  from  his  own  pen.  He 
was  knighted  1893  ;  died  1896,  Nov.  21. 

RICH  ARDSON,  Charles  Francis  :  born  Hallowell, 
Me.,  1851,  May  29.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege 1871  ;  removed  to  New  York  1872,  and  became  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  Lndependent,  which  position  he  held 
6  years,  when  he  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Sunday 
School  Times  in  Philadelphia.  He  returned  to  New 
York  1880,  and  was  editor  of  Good  Literature,  and  assoc. 
editor  of  the  Library  of  Universal  Itnowledge,  till  1882, 
when  he  was  appointed  prof,  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  English 
language  and  literature  in  Dartmouth  College,  which 
chair  he  still  occupies  (1891).  He  has  published  .4  Primer 
of  American  Literature  (181 '6)  ;  The  Cross,  a  poetical  work 
(1879);  The  Choice  of  Books  (1881)  ;  and  American  Liter- 
ature: 1607-1885,  2  vols.  (188,7-89).  His  books  show 
excellent  judgment  and  cultivated  taste. 

RICH'ARDSON,  Henry  Hobson  :  architect:  1S38, 
Sen    ^9—1886.  A  or.  28  :  b   St.  James  oarish.  La.  lie 


RICHARDSON, 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  1859  ;  studied  architect- 
ure in  Paris,  where,  on  account  of  the  loss  of  his  estate 
by  the  civil  war,  he  was  obliged  to  pay  his  way  in  large 
part  by  working  in  an  office.  He  returned  to  the  United 
►States  1865 ;  planned  the  Agawam  Bank,  Che  Unitarian 
Church,  a  fine  building  for  railroad  offices,  and  the  North 
Congl.  Church,  in  Springfield,  Mass. ;  and  quickly  laid  a 
broad  foundation  for  his  future  fame.  Among  not- 
able buildings  which  he  designed  are  the  Brattle  Street 
Church  and  Trinity  Church,  Boston;  the  City  Hall  at 
Albany;  and  the  Sever  Hail  and  Austin  Hall  at  Harvard 
College.  He  planned  also  some  of  the  finest  work  in 
the  N.  Y.  State  Capitol  building;  designed  several  pub- 
lic libraries,  railroad  stations,  "and  various  public  and 
private  edifices.  His  office  was  finally  established  in 
Boston.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  working  on 
plans  for  the  Board  of  Trade  building  at  Cincinnati,  and 
the  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  Court-house,  He  died  at  Brook- 
line,  Mass.,  after  an  illness  of  many  years.  His  Life, 
by  Mrs.  Schuyler  Van  Rensselaer,  was  published  1888. 

RICH'ARDSON,  Israel  Bush:  soldier:  1815,  Dec, 
28—1862,  Nov.  3;  b.  Fairfax,  Vt.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  1841,  and  was  assigned  to  the  3d  infantry,  serv- 
ing through  the  Florida  war  and  on  frontier  duty  until 
the  Mexican  war,  in  which  he  was  engaged  till  its  close, 
being  bre vetted  capt.  and  maj.  for  bravery.  In  1855  he 
resigned  from  the  army  and  became  a  farmer  in  Mich. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  was  made  col.  of 
the  2d  regt.  of  Mich,  He  was  soon  put  in  command  of 
a  brigade,  which  he  led  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run 
and  with  which  he  helped  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the 
army.  1861,  May  17,  he  was  commissioned  brig. gen.  of 
vols. ;  and  1862,  July  4,  maj. gen.  of  vols.  He  com- 
manded divisions  in  the  Peninsular  campaign  and  at 
South  Mountain  and  Antietam.  He  died  at  Sharpsburg, 
Md.,  from  a  wound  received  at  Antietam. 

RICH  ARDSON,  Sir  John,  k.c.b.,  m.d.,  ll.d.  r 
English  traveller  and  naturalist:  1787,  Nov.  5 — 1865, 
June  5;  b.  Dumfries,  Scotland;  son  of  the  provost  of 
that  town.  He  studied  medicine  at  the  Univ.  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  entered  the  navy  as  asst.  surgeon.  After 
1810  he  was  stationed  in  Canada,  and  later  in  Georgia. 
He  was  appointed,  1819,  surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the 
overland  expedition  under  Franklin.  1825-27  he  accom- 
panied Franklin  in  his  overland  expedition  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Mackenzie.  After  filling  various  responsible  po- 
sitions, R.  received  knighthood  1846 ;  and  two  years 
later  set  out  to  search  for  his  former  travelling  compan- 
ion, Sir  John  Franklin,  returning  to  England  from  his 
fruitless  search  1849.  In  1829-37  appeared  his  chief  work, 
Fauna  Boreali- Americana  (4  vols,). 


RICHARDSON. 

RICH'ARDSON,  Richakd  :  patriot  and  soldier:  1704- 
1780,  Sep. ;  b.  near  Jamestown,  Va.  He  was  a  laud-sur- 
veyor in  Va.,  but  removed  1725  to  N.  C,  engaged  in 
farming,  and  was  made  col.  of  militia.  He  was  active 
iu  the  Indian  border  outbreaks,  and  1775  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  N.  C.  council  of  safety,  and  in  the  same 
year  put  down  a  tory  revolt.  For  this  he  received  the 
thanks  of  the  provincial  congress,  and  was  made  a  brig.- 
gen.  He  was  a  member  of  the  provincial  congress  of 
1776,  and  one  of  the  framers  of  the  N.  C.  constitution. 
He  took  part  in  the  defense  of  Charleston,  and  with  its 
fall  1780,  May  12,  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  St. 
Augustine;  but,  his  health  failing,  he  was  soon  released; 
He  died  at  Salisbury,  N.  C. 

RICH'  ARDSON,  Samuel:  first  great  English  novelist : 
1689-17G1,  July  4;  b.  Derby;  son  of  a  joiner,  whose  am- 
bition it  was  to  educate  his  son  for  the  clerical  calling. 
The  means  were  found  deficient,  and  at  the  age  of  17, 
with  simply  such  education  as  a  country  school  could 
then  furnish,  the  young  man  fared  forth  to  London, 
where  he  became  apprentice  to  John  Wilde,  a  printer. 
In  the  discharge  of  his  business  duties  he  was  exact  and 
careful,  and  on  expiration  of  his  apprenticeship  he  be- 
came foreman  of  Wilde's  establishment.  Some  years 
afterward,  he  started  as  printer  on  his  own  account  in 
Salisbury  court,  Fleet  street;  and,  finding  success  as- 
sured, he  wedded  the  daughter  of  his  late  employer. 
After  her  death  1731,  he  married  a  Miss  Leake.  By  each 
lady  he  had  six  children,  of  whom  only  four  daughters, 
with  their  mother,  survived  him.  Throughout  life,  in 
his  business  relations,  he  was  prosperous  ;  very  early  he 
had  influence  to  secure  the  lucrative  post  of  printer  of 
the  journals  of  the  house  of  commons;  1754  he  became 
master  of  the  Stationers'  Company;  and  17G0  he  pur- 
chased the  moiety  of  the  patent  of  king's  printer,  but 
died  the  year  following. 

Richardson's  literary  ability  flowered  late.  Till  he 
had  passed  the  age  of  50,  his  relations  with  literature, 
except  in  the  way  of  printing  it,  were  of  the  most 
slight  and  amateur  kind  ;  but  in  1740,  Nov.,  he  surprised 
the  world  with  his  Pamela,  which  had  instant  and  great 
success.  Its  continuation,  to  which  the  author  was 
stuug  by  the  attempt  of  some  hungry  scribe  to  make  a 
meal  or  two  by  the  issue  of  a  pretended  sequel,  entitled 
Pamela  in  High  Life,  was,  however,  pronounced  much 
inferior.  Memorable  in  itself,  the  work  is  now  to  most 
readers  more  so,  as  having  suggested  to  Fielding  his 
Joseph  Andrews,  originally  conceived  as  a  parody  of 
Richardson's  somewhat  prudish  moralities.  The  ex- 
quisiteness  of  the  satire  was  not  appreciated  by  Rich- 
ardson ;  and  he  never  forgave  Fielding  for  it,  nor  could 
speak  of  him  afterward  with  common  temper  or  pa- 
tience. 

In  1748  he  issued  the  first  four  volumes  of  The  History 
of  Clarissa  Harlowe — by  ;ommon  consent  his  masterpiece 


RICHARDSOtflA. 

— a  work  which  in  its  progress  excited  intense  interest. 
His  third  and  last  great  work,  The  History  of  Sir  Charles 
Grandison,  was  published  1753.  As  a  whole,  this  is  Less 
interesting  than  its  predecessors  ;  and  in  his  representa- 
tion of  the  life  of  the  fashionable  classes,  of  which  he 
had  no  clear  personal  knowledge,  the  writer  succeeds 
but  poorly. 

R.'s  method  of  minute  elaboration  has  some  tendency 
toward  an  effect  of  tedium ;  moreover,  the  epistolary 
vehicle  which  he  has  chosen,  though  with  certain  advan- 
tages of  its  own,  does  not  subserve  rapidity  of  move- 
ment ;  and  as  his  stories  run  to  immense  length,  their 
perusal  involves  an  effort  of  patience.  But  in  the  depth 
and  simplicity  of  his  sentiment,  his  knowledge  of  the 
heart,  and  his  mastery  of  elemental  emotion,  there  are 
sources  of  attraction  ;  and  in  virtue  of  the  overwhelming 
effects  of  pathos  in  which  the  interest  of  his  Clarissa 
culminates,  a  place  must  always  be  assigned  him  among 
the  few  potent  masters  of  genuine  tragic  passion.  His 
specialty  lies  in  subtle  analysis  of  the  intricacies  of  fe- 
male mind  and  emotion ;  and  in  this  particular  field  he 
has  scarcely  perhaps  been  surpassed.  A  curious  sort  of 
passionless  confidential  intimacy  with  women,  it  seems 
from  his  earliest  years  to  have  been  his  instinct  to  cul- 
tivate. At  the  age  of  13  he  was  employed  by  three 
young  women,  who  could  not  write,  to  indite  their  letters 
to  their  sweethearts ;  and  in  this  work  he  both  satisfied 
them  and  honorably  kept  their  secret.  Throughout  his 
life  he  was  the  centre  of  a  circle  of  female  friends  and 
admirers,  who  came  to  him  with  their  little  delicate 
secrets,  as  to  a  kind  of  lay  father-confessor ;  and  of  the 
fruits  of  his  nice  observation  of  them  he  has  given  us  to 
the  full  in  his  novels.  The  success  of  these  is  said  to 
have  bred  in  him  a  somewhat  inordinate  vanity,  the 
only  little  flaw  in  a  character  unusually  blameless  and 
amiable.  Within  a  dozen  years  he  had  a  host  of  imita- 
tors in  the  field  which  he  had  discovered — the  novel  of 
domestic  life  and  manners.  Of  works  of  less  importance, 
R.  published,  besides  occasional  contributions  to  peri- 
odicals, The  Negotiations  of  Sir  Thomas  Roein  His  Embassy 
to  the  Ottoman  Porte  from  1621  to  1628  (1740,  fol.) ;  An 
Edition  of  JEsop's  Fables,  with  Reflections;  Familiar  Let- 
ters to  and  from  Several  Persons  on  Business  and  Other 
Subjects;  and  in  1804  there  appeared  his  Correspondence, 
edited  by  Mrs.  Barbauld.  See  The  Works  of  R.,  with 
preface,  etc.,  by  Leslie  Stephen  (12  vols.  1884). 

RICHARDSONIA,  n.  rich-erd-so  ni-a  [after  Richard 
Richardson,  an  English  botanist]  :  genus  of  Spermacocir 
dcB,  trailing  American  herbs.  The  roots  of  R.  rosea  and 
R.  scabra  have  some  of  the  properties  of  ipecacuanha. 


Richelieu. 

RICHELIEU,  resh'eh-16,  F.  resh-fa-eh\  Arm  and  Jean 
du  Peessis,  Cardinal,  Due  de  :  1585,  Sep.  5 — 1642,  Dec.  4; 
b.  Paris;  of  a  noble  but  impoverished  family.  He  was 
educated  for  the  military  profession  at  the  College  de 
Navarre.  On  the  retirement  to  a  religious  life,  how- 
ever, of  his  elder  brother,  who  held  the  bishopric  of 
Lucon,  R.,  with  a  view  to  succeeding  to  this  preferment, 
betook  himself  to  ecclesiastical  studies,  and  underwent 
the  preliminary  examination  for  his  degree  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  1607  he  was  consecrated  B«p.  of  Lucon  at 
Rome  by  Cardinal  de  Givry,  in  presence  of  Pope  Paul  V., 
and  for  some  time  devoted  himself  zealously  to  his 
duties  in  his  diocese.  At  the  states-general  1614,  being 
appointed  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  clergy,  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  queen-mother  by  an  address 
which  he  delivered  in  the  presence  of  the  young  king, 
Louis  XIII. ;  and  his  appointment  1616  as  sec.  at  war  and 
foreign  affairs  seemed  to  open  his  way  to  success  in 
political  life ;  but  in  one  of  the  vicissitudes  of  state  in- 
trigue common  at  that  period,  he  soon  found  it  neces- 
sary to  withdraw  from  court,  and  return  to  his  diocese. 
Meanwhile,  a  rupture  occurred  between  the  queen- 
mother  and  the  king,  and  R.,  through  the  agency  of  a 
very  remarkable  man — the  celebrated  Capuchin  Father 
Joseph — -whose  fortunes  thenceforward  were  inseparably 
united  with  those  of  R.,  succeeded  in  effecting  their  rec- 
onciliation (1620,  Aug.),  and  the  restoration  of  the 
queen  to"  her  position  at  court.  The  foundation  of  R.'s 
influence  was  thus  solidly  laid;  but  he  appears  to  have 
acted  with  tact  and  patient  forbearance.  He  formed 
alliance  with  the  powerful  favorite  Due  de  Luynes,  and 
1622  was  named  cardinal,  and  two  years  later  he  was 
made  minister  of  state — a  position  which,  though  fre- 
quently menaced  and  constantly  beset  by  every  variety 
of  court  intrigue,  he  retained  to  the  end  of  his  life.  His 
first  important  measure  wras  the  conclusion  of  the 
alliance  with  England,  by  the  marriage  of  Henrietta, 
sister  of  the  king,  with  Charles,  then  Prince  of  Wales, 
1624.  His  successful  conduct  of  the  war  of  the  Valteline, 
an  affair  of  much  delicacy  for  a  cardinal,  as  presenting 
the  pope  himself  as  the  antagonist  of  France,  tended 
still  more  to  strengthen  his  power.  His  enemies,  how- 
ever, were  constantly  on  the  watch  for  opportunities  of 
undermining  his  influence,  and  even  of  bringing  about 
his  death.  The  queen  withdrew  her  favor,  and  the  king, 
while  he  trusted  him  implicitly,  never  ceased  to  fear 
him.  The  crisis  of  the  struggle  came  1630,  Dec.  11, 
when  R.  himself  believed  that  his  fate  was  inevitable. 
His  disgrace,  indeed,  had  been  decided;  the  king,  fear- 
ing to  meet  him  face  to  face,  had  refused  him  an  audience. 
His  attempts  to  force  an  entrance  to  the  king  at  the 
Luxembourg  were  defeated ;  but  Louis,  in  his  weak  fear 
of  R.,  having  withdrawn  to  Versailles,  the  cardinal  there 
succeeded  in  obtaining  an  audience,  and,  having  once 
effectually  overborne  the  weakness  and  alarmed  the  fear 
of  the  sovereign,  his  supremacy  remained  from  that  day 


RICHELIEU. 


RICHELIEU. 

firmly  and  irrevocably  established.  This  famous  day  is 
known  as  Le  Jour  nee  des  Dupes. 

The  administration  of  R.  forms  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  constitution  of  the  kingdom  of  France,  as  well  as 
of  its  relations  with  other  countries.  It  is  memorable 
for  several  great  measures,  or  series  of  measures, 
through  which  the  posture  of  affairs  underwent  complete 
and  permanent  change.  Of  these,  the  first  and  the  most 
lasting  in  results  was  that  by  which  the  absolute  au- 
thority of  the  sovereign  was  established.  From  the 
mediaeval  period,  the  power  of  the  French  kings  had 
been  controlled,  and  in  many  cases  overridden,  by  the 
feudal  privileges  of  the  nobles;  and  in  the  stormy  con- 
flicts of  the  16th  and  of  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c,  the 
power  of  the  crown  had  often  been  reduced  to  a  cipher. 
By  a  succession  of  vigorous  and  energetic,  and,  it  must  be 
added,  frequently  unscrupulous  measures,  R.  succeeded 
in  breaking  down  the  political  power  and  subduing  the 
arrogant  assumptions  of  the  great  families;  the  heads 
of  several  among  them  being  brought  to  the  scaffold, 
while  not  a  few  were  condemned  to  lifelong  imprison- 
ment. Among  his  most  inveterate  and  most  powerful 
adversaries  was  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of  the 
king;  but  R.  triumphed  over  him,  and  even  the  queen- 
mother,  Marie  de'  Medici,  was  obliged  to  bow  before 
the  unbending  spirit  of  R.,  and  to  withdraw  into  exile 
at  Cologne;  and  R.,  at  the  close  of  his  career,  delivered 
up  the  royal  authority,  which  he  had  wielded  18  years, 
almost  without  a  single  constitutional  check  upon  its 
absolute  exercise. 

Another  of  the  great  enterprises  of  this  minister  was 
the  overthrow  of  the  Huguenot  party  as  a  political 
power  and  a  rival  of  the  throne  in  France.  The  siege 
and  capture  of  Rochelle,  which  he  conducted  in  person 
(1628),  was  followed  by  the  submission  of  the  other 
Huguenot  strongholds.  R.,  however,  secured  for  the 
Huguenot  body  a  certain  measure  of  religious  tolera- 
tion ;  and,  on  the  whole,  is  confessed  to  have  used  his 
success  in  this  conflict  with  moderation. 

In  the  external  relations  of  France,  the  great  object 
of  all  his  measures  was  the  overthrow  of  the  preponder- 
ance of  Austria.  With  this  view  he  did  not  nesitate  to 
foment  the  internal  disaffections  of  Germany,  even  ally- 
ing himself  with  this  design  with  the  German  Protest- 
ants, and  even  with  the  great  champion  of  the  Prot. 
cause,  Gustavus  of  Sweden;  and  in  connection  with  his 
anti-Austrian  policy,  he  also  took  part  with  the  disaf- 
fected Spanish  provinces  in  the  Netherlands.  His 
designs  on  Belgium,  however,  failed  of  success.  With 
similar  views  lie  lent  his  support  to  the  revolt  of  Cata- 
lonia against  Philip  IV.,  and  sent  an  army  into  Pied- 
mont; and  to  no  other  part  of  his  foreign  policy  did  he 
adhere  with  such  pertinacity  to  the  very  end  of  his  life. 

His  internal  administration  of  France  has  been 
severely  criticised.  He  was  reckless  and  unscrupulous 
in  the  use  of  means  against  his  enemies,  and  the  expend- 


RICHFIELD  SPRINGS—RICHMOND. 

iture  which  his  foreign  wars  entailed  led  to  many  op- 
pressive impositions.  His  own  personal  expenditure  was 
magnificent  even  to  prodigality,  but  he  is  acquitted  of 
all  sordid  schemes  of  self-aggrandizement. 

R.  died  at  Paris.  Notwithstanding  his  many  dis- 
tracting occupations,  the  writings  which  he  left  fill 
several  volumes.  Some  of  these,  ascetical  or  contro- 
versial, were  written  before  his  entrance  into  political 
life.  Of  his  later  writings,  his  Testament  Politique  and 
his  Memoirs  have  attracted  much  notice.  He  even  in- 
dulged occasionally  in  literature,  and  wrote  two  plays 
of  no  great  reputation.  He  was  a  patron  of  literature, 
and  to  him  France  owes  the  establishment  of  the  royal 
printing  presses  and  of  the  French  Academy. 

RICH'FIELD  SPRINGS :  village  and  summer  resort 
in  Otsego  co.,  N.  Y. ;  near  the  head  of  Schuyler  Lake;  on 
the  Delaware  Lackawanna  and  Western  railroad;  7  m. 
from  Otsego  Lake,  16  m.  n.  of  Cooperstown,  35  m.  s.s.e. 
of  LTtica.  It  derives  its  name  and  popularity  from  sev- 
eral sulphur  springs,  noted  for  their  efficacy  in  the  cure 
of  cutaneous  diseases,  and  for  historical  associations  as  a 
favorite  resort  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  eastern  N.  Y.  It 
has  some  domestic  manufactures.  Pop.  (1890)  1,623; 
(1900)  1,537. 

RICHMOND,  rich'mond :  city,  cap.  of  Wayne  co.,  Ind. ; 
on  Whitewater  river,  and  on  the  Chicago  St.  Louis  and 
Pittsburgh,  the  Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana,  the  Pitts- 
burgh Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Cincinnati 
Hamilton  and  Dayton  railroads ;  68  m.  e.  of  Indianapolis, 
70  m.  n.n.w.  of  Cincinnati,  92  m.  s.-by-e.  of  Fort  Wayne. 
It  is  700  ft.  above  tide- water,  is  in  a  rich  agricultural 
region,  and  has  important  manufactories.  A  union  depot 
accommodates  all  its  railroads.  The  city  has  excellent 
drainage,  efficient  fire,  water,  gas,  and  electric  light  serv- 
ices. The  Richmond  Interurban  and  the  Dayton  &  West- 
ern traction  lines  connect  the  city  with  all  nearby 
places.  Richmond  was  settled  and  platted  in  1816  by 
Friends  from  North  Carolina.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1834  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1840.  The  city  has 
about  300  manufacturing  establishments,  employing 
about  3,500  persons.  The  chief  manufactures  are  thresh- 
ers, drills,  plows,  engines,  boilers,  carriages,  milling  ma- 
chinery, clothing,  flour,  and  dairy  products.  It  is  the 
commercial  and  industrial  centre  of  a  large  portion  of 
the  county.  It  has  a  number  of  fine  public  buildings, 
chief  of  which  are  the  churches  and  schools.  There  are 
several  churches,  public  school  buildings,  Roman  Cath- 
olic parish,  and  Lutheran  parish  schools.  Other  educa- 
tional institutions  are  Earlham  College  (Friends),  Saint 
Mary's  Academy  (R.  C),  one  business  college,  and  the 
Morrison-Reeves  Free  Public  Library.  The  Eastern  In- 
diana Insane  Hospital,  a  State  institution,  is  located 
here;  also  other  charitable  institutions.    The  National 


RICHMOND. 

banks  have  a  combined  capital  of  over  $350,000.  The 
government  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  a  council  of  14 
members  elected  biennially  by  the  people.  The  metro- 
politan police  board  is  appointed  by  the  governor.  Pop. 
(1900)  18,226. 

RICHMOND:  city,  county-seat  of  Madison  co.,  Ky. ; 
on  the  Louisville  &  N.  and  the  Louisville  &  A.  R.R.'s; 
about  25  m.  s.s.e.  of  Lexington  and  135  m.  e.s.e.  of  Louis- 
ville. It  is  in  an  agricultural  region;  in  the  vicinity  is 
found  an  excellent  building  stone.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  tobacco  and  dairy  products,  and  the  trade  is 
chiefly  in  farm  and  tobacco  products,  cattle,  and  horses. 
Its  educational  institutions  are  Madison  Institute,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Church  of  the  Disciples,  Walter's 
Collegiate  Institute,  a  Presbyterian  institution,  and 
public  schools.  One  of  the  most  desperate  battles  of  the 
Civil  War  was  fought  at  Richmond.  The  Confederate 
forces  under  E.  Kirby  Smith  defeated  a  much  larger 
Federal  force  under  Manson  and  Nelson.  Pop.  (1900) 
_  4,658. 

RICHMOND:  town  in  Sagadahoc  co.,  Me.;  on  the 
Kennebec  River  and  on  the  Maine  Central  railroad,  37 
m.  n.n.e.  of  Portland.  It  was  first  settled  in  1700;  in 
1719-20  a  fort  was  erected  here  for  the  defense  of  the 
settlers  against  the  Indians ;  this  fort  twice  resisted  at- 
tack, and  was  finally  dismantled  in  1754.  The  town 
was  incorporated  in  1823.  The  chief  industries  of  the 
town  include  a  cotton  mill  and  shoe  factory,  ice  cutting, 
and  agriculture;  there  are  also  saw  and  planing  mills 
and  some  trade  in  lumber.  The  town  has  a  public  high 
school*  with  which  the  Richmond  Academy  was  united, 
and  also  a  public  library.    Pop.  (1900)  2,097. 

RICHMOND:  city,  county-seat  of  Ray  co.,  Mo.;  on 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  railroad;  58  m.  s.e.  of 
St.  Joseph.  The  county-seat  was  removed  to  Richmond 
from  Bluffton  in  1827.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  fertile  agri- 
cultural and  stock-raising  region;  and  there  are  coal 
mines  in  the  vicinity  which  yield  excellent  quality  of 
bituminous  coal.  It  also  has  wagon  and  plow  factories, 
flour  mills,  and  a  foundry.  It  contains  the  county  court- 
house, and  has  electric  lights  and  modern  waterworks. 
It  is  well  provided  with  educational  facilities,  having 
two  public  high  schools,  of  which  one,  the  Lincoln  high, 
is  for  colored  pupils;  and  is  also  the  seat  of  Woodson 
Institute,  a  coeducational  secondary  school  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Meth.  Episc.  Ch.,  South.  Pop.  (1900) 
3,478. 

RICHMOND:  an  independent  city  and  cap.  of  the 
state  of  Va.;  on  the  James  river,  at  head  of  tide-water, 
and  on  the  Newport  News  and  Mississippi  Valley,  the 
Richmond  and  Allegheny,  the  Richmond  and  Danville, 
the  Richmond  Fredericksburg  and  Potomac,  and  the 


RICHMOND. 

Richmond  and  Petersburg  railroads;  22  m.  n.  of  Peters- 
burg, 100  m.  s.-by-w.  of  Washington.  The  city  is  at  the 
lower  falls  of  the  river,  151  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  is 
built  on  a  series  of  hills,  chief  of  which  are  Richmond 
and  Schockoe.  The  environments  are  naturally  attract- 
ive, and  the  views  of  the  city  from  its  s.  approaches,  and 
from  the  city  overlooking  the  river,  are  highly  interest- 
ing. With  its  suburbs  the  city  has  an  area  of  52.25 
sq.  m.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  5  bridges,  uniting 
the  city  with  Spring  Hill,  Manchester,  and  other  sub- 
urban towns  and  villages.  The  streets  are  laid  out  reg- 
ularly, and  are  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity.  Both 
the  gas  and  water  plants  are  owned  by  the  city;  the 
water  is  taken  from  the  river  and  distributed  from  two 
large  reservoirs:  the  last  one  constructed,  having  a 
park,  lake,  and  attractive  boulevards,  has  become  a  pop- 
ular local  resort. 

Commerce. — For  many  years  R.  has  had  large  foreign 
and  domestic  trade,  particularly  in  tobacco,  flour,  and 
manufactured  articles;  and  its  interstate  traffic  is  grow- 
ing rapidly,  owing  to  important  combinations  recently 
made  in  the  s.  railroad  system.  It  has  regular  steam- 
ship communication  with  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore, and  other  Atlantic  coast  ports.  During  the 
fiscal  year  ending  1903,  June  30,  imports  of  merchandise 
were  $165,610,  and  exports  $2,385,000;  but  these  figures 
are  entirely  misleading  as  a  measure  of  its  foreign  trade, 
as  its  imports  and  exports  are  principally  cleared 
through  the  custom-houses  of  New  York  and  other  north- 
ern ports.  The  amount  of  trade  with  the  United  States 
Atlantic  coast  cities  and  the  cities  and  towns  of  the 
interior  of  the  state  is  very  large. 

Industries. — The  chief  industries  of  the  city  are  con- 
nected with  the  preparation  of  tobacco  for  local  use  and 
for  shipment  to  outside  markets.  The  Federal  census  of 
1900  gives  49  establishments  for  the  manufacturing  of 
tobacco;  the  amount  of  capital  invested,  $3,054,450,  and 
the  value  of  the  products  for  the  year  mentioned,  $10,- 
537,803.  The  establishments  were  17  smoking  and  chew- 
ing tobacco  factories,  22  cigarette  and  cheroot  factories, 
and  10  stemmeries  and  packing  houses.  The  foundries 
and  machine  shops  number  18  establishments,  with  in- 
vested capital,  $5,164,103;  and  the  annual  value  of  prod- 
ucts $2,594,186.  There  were  several  establishments 
engaged  in  preparing  fertilizers  for  market.  Other  man- 
ufacturing establishments  were  wagon  and  carriage 
works,  lumber  mills,  railroad  car  factory,  confection- 
ery factory,  and  baking  powder  works.  In  1900  the 
city  contained  763  manufacturing  establishments  which 
represented  100  different  industries.  The  capital  in- 
vested in  manufacturing  concerns  was  $20,848,620;  there 
were  17,885  persons  employed,  and  the  annual  wages 
amounted  to  $6,447,929, 


RICHMOND. 

Education. — The  city  has  an  excellent  school  system; 
there  are  public  and  parish  elementary  schools  for  white 
and  similar  ones  for  colored  pupils,  a  high  school,  nor- 
mal school  for  whites  and  one  for  colored,  Virginia 
Mechanics'  Institute,  which  has  evening  classes,  kinder- 
gartens, and  a  number  of  private  schools.  There  are 
also  secondary  schools  and  colleges;  Art  School;  Medical 
College  of  Virginia  (1837)  ;  University  College  of  Medi- 
cine (1893);  Richmond  Theological  Seminary  (Bap- 
tist), opened  in  1867;  Richmond  College  (Baptist), 
opened  in  1832;  andrfive  public  libraries  with  an  aggre- 
gate of  60,000  volumes. 

Public  Buildings,  etc. — R.  possesses  many  buildings, 
memorials,  and  scenes  of  wide  interest.  The  State  Cap- 
itol, on  the  summit  of  Shockoe  Hill,  surrounded  by  a 
park  of  12  acres,  is  a  Greco-composite  building,  with 
Ionic  columned  portico,  built  1796  after  the  plans,  sug- 
gested by  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  the  Maison  Carree  of 
Nimes,  France.  The  park  is  beautifully  ornamented  and 
contains  three  fountains;  Foley's  bronze  statue  of 
'  Stonewall '  Jackson ;  Crawford's  equestrian  statue  of 
Washington,  surrounded  by  bronze  statues  of  Patrick 
Henry,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Andrew  Lewis,  George  Mason, 
John  Marshall,  and  Thomas  Nelson,  by  Crawford  and 
Rogers;  and  a  marble  statue  of  Henry  Clay.  Within 
the  capitol  are  Houdon's  famous  marble  life-size  statue 
of  Washington,  a  marble  bust  of  Lafayette,  and  portraits 
of  many  eminent  people  of  Va.  The  governor's  mansion 
is  on  the  n.e.  corner  of  Capitol  square;  the  Federal  build- 
ing of  granite  in  the  Italian  style  is  s.  of  the  square; 
and  the  Brockenbrough  House,  occupied  by  Jefferson 
Davis  while  pres.  of  the  Confederacy,  and  about  to  be 
converted  into  a  museum  of  Confederate  memorials,  is 
in  the  vicinity.  Of  the  former  Libby  and  Castle  Thun- 
der prisons,  the  first  has  been  removed  to  Chicago  for 
the  Columbian  exposition,  and  the  other  has  reverted 
to  its  original  use  as  a  tobacco  warehouse.  The  new 
city  hall,  which  cost  $1,400,000,  is  the  most  ornate  build- 
ing in  R.  Other  buildings  of  note  are  St.  John's  Church 
(Prot.  Episc. ),  in  which  Patrick  Henry  made  his  im- 
passioned 4  liberty  or  death'  speech  1775;  the  Monu- 
mental Church  (Prot.  Episc),  built  on  the  site  of  the 
old  Richmond  Theatre  to  commemorate  the  burning  of 
that  building  and  the  loss  of  many  lives  1811;  and  the 
Tredegar  iron-works.  An  imposing  monument  to  Gen. 
Robert  E.  Lee  was  unveiled  1890,  May  29.  Bacon's 
Quarter  Branch,  Bloody  Run,  Belle  Isle,  the  state  fair- 
grounds, the  falls  of  the  river,  the  old  cemetery  of  St. 
John's  Church,  are  worth  visiting. 

The  site  of  R.  was  temporarily  settled  by  the  English 
1609.  A  mill  was  built  near  the  falls  by  William  Byrd 
1737,  and  soon  afterward  a  warehouse;  and  in  its  village 
state  the  place  was  known  as  Byrd's  Warehouse.  In 


RICHMOND — RICHMOND  COLLEGE. 

1742  it  was  incorporated  and  laid  out  as  a  town;  1779 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  commonwealth;  1781  was 
taken  and  burned  by  the  British  under  Benedict  Arnold ; 
1861  became  the  capital  of  the  Conferedate  states;  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  was  the  objective  point  of  the  princi- 
pal milit.  operations  of  the  Union  army  in  Va. ;  and 
1865,  May,  was  evacuated  and  partly  burned  by  the 
Confederates.    Pop.  (1900)  85,050. 

RICH'MOND:  rising  town  of  Surrey,  England,  10  m. 
w.s.w.  of  London  by  railway,  partly  on  the  summit  and 
declivity  of  Richmond  Hill,  and  partly  on  the  level  right 
bank  of  the  Thames.  The  parish  church  contains  the 
tombs  of  Thomson  the  poet  and  of  Edmund  Kean  the 
tragedian.  The  banks  of  the  Thames  are  studded  with 
villas,  and  around  the  town  are  nurseries  and  kitchen- 
gardens.  The  people  subsist  chiefly  by  providing  for  the 
immense  number  of  visitors  and  pleasure-seekers  who 
frequent  the  town,  especially  during  summer.  Pop. 
about  31,700. — R.,  formerly  called  Scheen  or  Sheen,  re- 
ceived its  present  name  from  Henry  VIL,  who  named 
it  after  his  own  earldom.  It  was  a  royal  residence  in 
the  time  of  Henry  L,  and  since  that  time  the  sovereigns 
of  England  have  frequently  resided  here,  and  here  Ed- 
ward III.,  Henry  VII.,  and  Elizabeth  died. 

RICH'MOND:  market-town  and  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  in  the  N.  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Swale,  42  m.  n.w.  of  York. 
The  parish  church  is  chiefly  in  Gothic,  but  partly  in 
Norman  architecture.  Though  the  trade  of  R.  is  now 
much  less  than  in  earlier  ages,  iron  and  brass  founding, 
and  tanning,  are  carried  on,  and  there  are  a  paper-mill 
and  several  corn  mills.  Pop.  of  municipal  borough 
(1900)  4,200. — The  earldom  of  Richmond  was  conferred 
by  the  Conquerer  on  his  kinsman  Alan  Rufus,  Count  of 
Bretagne;  but  came  into  the  possession  of  the  crown 
when  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  succeeded  Richard  III. 
as  Henry  VII.  The  title  of  Duke  of  Richmond  was 
afterward  conferred  by  Charles  II.  on  his  son  Charles 
Lennox,  in  whose  family  it  remains.  The  castle,  sur- 
rounded by  picturesque  scenery,  stands  on  a  rock  over- 
looking the  river. 

RICHMOND  COLLEGE,  located  at  Richmond,  Va.  It 
was  founded  in  1832  by  the  Baptists  under  the  name  of 
the  Virginia  Baptist  Seminary ;  the  name  was  changed  to 
Richmond  College  in  1840.  The  work  of  the  collegiate 
department  is  divided  into  nine  schools,  as  follows :  ( 1 ) 
Latin  language  and  literature;  (2)  Greek  language  and 
literature;  (3)  French  and  German;  (4)  English  lan- 
guage and  literature;  (5)  mathematics;  (6)  physics; 
(7)  chemistry;  (8)  philosophy;  (9)  history.  There  is 
also  a  School  of  Law. 


RICHMOND — RICHTER. 

RICK'MOND,  Legh  :  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  tract-writer :  1772,  Jan.  29—1827,  May  8 ;  b. 
Liverpool,  England  ;  son  of  a  physician.  He  graduated 
at  Trinity  Coll.,  Cambridge,  1794;  served  as  curate  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight ;  was  chaplain  of  Lock  Hospital,  Lon- 
don ;  rector  of  Turvey,  Bedfordshire ;  also,  chaplain  to 
the  Duke  of  Kent.  Wilberforce's  Practical  View  early 
influenced  his  mind  for  good.  He  is  everywhere  known 
as  the  author  of  The  Dairyman's  Daughter  and  other 
tracts,  some  of  which  were  printed  in  millions  of  copies 
in  many  languages.  His  collected  tracts  were  published 
1814,  entitled  Annals  of  the  Poor.  He  published  also 
Domestic  Portraiture,  Memoirs  of  Three  Children,  and  edited 
Fathers  of  the  English  Church.  His  Memoir  by  Grim- 
shaw,  and  Life  by  Bedell,  appeared  1828  and  9. 

RICH'MOND-EARTH  :  in  geol,  an  earth  or  bed  near 
Richmond,  Va.,  of  Eocene  or  Miocene  age,  composed 
largely  of  diatoms. 

RICHMONDITE,  n.  rUh'mond-lt  [after  Richmond, 
Mass.,  where  found] :  a  variety  of  Gibbsite. 

RICHTER,  rich'ter,  Johann  Paul  Friedrich  (com- 
monly known  as  *  Jean  Paul  ') :  German  humorist  and 
sentimentalist  of  the  greatest  singularity,  hence  called 
by  his  countrymen  Der  Einzige  (The  Unique) :  1763, 
Mar.  21—1825,  Nov.  14;  b.  Wunsiedel,  Bavaria.  His 
father,  a  poor  schoolmaster  at  R.'s  birth,  subsequently 
became  parish  priest  at  Schwarzenbach,  on  the  Saale ;  but 
his  circumstances  always  remained  straitened,  and  he 
died  burdened  with  debt,  while  his  son  was  attending  the 
gymnasium  at  Hof.  Nevertheless,  R.  went  to  the  Univ. 
of  Leipzig  1780  to  study  theology,  which  did  not  prevent 
him  from  roving  freely  over  the  whole  circle  of  literature. 
The  exact  extent  of  his  scholarly  acquirements  is  not 
known  ;  his  studies  were  never  systematic,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  he  was  not  deeply  read  in  any  single  branch  of 
learning ;  but  he  carried  in  his  head  or  in  his  note-books  a 
vast  confused  miscellany  of  facts,  literary,  scientific,  phil- 
osophical, and  theological,  and  strewed  them  with  orien- 
tal profusion  over  the  pages  of  his  works,  where  they  do 
duty  as  metaphors,  or  illustrations,  after  the  most  gro- 
tesque and  wonderful:  fashion.  The  English  satirists, 
Pope,  Swift,  and  Young,  appear  to  have  been  special  favor- 
ites with  him  ;  and  among  his  own  countrymen,  Hamann 
and  Hippel.  But  the  most  marvellous  thing  about  his 
student-life  was  not  the  extent  or  variety  of  his  reading, 
but  the  fact  that  he  had  the  heart  to  read  at  all.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  time,  he  was  in  miserable  poverty.  He 
could  hardly  get  a  single  private  pupil,  and  passed  many 
a  day  without  tasting  food.  Hunger  was,  in  truth,  his 
constant  companion.  In  desperation  he  betook  himself 
to  literature  for  a  subsistence,  but  it  was  long  before  he 
won  recognition.  His  first  composition,  Das  Lob  der 
Dummheit  (The  Praise  of  Folly),  modelled  on  the  Moriai 
Encomium  of  Erasmus,  could  not  find  a  publisher;  his 
second,  written,  he  tells  us,  while  he  was  surrounded 


RICHTER. 

by  *  unpaid  debts  andunsoled  boots,'  Gronlandische  Pro- 
cease  (Greenland  Lawsuits,  2  vols.  Berl.  1783-85),  did 
succeed  in  getting  itself  published,  but  not  read,  and  at 
length  the  heroic  fortitude  of  R.  gave  way.  In  1785  he 
fled  from  the  city  to  avoid  imprisonment  for  debt,  and 
took  refuge  with  his  mother  at  Hof.  Here  his  circum- 
stances were  but  little  better ;  and  1786  he  was  glad  to  ac- 
cept a  tutorship  at  Topen,  in  the  family  of  Herr  von 
Oerthel.  In  1790,  at  the  request  of  several  families  of 
Schwarzenbach,  he  removed  thither  to  take  charge  of 
the  education  of  their  children,  and  lived  as  a  private 
schoolmaster  for  some  years.  Meanwhile,  he  had  not 
given  up  authorship.  In  1788  appeared  at  Gera  his 
Auswahl  aus  des  Teufels  Papier  en  (Selection  from  the 
Devil's  Papers),  which,  however,  in  spite  of  its  captivat- 
ing title,  did  not  prove  more  popular  than  its  prede- 
cessors. R.  seemed  destined  to  failure  as  a  writer.  His 
sarcastic,  far-glancing,  and  grotesquely-sportful  humors 
were  so  unlike  anything  else  in  literature,  and  so  oddly, 
even  extravagantly,  expressed,  that  the  mass  of  readers 
could  make  nothing  at  all  of  them,  and  perhaps  chari- 
tably regarded  the  author  as  crazy.  But  in  1793  the 
turning-point  in  his  fortunes  and  fame  occurred.  In  that 
year,  a  work  which  he  had  published  at  Berlin,  Die 
Unsichtbare  Loge  (The  Invisible  Lodge),  a  sort  of  ro- 
mance based  on  his  experience  as  a  schoolmaster,  was 
unexpectedly  successful,  and  R.  began  to  grow  a  little 
more  familiar  with  the  sight  of  gold.  It  was  followed 
by  Hesperus  (4  vols.  Berl.  1794).  the  work  by  which  per- 
haps he  is  best  known  out  of  Germany ;  Quintus  Fixlein 
(Baireuth  1796) ;  Biographische  Belustigungen  unter  der 
Gehirnschale  einer  Riesin  (Biographical  Recreations  under 
the  Cranium  of  a  Giantess,  Berl.  1796) ;  Blumen-,  Frucht-, 
und  Dornenstiieke  (Flower,  Fruit,  and  Thorn  Pieces,  4 
vols.  Berl.  1796-7),  whose  opening  chapter  contains  his 
magnificent  *  Dream  of  the  Dead  Christ,'  translated  into 
English  by  Carlyle ;  Jubelsenior  (The  Parson  in  Jubilee, 
1797) ;  and  Das  Campanerthal  (Erfurt  1798),  a  work  on 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  which  attracted  the  notice 
and  won  for  its  author  the  friendship  of  Herder.  R. 
was  now  one  of  the  greatest  celebrities  of  Germany ; 
his  books  had  become  quite  the  rage,  especially  among 
educated  women.  He  himself,  too,  was  personally  a 
great  favorite ;  there  was  something  in  his  conversation 
and  manner  so  winning,  joyous,  and  charmingly  tender, 
that  it  excited  not  only  friendship,  but  love.  We  read 
of  one  brilliant  woman,  Charlotte  von  Kalb,  who  actually 
sought  to  obtain  a  divorce  that  she  might  marry  R. ; 
and  of  another  who  committed  suicide  because  he  would 
not  return  her  unlawful  passion.  This  last  incident 
affected  R.  profoundly.  He  was  not  only  perfectly  in- 
nocent in  all  his  relations  with  the  other  sex,  but  pure 
and  high-minded,  and  he  had  remonstrated  with  the  un- 
happy maiden  in  the  most  wise  and  delicate  manner. 
In  1801,  after  he  had  become  famous,  he  marriod  Caro- 
line Mayer,  daughter  of  Prof.  Mayer  of  Berlin,  and  with 


.  RICIMER— KICINIC. 

his  young  wife  travelled  about  Germany,  visited  Goethe 
and  Schiller,  though  not  becoming  intimate  with  either, 
and  formed  a  closer  acquaintance  with  old  Gleim,  Wie 
land,  etc. ;  but  ultimately  settled  at  Baireuth,  in  Bavaria 
where  he  applied  himself  with  the  most  honorable  assi- 
duity to  work.  His  aerial,  fantastic,  many-hued  crea- 
tions— his  solemn  images  of  glory  and  gloom — his  riant 
humors— his  burlesque  speculations  on  life,  manners, 
and,  indeed,  on  the  omne  scibile — his  innumerable  descrip- 
tions of  nature,  soft-glittering  as  with  morning  dew, 
flowed  from  him  as  from  inexhaustible  fountains.  The 
productions  belonging  to  his  later  period  of  a  humorous 
kind  are:  Titan  (4  vols.  Berl.  1800-03),  considered  by 
R.  nimself  his  greatest  work;  Flegeljahre  (happily  ren- 
dered by  Carlyle  'Wild  Oats,'  4  vols.  Tub.  1804-5); 
Katzenberger  s  Badereise  (2  vols.  Heidelb.  1809);  Des  Feld- 
predigers  Schmelzle  Reise  vach  Flatz  (Tub.  1809) ;  and  Der 
Komet,  oder  Nikotaus  Markgrvf  (3  vols.  Berl.  1820-22), 
Among  works  professedly  reflective  or  philosophical 
(though  the  elements  of  humor  nnd  poetry  are  not  ab- 
sent) are :  Vorschide  der  Aesthetik  (3  vols.  Harab.  1804) ; 
Levana,  oder  Erziehungslehre  (Brunswick  1807),  a  treatise 
on  education;  and  numerous  other  pieces.  In  his 
latest  years  he  was  afflicted  with  decay  of  his  physical 
powers,  and  in  his  last  year  with  total  blindness.  The 
death  of  his  son  Max,  1821— -a  youth  of  great  promise — 
inflicted  an  incurable  wound  on  his  heart. — See  Wahr- 
he.it  aus  Jean  Pauls  Leben  (Bresl.  1826-33),  a  work  be- 
gun by  R.  himself;  Doring's  Leben  und  Chara  kteristik 
Richters  (2  vols.  Leip.  1830) ;  Spazier's  Jean  Paul  Fried- 
rich  Richter  (5  vols.  1833) ;  Planck,  Jean  Paul's  Leben 
(1868) ;  Nerrlich,  Jean  Paul  und  seine  Zeitgenossen  (1876). 
Some  of  his  pieces  have  been  translated  into  English  by 
Carlyle  and  others ;  Carlyle  has  also  given  us  two  ad- 
mirable essays  on  the  life,  writings,  and  genius  of  the 
man. 

RICIMER,  r%s%-mer :  distinguished  commander  and 
political  actor  in  the  Roman  empire :  d.  472 ;  son  of  a 
chief  of  the  Suevi  and  a  daughter  of  Wallia,  King  of  the 
Visigoths.  He  was  reared  in  the  court  of  Valentine  III. ; 
attained  the  rank  of  comes  of  the  empire,  serving  with 
distinction  under  Actius.  He  was  hailed  '  Deliverer  of 
Italy,'  after  overcoming  the  Vandals  at  sea  near  Corsica, 
and  on  land  near  Agrigentum.  Having  deposed  the 
emperor  Avitus,  he  was  de  facto  ruler  of  Italy  (his 
birth  preventing  his  assuming  the  imperial  title),  under 
the  name  *  patrician,'  conferred  by  Leo  457.  He  succes- 
sively created  and  overthrew  three  emperors,  Majorian, 
Libius  Severus,  and  Anthemius,  having  married  a 
daughter  of  the  last.  He  died  of  fever,  in  the  reign  of 
the  next  emperor,  Polybius. 

RICINIC,  a.  ri-sinlk  [L.  ricinus,  the  castor-oil  plant] : 
applied  to  an  acid,  being  one  of  the  products  obtained 
from  the  distillation  of  castor-oil  at  a  high  temperature. 
Ricinus  (see  Castor-otl  Plant,  under  Castob-oil), 


B ICIN1N  E— B1CKETS. 

BICINlNE,  n.  ris'in-ln  [mod.  L.  ricinus] :  in  cJiem.,  an 
alkaloid  found  in  the  seeds  of  the  castor-oil  plant 
Ricinus  communis,  and  in  those  of  Croton  Tiglium. 

BICINOLEINE,  n.  ris-m-dl'e-in  [L.  ricinus,  castor-oil 
plant;  oleum,,  oil]:  in  chem.,  a  fatty  substance  obtained 
from  castor-oil,  of  which  it  is  the  chief  constituent. 

BICK,  n.  rik  [AS.  hreac,  a  heap:  Icel.  hraukr,  a  heap 
of  fuel :  Gael,  rue,  a  rick,  a  stack :  Norw.  rbyk,  rauk,  a 
small  heap,  as  of  corn-sheaves,  or  of  turf :  Dan.  ryg]  :  a 
heap  of  corn  or  hay  regularly  piled  up  in  the  field  or 
open  air,  and  usually  covered  with  thatching :  V.  to  pile 
up  in  a  heap  in  the  open  air,  as  grain  in  the  ear,  or  hay. 
Bick'ing,  imp.  Bicked,  pp".  rikt.  Bickke,  n.  rikfl,  in 
Scot.,  a  small  heap.  Bick-cloth,  n.  tarpaulin  or  canvas 
cloth  placed  over  ricks  or  stacks  to  protect  them  from 
wet.  Bick'stand,  n.  the  foundation  of  timber,  or  other 
material,  on  which  a  rick  is  built. 

BICK  ABE  ES,  rik-a-rez',  or  Aricabas,  a-rik'a-ras :  tribe 
of  Pawnees  (q.v.),  otherwise  known  as  Bees,  or  Black 
Pawnees ;  named  Arickaree  in  govt,  reports ;  called  by 
themselves  Starrahhe  or  Pauani.  Originally  very  numer- 
ous, they  separated  from  the  Platte  valley  Pawnees  in 
the  18th  c,  and  led  a  wandering  life,  were  greatly  re- 
duced by  small-pox  and  wars  with  other  tribes  and  with 
whites,  until  1862,  when  they  were  settled  on  the  Fort 
Berthold  reservation  (junction  of  the  Yellowstone  and 
Missouri  rivers)  with  the  Mandans  and  Minnetarees. 
In  1884  the  B.  numbered  544;  (1890)  435;  of  these,  400 
wear  civilized  dress,  the  rest  in  part ;  70  per  cent,  follow 
civilized  pursuits;  houses  occupied  100;  bushels  of 
grain  annually  raised  4,600,  of  vegetables  1,900;  tons  of 
hay  900.  They  have  a  missionary,  who  counts  48  church 
members. 

BICKETS,  n.  plu.  rikfets  [properly  wrickets — from 
wrick,  twist :  the  technical  term  Rachitis  is  simply  a 
Grecized  form  of  the  Eng.  word,  and  not  a  true  forma- 
tion from  Gr.  rhache,  backbone]  :  constitutional  disease, 
characterized  chiefly  by  a  curvature  of  the  shafts  of  the 
long  bones  of  the  arms  and  legs,  and  enlargement  of 
their  articular  extremities — the  result  of  deficient  appro- 
priation of  earthy  principles  by  their  structures.  Bick'- 
ety,  a.  -et-i,  affected  with  rickets ;  feeble  in  the  joints ; 
imperfect  and  unstable. — Rickets  is  regarded  by  some 
writers  as  a  special  disease  of  the  bones,  and  by  others 
as  merely  one  of  the  various  forms  of  scrofula.  Which- 
ever view  be  correct,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
general  symptoms  in  B.  are  closely  allied  to  those  in 
scrofula,  and  that  the  same  general  plan  of  treatment  is 
equally  useful  in  both  affections.  The  characteristic 
symptom  in  B.  is  the  imperfect  development,  atrophy, 
softness,  and  consequent  distortion  of  some  or  many  of 
the  bones.  The  bones  thus  affected  consist  of  a  sort  of 
gelatinous  tissue,  which  will  bend  without  breaking; 
and  they  are  so  soft  that  they  may  be  cut  with  a  knife. 
Qn  microscopieo-ehemical  examination,  the  structural 


KICKETTS. 

arrangement  of  the  bone  is  found  to  be  unaffected, 
while  there  is  great  deficiency  of  the  earthy  salts  to 
which  the  normal  bones  owe  their  firmness.  While  100 
parts  of  healthy  bone  contain  about  32  per  cent,  of 
organic  matter  and  68  per  cent,  of  inorganic  matter  or 
earthy  salts,  the  proportions  are  altogether  reversed  in 
E.  Thus,  in  this  disease,  Marchand  found  79-4  per  cent, 
of  organic  matter  and  20-6  of  earthy  salts  in  a  femur ; 
while  Ragsky  found  81-12  per  cent,  of  organic  matter 
and  only  18-88  of  earthy  salts  in  a  humerus:  thus  these 
bones  contained  less  than  one-third  of  the  normal 
quantity  of  earthy  salts.  The  weight  of  the  body  act- 
ing on  bones  thus  constructed  causes  them  to  bend,  and 
the  thighs  or  shins  are  abnormally  arched,  or  the  spine 
is  curved,  or,  in  slighter  cases,  only  the  normal  form  of 
She  ankle  is  modified.  In  aggravated  cases,  the  chest 
is  so  affected  as  to  give  rise  to  the  condition  known  as 
pigeon-breasted ;  the  lower  jaw  is  imperfectly  developed, 
and  the  teeth  project;  and  the  pelvis  becomes  so  altered 
in  form  as  to  render  future  child-bearing  in  the  highest 
degree  perilous.  R.  is  exclusively  a  disease  of  child- 
hood, and  generally  attacks  the  children  of  the  poor. 

The  treatment  must  be  mainly  directed  to  improve- 
ment of  the  general  health.  Free  exposure  to  pure 
bracing  air,  sponging  with  sea-water,  or  sea-bathing  if 
the  little  patient  can  bear  it,  an  abundance  of  animal 
food,  cod-liver  oil,  iron,  and  quinia,  include  all  that  need 
be  said  about  general  treatment.  Some  physicians  have 
recommended  the  administration  of  lime  salts — e.g.,  a 
jelly  containing  lime  phosphate — in  order  to  give  to  the 
bones  the  elements  in  which  they  are  deficient.  But 
trial  of  this  treatment  has  not  been  satisfactory. 

When  a  child  with  crooked  legs  is  brought  to  a  surgeon, 
he  must  carefully  ascertain  whether  the  crookedness 
depends  on  mere  relaxation  of  the  joints,  or  whether  it 
lies  in  the  bones  themselves.  In  the  former  case,  the 
child  will  probably  grow  up  straight  when  his  general 
health  improves;  whereas  in  the  latter  case  (if  the 
femur  or  tibia  is  absolutely  bent),  the  surgeon  must 
give  a  very  guarded  opinion. 

RICKETTS,  rWets,  James  Brewerton:  soldier:  1817, 
June  21—1887,  Sep.  22;  b.  New  York.  He  graduated 
from  West  Point  1839 ;  served  as  an  artillery  officer  on 
the  Canada  line,  in  the  Mexican  war,  the  Seminole  war, 
and  afterward  on  the  Texas  border.  In  the  civil  war  he 
won  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Bun,  where  he  was 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  was  wounded  at  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  commanded  the  corps  of  Gen. 
Hooker  after  the  latter  was  wounded  at  Antietam,  and 
was  again  wounded  at  Cedar  Creek,  Va.  He  took  part 
in  man-1  other  battles.  By  various  promotions  he 
reached  the  rank  of  brig. gen.  vols.,  and  by  brevets  that 
of  maj.gen.  U.  S.  army.  He  was  mustered  out  of  the 
vol.  service  1866,  Apr.  30 ;  and  was  retired  the  following 
year  for  disability  caused  by  wounds,  but  served  on 
courts-martial  till  1869.    lie  died  at  Washington,. 


RICKMAJN— KICUKD. 
RTCKMAN,  rih'man,  Thomas  :  English  architect :  1776 
-1841,  Mar. ;  b.  Maidenhead.  He  tried  several  employ- 
ments in  early  life,  managed  his  father's  business  of 
druggist,  and  afterward  became  a  clerk  in  an  insurance 
office,  though  he  seems  to  have  always  had  a  love  for 
architecture.  In  1808  he  began  to  give  his  full  atten- 
tion to  it,  and  wrote  the  classification  of  Gothic  styles, 
which  has  rendered  him  famous.  He  first  pointed  out 
the  features  which  distinguish  the  different  periods  of 
that  style.  He  divided  it  into  four  periods,  Norman, 
Early  English,  Decorated,  and  Perpendicular  (q.v.) ;  and 
these  names  and  the  periods  that  he  assigned  to  them 
are  still  the  most  frequently  used.  He  became  an 
architect  in  Birmingham,  and  designed  numerous  build- 
ings, especially  churches.  His  work,  An  Attempt  to 
Discriminate,  the  Styles  of  Architecture  in  England  from  the 
Conquest  to  the  Reformation,  has  passed  through  several 
editions — the  best  that  by  Parker  of  Oxford  (1847). 

RICOCHET,  n.  ritfo-sha'  or  rik'o-shet'  [F.  ricochet,  a 
rebound  on  the  water,  duck  and  drake]  :  in  gunnery,  the 
firing  of  shot  or  shell  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  its 
striking  the  ground  at  a  certain  point,  and  afterward 
bounding  along  the  surface ;  the  guns  fired  for  ricochet 
are  but  slightly  elevated,  and  have  a  diminished  charge. 
R.  firing*is  extremely  efficient  both  in  its  actual  and  in 
its  moral  effect  in  clearing  the  face  of  a  ravelin,  bastion,  or 
other  rather  long  line  of  fortification.  If  well  directed,  the 
R.  shot  bounding  along  will  dismount  guns,  scatter  the 
gunners,  and  intimidate  the  garrison.  Vauban  first  in* 
troduced  R.  firing  at  the  siege  of  Philipsburg  1688.  The 
defense  against  it  consists  in  earthen  traverses  along 
the  threatened  line,  or  in  a  bonnet  (see  Fortification) 
at  the  point  of  parapet  nearest  the  enemy.  In  the  field, 
R.,  where  the  shot  or  shell  is  made  to  bound  forward  at 
least  ten  times,  produces  most  disastrous  arid  demoral- 
izing effects  on  masses  of  cavalry  and  infantry,  whom  it 
hews  down  in  long  lines.  Ricochet,  v.  to  fire  shot  or 
shell  from  a  gun  so  as  to  bound  along  the  surface. 
Ric'ochet'ting,  imp.  -shet'ting.  Ric'ochet'ted,  pp. 
het'ed. 

RICORD,  re-hor',  Philip,  M.r>. :  French  physician  r 
1800,  Dec.  10—1889,  Oct.  22 ;  b.  Baltimore,  Md. ;  son  of 
a  wealthy  shipowner  who  had  gone  to  that  city  1790  to 
repair  his  fortunes.  R.  went  1820  to  Paris,  where  he 
was  attached  in  succession  to  the  Hotel-Dieu  under 
Dupuytren,  and  to  the  Pitie  under  Lisfranc.  He  grad- 
uated m.d.  1826 ;  but  was  unable,  from  scantiness  of 
his  private  means,  to  begin  practice  in  Paris.  His  pro- 
fessional career,  therefore,  commenced  at  Olivet,  near 
Orleans,  and  was  thence  transferred  to  Croiiy-sur-Ourcq, 
where  he  rapidly  rose  to  distinction.  In  1828  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  where  he  delivered  two  annual  courses 
of  lectures  at  the  Pitie  on  surgical  operations ;  and  was 
appointed  surgeon-in-chief  to  the  hospital  for  venereal 
diseases.    This  post  he  held  with  brilliant  success  till 


MCTUS  RIDDEtt. 
his  retirement  1860,  Oct.  It  was  here  that  he  won  world- 
wide reputation  in  his  specialty — a  reputation  due  to  his 
combination  of  accurate  physiological  and  pathological 
knowledge  with  great  manual  dexterity  as  a  surgeon, 
and  felicitous  inventiveness  and  resource  as  a  physician. 
He  improved  the  classification  of  enthetic  diseases; 
and  at  the  Venereal  Hospital  delivered  annually,  from 
1834,  a  course  of  lectures  on  syphilology.  For  his  sug- 
gestions on  the  cure  of  varicocele  and  on  the  operation 
of  urethroplasty  he  received  1842  one  of  the  Montyon 
prizes.  R.'s  practice  was  long  the  most  extensive 
and  the  most  lucrative  in  Paris,  insomuch  that,  while 
an  inmate  of  the  debtors'  prison  at  Clichy,  he  was  liter- 
ally besieged  by  crowds  of  patients.  He  became  suc- 
cessively member  of  the  Acad,  of  Medicine  (section  of 
surgical  pathology) ;  member  of  the  Surgical  Soc. ;  and 
consulting  surgeon  to  the  Dispensary  of  Public  Health. 
In  1362,  he  was  appointed  physician  in  ordinary  to 
Prince  Napoleon  ;  and  1869  consulting  surgeon  to  the 
emperor;  having  1860,  Aug.  12,  been  raised  to  the 
distinction  of  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  His 
works  arc  numerous,  the  more  important  being:  On  the 
Employment  of  the  Speculum  Biviale  (1833),  invented  by 
himself ;  On  the  Blennorrhagia  of  the  Female  (1834) ;  On 
the  Employment  of  Mercurial  Ointment  in  the  Treatment  of 
Erysipelas  (1836) ;  The  Monography  of  Chancre  (in  which 
he  gives  a  detailed  exposition  of  his  own  system) ; 
Theory  of  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Epididymitis  (1838) ; 
Treatise  on  Venereal  Maladies  (1838) ;  On  Blennorrhagic 
Ophthalmia  (1842);  Iconographical  Clinic  of  the  Venereal 
Hospital  (1842-51);  and  On  Syphilization  and  the  Conta- 
gion from  Secondary  Accidents  (1853).  He  has  also  con- 
tributed to  the  medical  journals  a  multitude  of  Memoirs, 
Observations,  Researches,  and  Communications  on  his 
specialty.  His  latest  works  are  entitled  Letters  on  Syph- 
ilis (3d  ed.  1863),  and  Lectures  on  Chancre  (2d  ed.  1860), 
remarkable  for  fluency  and  grace  of  style. 

RICTUS,  n.  rik'tus  [L.  rictus,  the  mouth  wide  open — - 
from  ringor,  I  show  the  teeth]  :  in  hot.,  among  labiate  or 
lipped  corollas,  the  condition  of  the  lower  lip  pressed 
against  the  upper,  so  as  to  leave  only  a  chink  between 
them. 

RID,  v.  rid  [AS.  hreddan  ;  Icel.  hrioda,  to  clear  away: 
Dam  rydde,  to  grub  up,  to  clear:  Ger.  retten,  to  deliver: 
Dut.  redden  ;  Bav.  rieden,  to  clear  away  :  Scot,  red,  to  set 
in  order]:  to  free;  to  deliver;  to  clear  away;  to  dis- 
encumber; to  remove  by  violence:  Adj.  clear;  deliv- 
ered ;  freed.  Rid'ding,  imp.  Rid,  pt.  pp.  Riddance, 
n.  -dans,  act  of  clearing  away;  deliverance;  escape.  To 
get  kid  of,  to  free  one's  self  from. 

BIDDEN :  see  under  Ride. 


RIDDLE. 

KIDDLE,  n.  rid'dl  [AS.  hridder ;  Ger.  ruter ;  Bret, 
n'dei,  a  corn-sieve] :  an  instr.  for  separating  grain  from 
the  chaff,  or  for  separating  larger  from  smaller  particles ; 
a  sieve :  V.  to  separate,  as  grain  from  the  chaff,  with  a 
riddle ;  to  make  numerous  holes  or  openings  in,  as  with 
balls  or  shot ;  to  make  many  little  holes  in.  Rid'dling, 
imp.    Rid'dled,  pp.  -did. 

RIDDLE,  n.  rid'dl  [AS.  rcedelse,  a  dark  speech — from 
rcedan,  to  read :  OHGer.  ratsal  or  radisli;  Ger.  rathsel, 
a  riddle  :  Bav.  rdten  ;  Dan.  made,  to  divine,  to  imagine]  : 
something  proposed  for  solution  by  guess  or  conjecture ; 
a  puzzling  question;  an  enigma;  anything  ambiguous 
or  puzzling:  V.  to  make  riddles;  to  speak  obscurely. 
Rid'dling,  imp.  Rid'dijed,  pp.  -did.  Rid'dler,  n. 
-dler,  one  who  speaks  obscurely  or  ambiguously. — A 
Riddle  is  a  paraphrastic  presentation  of  an  unmentioned 
subject,  the  design  of  which  is  to  excite  the  reader  or 
hearer  to  the  discovery  of  the  meaning  hidden  under  a 
studied  obscurity  of  expression.  In  the  present  day, 
the  R.  is  a  mere  jeu  &  esprit — a  sort  of  witty  pastime  for 
idle  people,  and  is  usually  in  the  form  of  Conundrum 
(q.v.) ;  but  anciently — and  its  antiquity  is  very  great — it 
held  far  more  important  place,  though  in  its  inferior 
phase  of  conundrum  likewise  it  was  a  part  of  the  intel- 
lectual entertainment  at  Greek,  and  latterly  at  Roman 
banquets.  Among  the  easterns,  it  naturally  associated 
itself  with  their  symbolical  modes  of  thought,  and  was, 
as  it  still  is,  abundantly  employed  for  didactic  purposes. 
The  so-called  Proverbs  or  sayings  attributed  to  Solomon 
frequently  assume  the  form  of  riddles.  Every  reader  of 
the  Old  Test,  is  familiar  with  the  R.  which  Samson 
proposed  to  the  Philistines,  and  the  «  enigmas '  (as  the 
Septuagint  has  it)  that  the  Queen  of  Sheba  proposed  to 
Solomon,  though  it  is  doubtful  if  the  latter  were  more 
than  hard  or  difficult  questions  plainly  put.  The  R.  is 
found  in  the  Koran,  and  several  books  of  riddles  exist 
in  Arabic  and  Persian.  They  seem  to  have  been  known 
to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  among  the  Greeks  they 
were  allied  in  the  earliest  times  with  the  oracula,  or 
mystic  utterances  of  the  inspired  priests,  and  were 
generally,  as  is  the  case  with  Samson's  R.,  in  verse;  but 
in  Greece  they  came  into  vogue  about  the  time  of  the 
4  Seven  Wise  Men,'  one  of  whom,  named  Kleobulos,  as 
also  his  daughter  Kleobuline,  was  celebrated  for  the 
composition  of  metrical  riddles  (griphoi),  some  of  which 
are  still  remembered.  Even  the  greater  poets  did  not 
disdain  to  introduce  the  R.  into  their  writings,  or  to 
devote  whole  poems  to  the  subject — e.g.,  the  Syrinx, 
commonly  ascribed  to  Theocritus.  Homer,  according 
to  a  statement  in  Plutarch,  died  of  chagrin  at  not  being 
able  to  solve  a  R. ;  and  the  R.  of  the  Sphinx  (see  CEdipus) 
is  probably  the  most  celebrated  in  the  whole  circle  of 
philosophical  puzzles.  Among  the  Romans,  profes- 
sional riddle-makers  did  not  appear  till  the  latest  period 
of  Roman  literature,  the  reason  assigned  for  which  is 


BIDE. 

the  superior  gravity  and  earnestness  of  the  Roman 
genius.  Appuleius  wrote  a  Liber  Ludicrorum  et  Gripho- 
rum,  but  it  is  not  extant. 

The  R.,  more  perhaps  as  an  amusement  for  the 
baronial  hall  on  winter-nights,  or  for  the  monastic  mess- 
room,  than  as  a  serious  intellectual  effort,  was  much 
cultivated  in  the  middle  ages.  This  character  of  lively 
or  amusing  puzzle  it  has  ever  since  for  the  most  part  re- 
tained. Many  specimens  of  what  would  now  be  termed 
*  riddle  '  or  '  conundrum  '  books  exist  in  French,  Eng- 
lish, and  German  collections  of  manuscripts,  and  were 
printed  at  an  early  period.  One  of  these,  entitled 
Demands  Joyous,  which  may  be  rendered  4  Amusing 
Questions,'  was  printed  in  English  by  Wynkin  de 
Worde,  1511.  Many  of  these  *  joyous  demands '  are 
simply  coarse  jests;  but  others  are  really  fitted  to 
excite  risibility — e.g.,  Demand:  'What  is  that  that 
never  was  and  never  will  be  ?  '  Response :  6  A  mouse's 
nest  in  a  cat's  ear.' — *  What  is  the  worst  bestowed 
charity  that  one  can  give  ?  '  '  Alms  to  a  blind  man ;  for 
he  would  be  glad  to  see  the  person  hanged  that  gave  it 
to  him.*  The  Reformation,  at  least  in  Prot.  countries, 
checked  riddle-making ;  but  in  the  17th  c.  it  began  to 
creep  into  favor  again.  Le  Pere  Menestrier,  learned 
Jesuit,  wrote  a  grave  treatise  on  the  subject ;  and  in 
France,  riddles  soon  rivalled  in  popularity  the  madrigals 
and  sonnets  of  the  period.  In  the  18th  c,  the  taste  for 
riddles  increased,  and  most  of  the  brilliant  French 
litterateurs — e.g.,  Boileau,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau — did  a 
little  in  this  line,  until,  finally,  the  Mercure  de  France 
became  a  fortnightly  repository  of  riddles,  the  solution 
of  which  was  sufficient  to  make  a  reputation  in  society. 
In  Germany,  Schiller  gave  the  R.  a  broader  develop- 
ment. Riddles,  as  a  factor  in  the  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  barbarous  peoples,  are  interesting  to  students 
of  folk-lore.  See  Friedrich's  Geschichte  des  Rathsels 
(1860)  ;  Tylor's  Primitive  Culture. 

RIDE,  v.  rid  [Icel.  reida,  to  sway,  to  move  up  and 
down,  as  a  ship  at  anchor ;  rida,  to  be  borne  in  a  ship  or 
on  a  horse :  Dut.  rijden,  to  ride:  Ger.  reiten  ;  Sw.  rida  ; 
Dan.  ride;  AS.  ridan,  to  ride]  :  to  be  borne  or  carried 
along,  as  in  a  carriage  or  on  horseback ;  to  sit  on  a 
horse,  and  so  be  carried  along;  to  be  supported  in 
motion ;  to  sit  or  rest  on  so  as  to  be  carried ;  to  be  at 
anchor,  as  a  ship :  N.  an  excursion  on  horseback  or  in  a 
vehicle;  a  drive;  the  course  or  road  passed  over  in 
riding.  Ri'ding,  imp. :  Adj.  employed  for  travelling 
on  horseback ;  suitable  for  riding  on,  as  a  riding-horse  : 
N.  the  act  of  one  carried  on  a  horse  or  in  a  carriage. 
Rode,  pt.  rod,  did  ride.  Ridden,  pp.  rid'n,  been  carried 
or  borne  along,  as  on  horseback.  Rider,  n.  ri'der,  one 
who  rides ;  one  who  breaks  or  manages  horses ;  an  addi- 
tion made  to  a  MS.,  etc.,  and  inserted  after  its  comple- 
tion ;  anything  added  to  strengthen ;  a  deduction  to  be 
drawn  from  a  mathematical  theorem ;  in  mining,  portions 


ftlDEAU— lUIX^L. 
of  tne  cheek  of  a  vein  of  ore,  which  are  mingled  with 
masses  of  ore.  Ri'dered,  a.  -derd,  mingled  with  masses 
of  ore.  Ri'ders,  n,  plu.  -derz,  the  interior  ribs  to 
strengthen  and  bind  tho  parts  of  a  ship  together.  Ri'- 
derdess,  a.  ~tes,  without  a  rider.  Riding-bitts,  n.  two 
strong  upright  timbers  near  the  bows  of  a  ship,  to  which 
the  cable  is  secured ;  they  extend  through  two  decks, 
are  connected  by  a  cross- piece,  and  are  braced  against  the 
strain  of  the  cable  by  horizontal  standards  bolted  to  the 
deck  beams.  Riding-habit,  -hah'U,  the  long  upper 
garment  worn  by  ladies  on  horseback.  Riding-part, 
n.  a  protuberance  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  joint  part 
of  a  scissors-blade,  which  forms  the  touching  portion 
back  of  the  rivet.  Riding-rhyme  [said  to  be  named 
from  the  riding  pilgrims  of  the  Canterbury  Tales]  :  a 
metre  of  five  accents,  each  accent  falling  on  the  even 
ayllable,  and  having  the  lines  in  rhyming  couplets. 
Hiding-school,  a  place  where  the  art  of  riding  is  taught. 
\i i ding-master,  a  teacher  of  the  art  of  riding.  To 
«ide  rough-shod  over  one,  to  be  overbearing  or  op- 
pressive ;  to  act  tyrannically. 

RIDEAU,  n.  re-do'  [F.,  a  curtain,  a  rideau]  :  in  fort.,  a 
amall  elevation  of  earth,  extending  lengthwise  on  a  plain, 
serving  to  cover  a  camp  from  the  approach  of  an  enemy, 
or  to  give  other  advantages  to  a  milit.  post. 

RIDGE,  n.  rij  [AS.  hrycg;  Low  Ger.  rugge ;  Dan.  ryg; 
Ger.  riicken,  the  back]  :  anything  formed  like  the  back 
of  an  animal;  a  long  horizontal  elevation  from  which 
the  surface  slopes  down  on  each  side :  a  strip  of  soil 
formed  in  plowing,  consisting  of  a  crown,  two  flanks, 
and  two  furrow  brows,  the  hollow  space  between  ridges 
being  called  the  open  furrow:  the  angular  top  of  the 
roof  of  a  building:  a  raised  or  elevated  line:  V.  to 
cover  with  or  form  into  ridges;  to  rib  or  wrinkle. 
Ridg'ing,  imp.  Ridged,  pp.  rijd.  Ridgy,  a.  rij'i, 
having  ridges;  rising  in  a  ridge.  Ridge'-band,  n.  that 
part  of  the  harness  which  goes  over  the  saddle  on  a 
horse's  back,  and,  being  fastened  on  both  sides,  supports 
the  shafts  of  the  cart.  Ridge'-bone,  n.  the  backbone. 
Ridge'-potjE,  n.  piece  of  board  01  timber  forming  the 
ridge  of  a  roof ;  a  ridge-piece  or  ridge-plate.  Ridge'- 
rope,  n.  in  naut.,  a  rope  leading  from  the  knight-head  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  bowsprit  cap,  for  the  safety  of  the 
men  walking  out  upon  the  bowsprit  in  rough  weather: 
the  centre  rope  of  an  awning:  a  safety-line  extended 
from  gun  to  gun  in  bad  weather.  Ridgf-ti:les,  tiles 
forming  the  ridge  or  apex  of  a  roof.  Ridgp  and  furrow, 
the  alternate  elevations  and  depressions  of  plowed  land. 

RIDGEL,  n.  rifel,  or  Ridge'ling,  n.  -ting  [Norw.  rigia, 
to  rock  or  waver :  comp.  Manx,  reagh,  ruttish,  wanton 
(see  Rig  2)]  :  a  ram  imperfectly  castrated,  and  conse- 
quently liable  to  excited  movements  under  the  sexual 
impulse. 


RIDICULE— RIDLEY. 

RIDICULE  n.  rid'i~kul  [L.  ridic'ulus,  laughable,  droll 
—from  ridere,  to  laugh :  It.  ridicolo ;  F.  ridicule,  ridic- 
ulous] :  remarks  designed  to  excite  laughter,  with  some 
degree  of  contempt;  mockery;  satirical  remarks:  V, 
to  treat  with  contemptuous  merriment;  to  mock;  to 
deride;  to  sneer  at.  Ridiculing,  imp.  Rid'iculed, 
pp.  -kuld.  Rid'iculer,  n.  -ku-ler,  one  who  ridicules. 
Ridiculous,  a.  ri-dik'u-lus,  exciting  ridicule ;  laughably 
absurd.  Ridic'ulously,  ad.  -Ti.  Ridiculousness,  n. 
-nes,  the  quality  of  being  ridiculous. — Syn.  of  *  ridicule, 
n.':  mockery;  banter;  wit;  derision;  raillery;  bur- 
lesque; irony;  satire ;  sneer ;  jeer;  sarcasm;  lampoon; 
—of  '  ridiculous ' :  droll ;  absurd ;  laughable ;  ludicrous ; 
preposterous ;  risible. 

RIDING,  n.  ri'ding  [a  corruption  of  OE.  thrithing;  IceL 
thridjungr  ;  Norw.  tridjung,  a  third  part]  :  one  of  the  three 
divisions  into  which  the  county  of  York,  England,  is 
divided,  termed  respectively  East,  West,  and  North  R.  A 
similar  division  existed  in  several  other  counties  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period ;  there  were  the  laths  of  Kent,  the 
rapes  of  Sussex,  the  parts  of  Lincoln.  The  trithing, 
lath,  or  rape  was  formed  of  three  or  more  hundreds, 
and  presided  over  by  a  trithing-man  or  lath-grieve.  In 
Domesday  Book,  we  find  Yorkshire  divided,  as  at  pres- 
ent, into  three  ridings,  and  sub-divided  into  wapen- 
takes.  See  Wapentake. 

RIDLEY,  rid'li,  Nicholas:  one  of  the  most  noted 
leaders  of  the  Reformation  in  England  :  about  1500-1555, 
Oct.  16 ;  b.  Northumberland.  He  was  educated  at  the 
foundation-school  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  at  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge.  He  became  a  fellow  of  this 
college  1524,  and  ultimately  president.  The  spirit  of 
the  Reformation  had  begun  to  penetrate  the  univer- 
sities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Tyndale  and  Bilney 
had  taught  the  new  doctrines  in  Cambridge ;  and  Rid- 
ley, no  less  than  Cranmer  and  Latimer,  all  Cambridge 
students  about  the  same  period,  had  probably  caught 
something  of  their  spirit.  This  reforming  tendency 
was  greatly  strengthened  in  R.  by  a  tour  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  after  completing  his  studies.  He  met  some 
of  the  most  active  Reformers  abroad,  and  after  three 
years  he  returned  with  his  principles  firmly  grounded 
in  favor  of  the  new  course  of  things.  He  became  proc- 
tor to  the  Univ.  of  Cambridge,  and  in  this  capacity  pro- 
tested against  the  claims  of  the  papal  see  to  supreme 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  England.  He  was  also 
chosen  public  orator,  and,  under  the  patronage  of  his 
friend  Cranmer,  was  advanced  first  to  be  one  of  the 
king's  chaplains,  and  1547  nominated  bp.  of  Rochester. 
He, distinguished  himself  by  vehement  denunciation  of 
the  idolatrous  use  of  images  and  of  holy  water,  and 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  prominent,  as  he  remained 
one  of  the  most  consistent  and  inflexible,  supporters  of 
the  Reformed  doctrines.  He  joined  actively  in  the 
measures  of  Edward  VI. *&  reign,  and  on  the  deprivation 

Vol.  32  —  8 


RIDOTTO — RIDPATH. 

of  Bonner,  Bp.  of  London,  Ridley  became  his  successor, 
three  years  after  his  elevation  to  the  see  of  Rochester. 
In  this  high  position  he  distinguished  himself  by  '  his 
moderation,  his  learning,  and  his  munificence.'  He  earn- 
estly promoted  the  Reformation,  yet  without  bigotry  or 
intolerance;  he  exerted  himself  in  the  foundation  of 
Christ's  Hospital,  and  of  the  hospitals  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew and  St.  Thomas  in  Southwark,  the  two  latter  of 
which  have  become  eminent  as  schools  of  medicine — the 
former  as  a  school  of  classical  and  general  instruction. 
He  assisted  Cranmer  in  the  preparation  of  the  41  ar- 
ticles of  doctrine,  afterward  reduced  to  39.  On  the 
death  of  Edward  VI.,  he  warmly  espoused  the  unfortu- 
nate cause  of  Lady  Jane  Grey;  and  on  its  speedy  failure, 
and  the  accession  of  Mary,  his  known  connection  with 
it,  as  well  as  his  general  activity  in  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation,  exposed  him  to  the  vengeance  of  the  papal 
party,  again  ascendant.  He  was  committed  to  the  tower 
1553;  and  in  the  subsequent  year,  when  a  convocation 
was  convened  at  Oxford  for  discussion  of  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  he  was  removed  thither  with  Cran- 
mer and  Latimer,  in  order  that  he  might  engage  in  the 
discussion.  The  discussion  proved  a  mere  pretense;  the 
Reformers  were  adjudged  defeated  and  obstinate  here- 
tics, and  condemned  to  suffer  at  the  stake.  R.  was  led 
forth  to  be  burned,  with  his  friend  and  fellow-reformer, 
Latimer.  He  suffered  in  front  of  Balliol  College,  cheer- 
ful, steadfast,  and  consistently  enduring,  as  he  had  been 
throughout  his  life.  He  was,  according  to  Burnet,  one 
of  the  ablest  of  all  who  advanced  the  Reformation  in 
England.  His  character  was  pure,  elevated,  and  self- 
denying.  Fox  says  of  him,  he  was  '  wise  of  counsel, 
deep  of  wit,  benevolent  in  spirit.' 

RIDOTTO,  n.  ri-ddt'td  [It.  ridotto,  retreat,  rendezvous 
— from  L.  reductus,  retired — from  re,  back;  ducere,  to 
lead] :  among  Italians,  a  favorite  entertainment  of 
music  and  dancing  generally  held  on  fast-eves. 

RIDPATH,  John  Clark:  educator  and  author:  1840, 
Apr.  26 — 1900,  Aug.  1;  b.  Putnam  co.,  Ind.  He  grad- 
uated at  Asbury  (now  De  Pauw)  univ. ;  became  in- 
structor in  Thornton  Acad.,  and  1864  its  president;  was 
prof,  in  Baker  Univ.,  Kan,,  1867;  prof,  of  English  litera- 
ture in  Asbury  Univ.  1869,  and  vice-pres.  of  that  insti- 
tution 1879.  He  was  influential  in  securing  a  large  en- 
dowment from  Mr.  De  Pauw  and  in  rechartering  Asbury 
as  De  Pauw  Univ.,  after  which  he  resigned  and  applied 
himself  to  literature.  Among  his  works  are:  Academic 
History  of  the  United  States  (1874-5)  Popular  History 
of  the  United  States  (1876)  ;  Inductive  Grammar  of  the 
English  Language  (1878-79);  Cyclopedia  of  Universal 
History  (1880-85);  The  Great  Races  of  Mankind 
(1893)  ;  a  poem  The  Epic  of  Life  (1894);  History  of 
the  United  States  (1900)  largely  circulated  and  fre- 
quently reprinted. 


RIEDESEL— RIENZI. 


RIEDESEL,  re'deh-zel,  Friedrich  Adolph,  Baron 
von:  soldier:  1738,  June  3 — 1800,  Jan.  6;  b.  Lauterbach, 
Hesse.  After  studying  law,  he  entered  the  army,  served 
the  British  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  won  distinction  at 
the  battle  of  Minden,  and  reached  the  rank  of  adjt.gen. 
of  the  army  of  Prussia  1767.  He  came  to  America  1776, 
with  the  rank  of  maj.gen.,  and  in  command  of  about 
4,000  Hessian  and  other  soldiers,  hired  by  the  British  to 
aid  in  subduing  the  colonies,  rendered  valuable  service 
in  Canada,  at  Ticonderoga,  and  other  points;  was  capt- 
ured at  Saratoga;  and  after  being  exchanged  was  in 
command  on  Long  Island.  He  returned  to  Germany 
1783,  became  lieut.gen.  1787,  for  some  time  commanded 
the  Brunswick  soldiers  in  Holland,  and  for  about  6  years 
previous  to  his  death  was  in  command  of  the  city  of 
Brunswick.  His  Memoirs,  Letters,  and  Military  Journals, 
2  vols.,  pub.  in  Germany,  were  translated  and  issued  in 
this  country  (1868). — His  wife,  Frederica  Charlotte 
Louisa  von  R.  (1746-1808),  b.  Brandenburg,  dau.  of 
the  Prussian  minister  Von  Massow,  was  a  woman  of 
great  beauty  and  varied  accomplishments,  joined  her 
husband  in  Canada  1777,  and  was  with  him  during  the 
remainder  of  his  stay  in  this  country.  She  cared  for  the 
sick  and  wounded,  and  won  the  respect  of  the  soldiers. 
Her  Letters  and  Journals  Relating  to  the  War  of  the  American 
Revolution  were  reprinted  in  this  country  (1867). 

RIENZI,  re-en'ze,  Cola  di  :  famous  Roman  tribune : 
1313-1354,  Oct.  8;  b.  Rome.  His  parentage  was  humble, 
his  father  being  a  tavern-keeper,  named  Lorenzo  (by 
abbreviation  Rienzo),  and  his  mother  a  washerwoman. 
Until  his  20th  year,  he  lived  among  the  peasants  of 
Anagni ;  then  he  returned  to  his  native  city,  where  he 
studied  grammar  and  rhetoric,  read  and  re-read  the 
Latin  historians,  philosophers,  and  poets  (Greek  was 
scarcely  yet  known  in  Italy) ;  and  excited  his  imagina- 
tion, while  at  the  same  time  he  colored  his  speech,  with 
the  prophetic  enthusiasm  of  the  inspired  writers.  The 
assassination  of  his  brother  by  a  Roman  noble,  whom  he 
found  it  impossible  to  bring  to  punishment,  is  supposed 
to  have  determined  him  to  deliver  the  city  from  the 
barbarous  thraldom  of  the  barons.  In  1343  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  heads  of  the  Guelph  party  spokesman  of 
a  deputation  to  the  papal  court  at  Avignon  to  beseech 
Clement  VI.  to  return  to  Rome  for  protection  of  the 
citizens  from  their  oppressors.  Here  he  formed  a  close 
friendship  with  Petrarch,  through  whom  he  obtained  a 
hearing  from  the  pope,  who  appointed  him  notary  to 
the  city  chamber.  1344,  Apr.,  R.  returned  home,  arid 
sought  countenance  from  the  magistrates  in  his  ideas  of 
reform ;  but  reform,  he  found,  was  impossible  without 
revolution.  During  three  years,  he  loudly — perhaps 
even  ostentatiously — menaced  the  nobles;  for  the  en- 
thusiasm of  R.,  though  sincere,  was  showy  and  vain. 
The  nobles  took  no  steps  to  crush  him,  for  the  reason 
that  they  thought  him  mad.    At  last,  when  11.  thought 


KIENZI. 

he  could  rely  on  the  support  of  the  citizens,  he  sum- 
moned them  together  1347,  May  20 ;  and  surrounded  by 
100  horsemen,  and  in  presence  of  the  papal  legate,  he 
delivered  a  magnificent  discourse,  and  proposed  a  series 
of  improved  laws.  The  laws  were  accepted,  the  aristo- 
cratic senators  were  driven  out  of  the  city,  and  R.  was 
invested  with  dictatorial  power.  He  took  the  title 
« tribune  of  liberty,  peace,  and  justice,' and  chose  the 
papal  legate  for  his  colleague,  but  reserved  to  himself 
the  direction  of  affairs.  The  pope  confirmed  the  eloquent 
dictator  in  his  authority ;  all  Italy  rejoiced  in  his  suc- 
cess. A  bright  dream  now  seems  to  have  flashed  across 
R.'s  imagination — the  unity  of  Italy  and  the  supremacy 
of  Rome.  Every  great  Italian  has  dreamed  that  dream 
from  Dante  to  Mazzini.  R.  dispatched  messengers  to 
the  various  Italian  states,  requesting  them  to  send 
deputies  to  Rome  to  consult  for  the  general  interests  of 
the  peninsula,  and  to  devise  measures  for  its  unification. 
These  messengers  were  everywhere  received  with  en- 
thusiasm ;  and  1347,  Aug.  1,  in  the  Lateran  Church,  200 
deputies  assembled ;  and  R.  declared  that  the  choice  of 
an  emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  belonged  to  the 
Roman  people,  and  summoned  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  and 
Karl  of  Bohemia,  disputants  for  the  dignity,  to  compear 
before  him.  The  step  was  wildly  impolitic.  R.  had  no 
material  power  to  enable  him  to  give  efficacy  to  his 
splendid  assumption;  the  pope  was  indignant  at  the 
transference  of  authority  from  himself  to  his  subjects ; 
and  the  barons,  taking  advantage  of  certain  ceremonial 
extravagances  which  the  dictator  had  committed,  and 
which  had  diminished  the  popular  regard  for  him, 
gathered  their  forces,  and  renewed  their  devastations. 
After  ineffectual  resistance,  R.  resigned  his  functions, 
weeping  all  the  while,  and  withdrew  from  Rome,  which 
was  entered  by  the  barons  two  days  after.  His  tenure 
of  power  had  lasted  only  seven  months.  In  the  solitudes 
of  the  Neapolitan  Apennines,  R.  seems  to  have  recovered 
his  enthusiasm  and  his  faith.  Regarding  his  fall  as  a 
just  chastisement  of  God  for  his  love  of  worldly  vanities, 
he  joined  an  order  of  Franciscan  hermits,  and  spent 
nearly  two  years  in  exercises  of  piety  and  penitence — 
all  the  while,  however,  cherishing  the  hope  that  he 
would  one  day  4 deliver*  Rome  again.  This  ambition  to 
play  a  distinguished  part  made  him  readily  listen  to  a 
brother-monk,  who,  about  the  middle  of  1350,  declared 
that,  according  to  the  prophecies  of  Joachim  of  Flores, 
of  Cyrillus,  and  of  Merlin,  R.  was  destined,  by  the  help 
of  Emperor  Karl  IV.,  to  introduce  a  new  era  of  happiness 
into  the  world.  R.  betook  himself  at  once  to  Prague, 
and  announced  to  the  emperor  that  in  a  year  and  a  half 
a  new  hierarchy  would  be  established  in  the  church,  and 
under  a  new  pope.  Karl  would  reign  in  the  West,  and 
R.  in  the  East.  Karl,  not  knowing  what  to  say  in  reply 
to  such  language,  thought  it  safest  to  put  the  *  prophet' 
in  prison,  and  then  wrote  to  report  the  matter  to  his 
friend  the  pope.    1351,  July,  R.  was  transferred  to 


B1ESENGEBIBGE— EIFE. 
Avignon,  where  proceedings  were  opened  against  him 
in  reference  to  bis  exercise  of  tribunitial  power.  He 
was  condemned  to  death,  but  his  life  was  spared  at  the 
earnest  entreaties  of  Petrarch  and  others ;  and  the  next 
two  years  were  spent  in  an  easy  confinement  in  the 
French  papal  city.  Meanwhile  affairs  at  Borne  had 
become  worse  than  ever :  the  great  families  were  even 
more  factious,  more  anarchical,  more  desperately  fond 
of  spilling  blood  than  formerly  ;  and  at  last  Innocent  VI. 
sent  Cardinal  Athornoz  to  re-establish  order.  B.  was 
also  released  from  prison,  and  accompanied  the  cardinal. 
A  residence  was  assigned  him  at  Perugia;  but  1354, 
Aug.,  having  borrowed  money,  and  raised  a  small  body 
of  soldiers,  he  made  a  sort  of  triumphal  entry  into 
Home,  and  was  received  with  universal  acclamations. 
But  his  character,  never  of  strong  and  consistent  fibre, 
showed  impairment  and  debasement ;  he  abandoned  him- 
self to  sumptuous  living,  and  his  once  generous  sen- 
timents had  given  place  to  a  hard,  mistrustful,  and 
cruel  disposition.  The  barons  refused  to  recognize  his 
government,  and  fortified  themselves  in  their  castles. 
The  war  against  them  necessitated  the  contraction  ot 
heavy  expenses;  the  people  grumbled;  E.  only  grew 
more  severe  and  capricious  in  his  exactions  and  punish- 
ments. In  two  months  his  rule  had  become  intolerable, 
and  an  infuriated  crowd  surrounded  him  in  the  capitol, 
and  put  him  to  death  witn  ferocious  indignities. 

BIESENGEBIBGE,  re'zen-geh-birch'eh  (giant  mount- 
ains): mountain  range  about  23  m.  long  by  about  12  m. 
broad,  between  Bohemia  and  Prussian  Silesia :  see 
Bohemia. 

BIESI,  re-a'z'e :  town  of  Sicily,  province  of  Caltanisetta, 
and  13  m.  s.  from  Caltanisetta,  at  the  base  of  a  mountain 
of  the  same  name,  not  far  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Salso.  There  are  sulphur  mines  in  the  mountain. — 
Pop.  about  12,000. 

BIETI,  re-a'te  (ancient,  Reate) :  city  of  central  Italy, 
province  of  Perugia  in  Umbria,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Velino,  45  m.  n.e.  of  Eome.  It  is 
walled,  its  streets  are  regular,  it  has  a  fine  cathedral 
and  many  benevolent  institutions,  and  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop.  E.  was  a  noted  city  of  the  Sabines. — Pop. 
12,900. 

EIEVEE,  or  Beiver,  n.  rev'er  [Scot.]:  a  robber;  a 

moss-trooper. 

BIFACIMENTO,  n.  re-fa-che-men'td  [It.]  :  a  remaking 
or  re-establishing;  specifically  applied  to  the  process 
of  recasting  literary  works  so  as  to  adapt  them  to 
changed  circumstances. 

EIFE,  a.  rlf  [Ger.  reif,  mature:  O.  Dut.  rijf,  copious: 
Icel.  rifr,  liberal ;  riflca,  to  increase]  :  prevalent,  used  of 
epidemic  diseases;  abounding;  plentiful.    Rife'ly,  ad 
Bife'ness,  n.  -7ies,  abundance ;  prevalence. 


BIFF— RIFFLE. 
RIFF,  rif,  The  :  portion  of  the  coast  of  Morocco  from 
Tangier  on  the  w.  to  near  the  w.  frontier  of  Algiers,  about 
210  in.  long,  58  broad.  The  name,  in  the  Berber  lan- 
guage, which  is  that  of  the  inhabitants,  signifies  a  moun- 
tainous and  rugged  coast.  The  Riff  Mountains,  near  and 
parallel  to  the  coast,  are  green  and  wooded,  and  are  here 
and  there  intersected  transversely  by  fertile  valleys  or 
deep  ravines,  each  with  its  brook  or  rivulet  descending 
to  the  Mediterranean.  The  R.  region  is  separated  from 
the  parallel  mountain  chain  s.  of  it  by  an  extensive, 
fertile,  and  well-watered  plain,  in  which  stands  the  city 
of  Fez.  The  inhabitants  of  the  R.  are  almost  wholly 
Berbers,  employed  in  feeding  and  breeding  cattle,  in 
fishing,  and  occasional  piracy.  On  account  of  the  in- 
juries inflicted  by  their  piracies  on  merchant  vessels, 
most  of  the  maritime  states  of  Europe  agreed  to  pay  an 
annual  sum  as  quit-money.  When,  1828,  Austria  declined 
further  payment  of  the  tax,  a  Venetian  vessel  was  seized 
by  the  Riffians  in  the  harbor  of  Rabat ;  but  the  arrival  of 
au  Austrian  fleet  off  the  port  produced  restitution  of  the 
ship  and  its  cargo,  as  well  as  formal  renunciation  of  all 
farther  claims.  France  followed  the  same  course  by  de- 
claring war  against  the  sultan  of  Morocco,  and  obtained 
compensation  1844,  after  which  period  piracy  diminished. 
See  Morocco.  The  sultan  had  always  discountenanced 
piracy,  but  his  authority  in  the  R.  was  too  weak  to  com- 
pel obedience. 

RIFFLE,  n.  rif'l  [Ger.  riffeln,  to  groove]  :  an  inclined 
trough  or  chute  down  which  auriferous  slime  or  sand  is 
conducted  in  a  gentle  stream  broken  by  occasional  slats, 
or  by  depressions  coaming  mercury,  which  arrests  the 
gold. 


RIFFLES — RIFLE-BIRD. 

RIFFI/ZR,  n.  rif'ler  [Ger.  riffel-feile]  :  a  file  with  a  side 
so  convw  as  to  operate  in  shailow  depressions ;  used  by 
sculptors,  carvers,  and  gun-stockers. 

RIFFRAFF,  n.  rif'raf  [rif,  and  raff:  OF.  rif-ni-raf,  of 
everything,  every  atom :  It.  raffola-ruffola,  by  hook  or 
by  crook  (see  also  Raff)]  :  refuse  and  sweepings ;  dregs ; 
scum  of  anything,  as  of  society;  the  rabble. 

RIFLE,  v.  rl'fl  [OF.  rifler,  to  ransack :  Icei.  hrifa,  to 
catch :  Dut.  rijfelen,  to  scrape :  It.  raffa,  a  rifling :  AS. 
reafian,  to  rob,  to  spoil] :  to  ransack;  to  sweep  away;  to 
pillage ;  to  plunder.  Rifling,  imp.  Ri'fled,  pp.  -fid. 
Ri'fler,  n.  -fler,  a  robber. 

RIFLE,  n.  rl'fl  [Low  Ger.  rifeln,  to  streak,  to  furrow: 
Dan.  rifle,  to  groove  a  column:  Ger.  riefe,  a  furrow; 
riefen,  to  rifle]  :  musket  or  other  gun,  the  inside  of  the 
barrel  of  which  is  grooved  or  formed  with  spiral 
channels  to  make  the  bullet  revolve  (see  Rifled  Arms)  : 
V.  to  channel  or  groove.  Ri'fling,  imp.  Ri'fled,  pp. 
-fld.  Ri'flemen,  n.  -fl-men,  body  usually  of  sharpshooters 
or  light  infantry  armed  with  rifles — called  by  the  French 
tirailleurs ;  but  the  name  has  nearly  lost  meaning,  as 
nearly  all  infantry  are  now  riflemen.  Rifle-green, 
n.  a  very  dark  green,  verging  on  black.  Rifle-pits,  in 
mil.,  holes  or  short  trenches,  about  4  ft.  long  and  3  ft. 
deep,  forming,  with  the  earth  thrown  out  of  them, 
cover  for  two  men. 

RI  FLE-BIRD  {Ptiloris  Paradiseus)  :  bird  of  the  family 
Upupidce,  with  long  curved  bill,  and  in  size  about  equal 
to  a  large  pigeon.  It  inhabits  s.e.  Australia,  and  is 
found  only  in  very  thick  *  bush.'  The  male  is  regarded 
as  more  splendid  in  plumage  than  any  other  Australian 


Rifle-bird  (Ptiloris  Paradiseus). 

bird.  The  upper  parts  are  velvety  black,  tinged  with 
purple ;  the  under  parts  velvety  black,  diversified  with 
olive-green.  The  crown  of  the  head  and  the  throat  are 
covered  with  innumerable  little  specks  of  emerald  green 
of  brilliant  lustre.  The  tail  is  black,  the  two  central 
feathers  rich  metallic  green. 


EIFLED  AKMS. 

RFFLED  ARMS:  fire-arms  with  one  or  more  spiral 
grooves  along  the  interior  of  the  barrel;  invented  to 
remedy  certain  defects  essentially  connected  with  cylin- 
drical smooth-bore  guns.  These  defects,  due  chiefly  to 
atmospheric  resistance,  show  themselves  in  the  erratic 
motion  of  the  ball,  especially  when  fired  at  long  range, 
and  arise  from  the  following  causes :  First,  The  ball 
never  fits  tightly;  in  consequence  its  centre  is  below 
the  centre  of  the  bore,  and  a  portion  of  the  explosive 
force  of  the  powder  escapes  over  the  top  of  the  bullet, 
and' Is  not  only  wasted,  but  exercises  a  downward  press- 
ure on  the  ball,  tending  to  squeeze  it  into  the  under 
side  of  the  barrel ;  and  so  great  is  this  pressure,  that  in 
guns  of  soft  metal,  as  brass,  a  perceptible  dint  is  pro- 
duced after  a  few  rounds.  Another  and  more  important 
consequence  of  the  looseness  of  the  ball  is,  that  the 
action  of  the  powder  on  it  is  necessarily  irregular,  and 
its  resulting  motion  along  the  barrel  is  a  series  of 
oblique  impacts,  now  against  one  side,  now  against  the 
other,  and  the  direction  of  its  motion  after  expulsion  is 
necessarily  not  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the  barrel,  and 
depends  on  the  side  of  the  barrel  with  which  it  was  last 
in  contact.  Secondly,  Balls  can  never  be  perfectly  homo- 
geneous, and  the  violent  and  sudden  pressure  of  the 
exploded  powder  produces  a  slight  change  of  shape; 
consequently,  the  centre  of  gravity  can  never  accurately 
coincide  with  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  the  air  resists  its 
forward  motion  unequally,  and  true  flight  is  precluded. 
Thirdly,  As  a  consequence  of  the 
friction  of  the  ball  against  the 
sides  of  the  barrel,  it  acquires  a 
rotatory  motion,  the  direction  of 
its  rotation  after  expulsion  being 
determined  by  the  particular  point 
of  the  muzzle  with  which  it  was 
last  in  contact.  Thus,  if  it  finally 
touched  the  top  or  bottom  of  the 
muzzle,  the  plane  of  rotation  of 
the  anterior  surface  of  the  ball 
would  be  in  line  with  its  progres-  "Fig.  1. 

sive  motion,  and    the   rotation  Horizontal  section  of  a 
would  be  in  an  upward  or  down-    spherical  bullet,  the 
,.  .  />  •  •  i    ,     ,  straight  arrow  show- 

ward  direction  ;  if  it  last  rebound-  ing  the  direction  of  its 
ed  from  the  right  side,  the  plane  forward  motion  or  mo- 
ot rotation  would  be  in  line  with  Hon  of  translation,  and 
its  path,  and  the  rotation  of  the  th|t  oTits6  moficfn  ^of 
anterior  surface  from  left  to  right,  rotation.  The  ball,  in 
and  so  on.    The  ball,  in  its  rapid    this  instance,  is  sup- 

,  ,  j i      ■ .   .    a      »      posed  to  have  struck 

flight,  compresses  the  air  m  front,  ggSLinst  the  right  side 
and  produces  a  vacuum  behind ;  of  the  muzzle, 
the  denser,  because  more  com- 
pressed, air  in  front  attempts  to  rush  round  the  sides 
of  the  ball  to  fill  up  the  vacuum.  Now  (see  fig.  1),  let 
us  suppose  that  the  ball,  while  in  rapid  advance,  is 
also  revolving  in  a  horizontal  plane,  and  from  left  to 
right;  the  side  A,  whose  rotation  conspires  with  the 


RIFLED  ARMS, 
motion  of  translation,  resists,  by  its  friction,  the  at- 
tempt of  the  air  to  reach  the  vacuum  by  that  side; 
while  the  side  B,  whose  rotation  is  against  the  motion 
of  translation,  conspires  to  aid  the  air  in  reaching  the 
vacuum.  It  follows  from  this,  that  the  air  is  denser 
in  front  of  A  than  in  front  of  B ;  its  resistance  on  the 
side  A  is  greater  than  that  on  B,  and  the  ball,  in  conse- 
quence, is  deflected  toward  the  side  on  which  the  re- 
sistance is  least  (toward  the  right  in  this  instance). 
If  the  ball  struck  the  top  of  the  muzzle,  its  revolution 
would  be  in  a  vertical  plane  in  line  with  the  barrel,  and 
in  an  upward  direction,  under  which  circumstances  the 
ball  would  tend,  first,  downward  from  the  first  reason, 
and  then  upward  from  the  third ;  while,  if  it  struck  the 
bottom  of  the  muzzle,  the  contrary  would  be  the  case. 
It  occurred  to  artillerists  that  these  aberrations  of  the 
ball  from  its  true  theoretical  path  could  best  be  counter- 
acted by  securing  that  the  plane  of  rotation  of  the  ball 
should  be  at  right  angles  to  its  motion  of  translation ; 
as  the  irregularities  in  its  structure,  which  produce  aber- 
rations of  the  first  and  second  kind,  would  thus  act 
equally  in  all  directions,  producing  an  exact  counter- 
balance, while  the  aberration  from  the  ball's  rotation 
would  wholly  disappear ;  and  the  constancy  of  the  vertical 
transverse  position  of  the  plane  of  the  ball's  rotation  was 
obtained  by  making  one  or  more  spiral  grooves  along 
the  interior  of  the  barrel. 

As  early  as  1498,  the  citizens  of  Leipzig  possessed  the 
germ  of  the  future  rifle,  for  their  arms  had  a  grooved  bore, 
but  the  grooves  were  straight.  In  1520Augustin  Kutter 
(or  Koster)  of  Niirnberg  was  noted  for  his  rose  or  star- 
grooved  barrels,  in  which  the  grooves  had  a  spiral  form. 
It  took  its  name  from  the  rose-like  shape  of  the  bore  at 
the  muzzle;  and,  setting  aside  superiority  of  workman- 
ship subsequently  developed,  Kutter's  arm  was  the 
veritable  rifle :  to  him,  therefore,  so  far  as  history  shows, 
is  due  the  invention  of  this  terrible  weapon,  which 
reduces  the  flight  of  the  projectile  to  a  question  of  the 
individual  skill  of  the  marksman.  The  spiral  groove 
gives  to  the  bullet,  if  it  fits  into  the  grooves,  a  rotation 
rapid  in  proportion  to  the  force  of  the  explosion  and  the 
sharpness  of  the  twist  in  the  spiral.  This  revolution  of 
the  bullet  on  its  own  axis  keeps  that  axis,  gravity  ex- 
cepted, in  the  line  in  which  it  leaves  the  piece.  In  1628 
Arnold  Rotsiphen  patented  a  new  way  of  'makeing 
gonnes,'  which,  from  a  subsequent  patent  granted  him 
1635,  appears  to  have  consisted,  among  other  improve- 
ments, in  rifling  the  barrels.  It  would  be  tedious  to 
enumerate  the  various  principles  of  rifling  which  were 
tried  during  the  two  centuries  following  Rotsiphen : 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  scarcely  a  form  of  rifling  now  pre- 
vails but  had  its  prototype  among  the  old  inventions. 
The  difficulty  of  mechanical  appliances  making  the  rifling 
true,  however,  deferred  their  general  introduction,  and 
the  cost  of  rifled  arms  limited  their  use  to  the  purposes 
of  the  chase.    The  revolutionary  government  of  France 


BIFLED  ARMS, 
had  rifles  issued  to  portions  of  thoir  troops,  but  the,> 
met  with  so  little  success  that  Napoleon  recalled  them 
soon  after  he  came  to  power.  In  the  Peninsula,  how- 
ever, picked  companies  of  sharpshooters,  both  English 
and  French,  used  rifles  with  deadly  effect.  During  the 
war  with  England,  1812-14,  the  Americans  demonstrated 
incontestably  the  value  of  rifles  in  warfare;  yet  many 
years  were  to  elapse  before  they  were  definitivel}7  placed 
in  the  hands  of  soldiers,  many  of  those  of  every  nation 
in  the  Crimean  war  having  fought  with  the  ineffective 
and  almost  ridiculous  *  Brown  Bess.'  Soon  after  the 
French  invaded  Algeria,  they  had  armed  the  Chasseurs 
d'Orleans  with  rifles,  to  counteract  the  superior  range  of 
the  Arab  guns.  The  inutility  of  the  old  musket  was 
shown  in  a  battle  during  the  Kafir  war,  where  the  British 
discharged  80,000  cartridges,  and  the  loss  of  the  enemy 
was  only  25  men  struck.  After  experiments  with  the 
old  musket,  it  was  found  that  its  aim  had  no  cer- 
tainty whatever  beyond  100  yards.  It  was  soon  dis- 
covered that  a  spherical  ball  was  not  the  best  missile ; 
one  flying  truer  in  which  the  longer  axis  coincided  with 
the  axis  of  the  gun — the  relative  length  of  the  axis  and 
the  shape  of  the  head  being  matters  of  dispute.  The 
first  war-rifle  was  that  of  Capt.  Delvigne,  proposed  1826, 
and  adopted  for  a  few  men  in  the  French  army  ;  but  this 
still  included  the  old  and  rude  plan  of  forcing  the  leaden 
ball  through  the  grooves  by  blows  of  the  ramrod.  On 
this  arm  various  improvements  were  made,  till  it  was 
superseded  by  using  with  a  grooved  barrel  the  Minie 
bullet,  which,  being  made  smaller  than  the  bore  of  the 
piece,  could  be  almost  dropped  into  the  barrel.  It  was 
of  lead,  and  in  its  base  it  contained  a  conical  recess,  to 
receive  the  apex  of  a  smaller  iron  cup.  The  force  of  the 
explosion  drove  this  cup  into  the  bullet,  causing  the 
lead  to  expand  into  the  grooves  of  the  barrel.  (It  is 
right  to  add  that  this  contrivance  is  claimed  for  a  Mr. 
Greener  as  early  as  1836.)  The  Prussians,  meanwhile, 
had  armed  their  troops  with  the  needle-rifle  (Zilndnadel- 
gewehr).  now  superseded  by  the  Mauser.  In  England  no 
improvement  took  place  until  1851,  when  28,000  rifled 
muskets  to  fire  the  Minie  bullet  were  ordered.  Notwith- 
standing the  many  advantages  of  the  Minie  system,  it 
was  found  defective  in  practice.  Experiments  in  all 
directions  resulted  1853  in  the  Enfield  rifle,  which  had 
three  grooves,  taking  one  complete  turn  in  78  inches, 
aud  fired  a  bullet  resembling  the  Minie,  except  that  a 
wooden  plug  was  substituted  for  the  iron  cup  :  1853-65, 
this  was  the  weapon  of  the  British  army.  In  1865  the 
adoption  of  Breech-loading  Guns  (q.v.)  caused  the 
Enfield  to  be  converted  into  a  breech-loader  by  fitting 
the  "  Snider '  breech  mechani  sm  to  the  Enfield  barrel. 

This  arrangement  was,  however,  only  temporary,  and 
after  a  most  exhaustive  series  of  trials,  before  a  special 
committee  on  breech-loading  rifles  (including  104  dif- 
ferent kinds),  the  Henry  barrel,  was  adopted  1871  in  con- 
junction with  the  Martini  breech  for  the  new  small-bore 


RIFLED  ARMS, 
rille  for  the  Bxitish  army,  known  as  the  Martini-Henry 
rifle.    The  Henry  system  of  rifling  is  the  invention  of 
Alexander  Henry,  gun  maker,  Edinburgh,  and  its  essen- 
tial peculiarity  consists  in  the  form  of  the  rifled  bore. 


Figs.  2  and  3  represent  an  end  section  of  a  barrel  rifled 
on  this  system.  The  rifling  forms  7  plane  surfaces  A 
(fig.  3),  and  the  periphery  of  the  projectile,  indicated  by 
the  dotted  circle  C,  touches  the  planes  A,  at  the  centre. 
In  addition  to  the  bearing  surfaces  thus  obtained,  there 
are  7  angular  projections  B,  which  extend  inward  from 
the  planes  A,  so  that  the  apex  of  each  of  the  projections 
B  is  concentric  with  the  centre  of  the  surfaces  of  its 
contiguous  planes  A.  These  angular  ridges  fill  to  a  great 
extent  the  spaces  between  the  angles  of  the  planes  A 
and  the  periphery  of  the  projectile,  thus  reducing  the 
windage,  and  from  their  peculiar  construction  facilitating 
expansion  of  the  bullet  to  the  major  diameter  of  the 
bore,  so  that  the  rotatory  or  spiral  motion  of  the  pro- 
jectile is  obtained  with  greater  certainty ;  at  the  Same 
time,  the  figure  of  the  projectile  is  so  little  altered  that 
it  traverses  the  air  with  less  resistance,  consequently 
with  more  accurate  flight. 

The  length  of  the  Henry  barrel  is  32J  inches.  The 
mean  diameter  of  the  bore  is  -450  of  an  inch,  and  the 
rifling  takes  one  complete  turn  in  22  inches.  Its  bullet 
is  solid,  with  a  slight  cavity  in  the  rear,  and  weighs  480 
grains,  the  charge  of  powder  being  85  grains.  The  range, 
accuracy,  and  penetration  of  the  *  Henry '  barrel  is 
nearly  twice  that  of  the  Enfield-Snider  barrel,  while  the 
highest  point  of  its  trajectory  at  500  yards  is  2  ft.  lower, 
or  9  ft.  as  compared  with  11  ft.  The  maximum  range  of 
the  Henry  barrel  is  about  3,200  yards  at  an  angle  of 
28°  15'.  The  Springfield  breech-loading  rifle,  for  many 
years  theU.  S.  army  regulation  rifle,  is  of  -45-inch  calibre, 
and  fires  a  400-grain  bullet  with  70  grains  of  powder.  It 
is  noticeable  for  its  great  simplicity  of  construction, 
and  has  proved  an  excellent  weapon,  though  now  dis- 
tinctly of  an  old  school. 

The  term  magazine  arms  or  repeating  arms  is  applied 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


RIFLED  ARMS, 
to  firearms  which  contain,  or  have  attached  to  them.  & 
case,  holding  4  to  10  (and  more)  cartridges,  which,  bebig 
in  connection  with  the  lock  action  of  the  weapon,  sup- 
plies a  reserve  of  ammunition  for  rapid  firing  in  emer- 
gency ;  the  arm  is  also  capable  of  being  used  as  a  *  single- 
loader' on  ordinary  occasions.  The  idea  is  an  old  one, 
the  first  practical  application  of  which  was  the  revolver, 
if  we  except  certain  ancient  flint-lock  weapons.  The 
best-known  systems  at  the  present  time  are  the  Spencer, 
Winchester,  Vetterli,  Krag,  Kropatchek,  Burton,  Hotch- 
kiss,  Green,  Jarman,  Mauser,  Lebel,  and  Mannlicher. 
All  the  great  powers  are  adopting  some  form  of  magazine 
rifle  for  army  and  navy. 

At  the  present  time  a  revolution  in  firearms  has  taken 
place  among  all  the  military  powers.  The  old  rifles 
ranging  in  calibre  from  -45  to  -55  inch  have  been  discarded 
in  favor  of  small-bore  rifles.  The  present  calibre  aver- 
ages a  little  over  -30  inch,  and  the  bullet  is  made  very 
long  to  give  it  sufficient  weight.  The  powder  chamber 
is  drilled  out  to  an  extra  size,  and  the  metallic  cartridge 
fits  it  accurately.  The  bullet  in  many  instances  is  cased 
with  copper  or  German  silver  to  increase  its  power  of 
penetration.  With  these  guns  very  high  initial  velocity 
is  attained,  giving  a  low  trajectory  and  great  range.  A 
bullet  fired  from  a  rifle  retains  throughout  its  flight  the 
original  angle  at  which  it  left  the  piece.  Hence  at  a 
high  elevation  these  elongated  projectiles,  striking 
almost  side-on,  would  make  very  bad  wounds.  But  as 
the  high  initial  velocity  insures  a  low  trajectory,  it  is 
believed  that  the  new  pieces,  while  more  efficient,  will 
be  more  merciful  than  their  predecessors,  and  will  pro- 
duce a  larger  proportion  of  wounded  men  in  proportion 
to  the  killed. 

The  introduction  of  Smokeless  Powder  (q.  v.)  is  a  neces- 
sary sequence  of  the  use  of  rapid-firing  magazine 
rifles.  The  military  rifle  of  to-day  is  a  magazine  gun.  In 
some — e.g.,  the  Mannlicher— the  magazine  is  necessary 
to  the  use  of  the  piece.  In  others  it  can  be  used  or  not, 
as  desired.  But  rapid  firing  is  the  feature  of  modern 
practice,  and  was  rendered  comparatively  ineffective 
with  the  old  powder  by  the  clouds  of  smoke  produced  in 
a  minute's  firing. 

As  a  typical  modern  military  rifle,  the  newT  Austrian 
weapon,  the  Mannlicher,  maybe  cited.  The  empty  gun 
weighs  8-3  lbs.  Its  calibre  is  -32  inch.  The  cartridges 
are  centre-firing.  They  are  issued  in  sets  of  five,  con- 
tained in  a  sheet-iron  case,  which  is  readily  slipped  into 
place  below  the  breech  of  the  barrel.  In  this  case  they  lie 
horizontally  one  on  top  of  another,  and  are  inserted, 
and  the  gun  is  then  to  be  fired  as  a  magazine  rifle. 
When  the  last  of  the  five  cartridges  enters  the  breech, 
the  empty  case  drops  out,  and  is  left  on  the  ground  as 
valueless.  The  soldier  next  inserts  a  new  case,  the  op- 
eration being  as  quick  and  simple  as  loading  a  common 
breech-loader  with  a  single  cartridge.  The  powder  used 
is  smokeless,  and  the  ball  of  lead  is  cased  with  German 


RIFLED  ARMS, 
silver.  The  barrel  of  the  rifle  is  surrounded  with  a  steel 
jacket  to  protect  the  haul  of  the  soldier  from  excessive 
heat.  The  initial  vel acity  is  2,033  ft.  ;  maximum  range, 
9,185  ft  ;  maximum  range  for  which  the  sights  are  ad- 
justed, 6,725  ft.  At  100  yards  the  ball  pierces  32  inches 
of  fir-wood  and  36  inches  of  sand  ;  at  200  yards  17  inches 
of  fir  and  20  of  sand  ;  at  1,800  yards  it  pierces  2  inches  of 
fir.  The  soldier  is  supposed  to  carry  150  of  the  cartridges 
with  him,  and  wagons  containing  a  further  supply  of  100 
cartridges  per  man  are  to  accompany  the  troops  in  action. 
In  the  United  States  experiments  led  to  an  official  re- 
port (1893)  favoring  the  Krag-Jorgkensen  rifle,  instead  of 
the  Springfield,  for  the  army.  Some  inspectors,  how- 
ever, reported  (1895)  several  serious  defects  in  the  new 
gun. 

Cannon  were  rifled  as  early  as  1615.  In  1661  the  Prus- 
sians experimented  with  a  gun  rifled  in  13  shallow 
bores.  Thereafter  many  attempts  were  made  to  rifle 
cannon,  with  more  or  less  success.  In  recent  years  in- 
ventors have  produced  many  admirable  guns — the  great 
difficulty  of  the  day  being  to  decide  which  is  most  ef- 
fectual. The  first  point  was  the  metal ;  and  here  cast- 
iron  was  found  useless,  being  incapable  of  resisting  the 
explosion  of  the  large  charges  necessary  to  force  closely 
fitting  projectiles  through  rifled  barrels.  Several  plans 
were  resorted  to.  Sir  William  Armstrong  welds  coils  of 
w rough t-iron  round  a  mandrel  into  one  homogeneous 
mass  of  extraordinary  tenacity,  which  he  again  strength- 
ens by  similar  rings  round  the  breech.  Whitworth  forces 
rings  of  wrought-iron  over  the  barrel  by  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  Woolwich  system  is  to  shrink  coils  of 
wrought-iron  over  an  inner  tube  of  mild  steel  toughened 
in  oil;  and  it  gives  entire  satisfaction.  The  French  rifle 
brass  guns,  and  use  small  charges ;  having  also  guns  of 
wrought-iron.  The  Austrians  have  made  a  new  bronze 
alloy  (invention  of  Gen.  VonUchatius)  which  has  proved 
extremely  strong ;  the  Belgians  have  tried  Bessemer's 
steel.  The  system  of  rifling  was  the  next  important 
matter.  Lancaster  adhered  to  his  oval  bore ;  Sir 
William  Armstrong  produced  a  bore  rifled  in  a  great 
number  of  small  sharp  grooves  (this  gun  was  adopted  by 
the  British  govt.  1859);  Whitworth  retained  a  hexagonal 
bore ;  and  the  French  govt,  adopted  a  bore  with  two, 
subsequently  three,  rather  deep  spiral  grooves.  After 
careful  experiments,  the  Austrian,  Spanish,  Dutch,  and 
Italian  govts,  have  concurred  in  the  French  system. 
These  several  bores  are  shown  below  in  section.  In  the 
Armstrong,  rotation  is  communicated  to  the  projectile 
by  the  latter  being  cased  with  lead,  which  the  explosion 
forces  into  the  grooves.  The  numerous  fine  grooves 
impart  a  very  correct  centring  to  the  shot,  and  give 
extreme  accuracy  of  range;  but  they  render  the  gun  a 
delicate  weapon.  In  the  Whitworth,  the  shot  is  con- 
structed to  pass  freely  through  the  spiral  hexagonal 
bore,  windage  being  prevented  by  a  greased  wad.  Lan- 


RIFLED  ARMS. 


caster's  shot  was  elliptical,  to  correspond  with  the  bore. 
The  French  projectiles  have  ribs  or  studs  of  projecting 
metal  to  correspond  to  the  grooves. 

The  Armstrong  gun  has  been  superseded  in  the  British 
service  by  the  Woolwich  gun,  which  has  a  modified  form 
of  the  French  rifling,  but  generally  with  a  larger  number 
of  grooves  (32  or  33),  according  to  size  of  gun. 

OO 

ARMSTRONG.  WHITWORTH, 


LANCASTER.  FRENCH. 

Fig.  4. 

(The  Ellipse  of  the  bore  in  the  Lancaster  is  exaggerated  to 
show  the  principle.) 

In  the  United  States  much  attention  has  been  given 
by  the  govt,  since  1884  to  the  improvement  of  R.  A., 
chiefly  by  reason  of  the  determination  to  create  a  new 
and  more  effective  navy.  For  a  variety  of  reasons  the 
principle  has  been  officially  accepted  that  the  best  means 
of  protecting  the  large  cities  along  the  coasts  is  the 
provision  of  new  types  of  battle-ships  and  of  special 
harbor  defense  vessels;  and  as  congress  ordered  the  con- 
struction of  great  coast-line  battle-ships,  at  a  cost  of  $4,- 
000,000  each  exclusive  of  armor  and  armament,  and 
several  protected  cruisers  and  armored  coast  defense 
vessels,  as  a  beginning,  more  attention  has  been  given 
to  providing  improved  R.  A.  for  the  navy  than  for  land 
defenses.  The  most  effective  6  all  round '  gun  at  the 
present  time,  appears  to  be  the  8-inch  breech-loading 
rifle,  firing  a  projectile  weighing  250  pounds,  with  a 
velocity  of  2,334  feet  per  second,  and  capable  of  dis- 
charging six  aimed  shots  per  minute.  Of  guns  embody- 
ing novel  features,  that  invented  by  Capt.  Zalinski, 
of  the  United  States  Army,  appears  to  be  the  pioneer 
of  large  pneumatic  ordnance.  In  the  larger  form,  it 
consisted  of  a  smooth-bore  tube  about  50  feet  long,  and 
of  15  inches  calibre.  By  the  propelling  agency  of  com- 
pressed air,  used  in  the  gun  at  a  pressure  of  1,000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  it  was  capable  of  throwing 


RIFLED  ARMS. 

a  projectile  containing  100  pounds  of  high  explosives, 
such  as  dynamite  or  nitro-glycerine,  to  a  distance  of 
about  5,000  yards.  It  was  designed  for  coast-defense 
purposes,  but  has  also  been  used  at  sea.  The  U.  S. 
cruiser  Vesuvius,  equipped  with  three  tubes,  was  em- 
ployed at  Santiago  during  the  Spanish- American  war, 
but  did  not  attain  the  success  anticipated.  The  Sims- 
Dudley,  another  form  of  pneumatic  gun  also  used  about 
that  time,  appears  to  have  been  a  little  more  success- 
ful. It  throws  a  much  smaller  projectile,  containing 
about  four  pounds  of  high  explosives,  by  air  compressed 
by  explosions  of  gunpowder  in  an  auxiliary  barrel 
located  under  the  main  tube.  The  Gathmann  gun, 
another  type  of  ordnance  designed  to  throw  projectiles 
containing  large  quantities  of  high  explosives,  appears 
as  yet  to  be  in  the  experimental  stage  of  construction, 
while  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  development  of  pneu- 
matic guns  in  general,  up  to  the  point  of  a  permanent 
place  in  armaments,  is  extremely  problematical. 

Bibliography. — For  more  specific  information  on  ord- 
nance matters,  the  following  named  publications  are 
recommended:  Journal  of  the  United  States  Artillery 
(Fortress  Monroe,  Va. )  ;  Holley,  Ordnance  and  Armor; 
Ingersoll,  Text-book  of  Ordance  and  Gunnery;  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance  (U.  S.  Army  and 
Navy)  ;  Bruff,  Ordnance  and  Gunnery ;  Greener,  Modem 
Breech-loaders,  and  Chokebore  Guns;  Text-books  on  ord- 
nance, ammunition,  and  gun  carriages,  published  by  the 
English  War  Office;  Revue  d'Artillerie  (Paris,  monthly)  ; 
Mittheilungen  iiber  Gegenst'dnde  des  Artillerie  und 
Genie-Wesens  (Vienna,  monthly)  ;  Revue  de  VArmee 
beige  (Brussels,  monthly) . 

See  also  Breech-loading  Guns:  Cannon  Founding: 
Firearms:  Gatling  Gun:  Gunnery:  Gun-powder : 
Krupp's  Steel:  Machine  Gun:  Revolver:  Projec- 
tiles: Range:  Windage. 


RIFT-RIGA. 

RIFT,  n.  rift  [from  Rive,  which  see]:  a  fissure  or 
cleft;  an  opening  made  by  splitting:  V.  to  cleave;  to 
split ;  to  burst  open.    Rifting,  imp.    Rift'ed,  pp. 

RIG,  v.  rig  [Norw.  rigga,  to  bandage,  to  rig  a  vessel ; 
rigg,  rigging  of  a  ship :  AS.  wrihan,  to  cover,  to  clothe]  : 
to  lit  with  tackling;  to  furnish  with  gear:  to  clothe;  to 
dress :  N.  the  peculiar  manner  of  fitting  the  shrouds, 
stays,  braces,  etc.,  to  their  respective  masts  and  yards 
in  a  ship.  Rig'ging,  imp. :  N.  all  the  cordage  belong- 
ing to  the  masts,  yards,  or  other  parts  of  a  ship  (see 
below).  Rigged,  pp.  rlgd.  Rig'ger,  n.  -er,  one  who 
rigs ;  a  wheel  with  a  flat  or  slightly  curved  rim,  moved 
by  a  leather  band.  To  rig  a  ship,  to  fit  the  shrouds, 
stays,  braces,  etc.,  to  their  proper  masts  and  yards. 

RIG,  n.  rig  [Norw.  rugga  or  rigla,  to  rock  or  waver- 
probably  from  the  excited  movements  of  animals  under 
the  sexual  impulse :  Dut.  wrikken,  to  move  to  and  fro : 
comp.  Manx,  reagh,  wanton,  sportive  (see  Ridgel)]  :  an  ex- 
cited and  irregular  movement  of  any  kind ;  a  trick ;  in 
OE.,  a  wanton;  a  romping  girl.  To  rig  about,  to  be 
wanton  ;  to  romp.  Rig'gish,  a.  wanton.  To  run  a  rig, 
to  act  in  an  excited  manner;  to  do  something  out- 
rageous. To  rig  the  market,  literally,  to  play  tricks 
with  it — a,  term  applied  to  a  dishonest  combination 
among  a  number  of  merchants  to  buy  up  so  extensively 
any  particular  article  or  commodity  as  to  be  able  to  re- 
sell the  same  at  greatly  enhanced  prices. 

RIG,  n.  rig  [AS.  hrycg ;  Icel.  hryggr  ;  Dan.  ryg,  the 
back  (see  Ridgej]  :  in  Scot.,  the  back  of  an  animal;  any- 
thing formed  like  the  back  of  an  animal;  along  breadth 
of  cultivated  land  sloping  down  on  each  side ;  a  ridge. 
Rig  and  fur,  said  of  stockings  which  are  ribbed. 

RIGA,  re'ga  :  city,  cap.  of  the  Russian  govt,  of  Livonia, 
and  next  to  St.  Petersburg  the  most  important  Baltic 
seaport.  It  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dwina,  crossed 
here  by  a  bridge  of  boats  and  a  new  railway  bridge  10 
m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  at  Diinaburgon  on  the 
Gulf  of  Riga,  at  which  point  a  fortress  defends  the 
Dwina.  Ships  come  up  to  Riga.  R.  has  ample  railway 
connections  with  most  parts  of  Russia  and  Germany. 
It  was  till  of  late  defended  by  walls  and  bastions :  these 
are  now  removed;  and  the  city  proper  is  separated  from 
its  three  suburbs  by  promenades  on  both  sides  of  the 
encircling  canal.  A  citadel  stands  n.  of  the  city.  *  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  church  of  St.  Peter, 
the  town-hall,  and  the  ancient  castle ;  also  the  modern 
bourse,  theatre,  asylums,  hospitals,  and  schools.  Of 
more  than  a  dozen  stone  churches,  7  are  Lutheran,  4 
Russian,  1  Anglican ;  and  there  are  10  wooden  ones  be- 
sides. R.  has  numerous  official,  literary,  educational, 
and  beneficent  institutions.  Its  manufactures  are 
mainly  of  cotton,  machines,  tobacco,  starch,  soap,  can- 
dles, leather;  and  it^  large  exports  are  chiefly  flax,  hemp, 
grain,  linseed,  and  wood.  Half  of  the  people  are  Ger- 
mans ;  and  of  the  remainder,  half  are  Russians  and  half 


RIGA — RIGESCENT. 
are  Lithuanians.    Pop.  with  suburbs   (1867)  102,590; 
(1880)   168,850;    (1890)    180,278;    (190:0)  282,943. 

K.  was  founded  in  tne  beginning  of  the  13th  c.  by 
Albert  Buckshoevden,  Bp.  of  Livonia,  and  soon  became 
a  first-rate  commercial  town,  and  member  of  the  Hanse- 
atic  League.  The  Teutonic  Knights  possessed  it  in  the 
16th  c.  In  1621,  R.  was  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
and  held  under  Swedish  dominion  till  1710,  but  was 
finally  annexed  to  Russia  1721. 

RFGA,  Gulf  of  :  inlet  in  the  n.e.  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
washing  the  shores  of  the  three  Baltic  provinces,  Cour- 
land,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia.  It  is  more  than  100  m. 
long  from  n.  to  s.,  and  about  70  m.  wide.  The  islands 
of  Oesel,  Dago,  Mohn,  and  Worms  stand  in  the  entrance 
to  it,  and  narrow  the  mouth  of  the  gulf  to  about  20  m. 
The  chief  river  flowing  into  the  gulf  is  the  D wina.  Sand- 
banks render  navigation  in  some  parts  dangerous. 

RIGA  BALSAM,  n.  ri'ga  or  re'-  bawl'sam:  balsam 
obtained  from  Styrax  benzoin. 

RIGADOON,  n.  rig-a-don'  [F.  rigadon,  rigaudon — a 
dance  said  to  be  so  called  from  Rigaud,  the  surname  of 
its  inventor] :  a  lively  dance  performed  by  one  couple. 

RIG'DON,  Sidney  :  see  Mormons. 

RIGEL,  n.  rVjel  [Ar.  rijil,  a  person's  foot] :  in  aslron.,  a 
star  of  the  first  magnitude  at  the  left  foot  of  Orion ; 
called  also  /3  Orionis.    It  is  of  bluish  color. 

RIGESCENT,  a.  rl-jes'sent  [L.  riges'cens  or  rigeseen'tem, 
growing  stiff  or  numb ;  riges'co,  I  grow  stiff — from  rigere, 
to  be  stiff  J :  in  bot.,  having  a  rigid  or  stiff  consistence. 


RIGGING. 

RIG'GING,  in  a  Ship  :  combination  of  numerous  ropes 
to  afford  stability  to  the  masts,  and  to  lower  and  hoist 
the  sails.  Notwithstanding  the  complication  which  the 
cordage  of  a  rigged  ship  pre- 
sents at  first  sight  to  the  eye, 
the  arrangement  is  remarkably 
simple.  In  all  substantial 
points,  the  rig  of  each  mast 
is  the  same ;  to  understand 
one  is,  consequently,  to  under- 
stand all.  In  the  accompany- 
ing diagrams,  the  same  nota- 
tion is  observed  throughout, 
spars  being  shown  by  capital 
letters ;  sails,  by  italic  letters ; 
standing  rigging,  by  Roman 
numerals;  and  running  rig- 
ging, by  Arabic  numerals. 
To  avoid  a  confusing  number 
of  symbols  and  needless 
repetition,  the  corresponding 
ropes,  etc.,  on  each  mast  bear 
the  same  numbers,  and  in  the 
key,  the  name  of  such  rope 
per  se  is  only  given.  To  find 
the  full  title  of  a  rope,  it  is 
necessary  to  prefix  (unless  it 
pertain  to  the  bow-sprit  or 
gaff)  the  name  of  the  mast 
(mizzen,  main,  or  fore)  to 
which  it  belongs.  For  ex- 
ample, the  spars  marked  D 
are,  counting  from  the  left, 
i.e.,  the  stern,  called  respec- 
tively mizzen  -  royal  -  mast, 
main  -  royal  -  mast,  and  fore- 
royal-mast  ;  the  standing-^opes 
Fig.  1.  marked  iv.,   are  the  mizzen- 

stay,  main-stay,  and  fore- 
stay,  and  the  running-ropes  bearing  the  figure  5,  are  miz- 
zen-braces,  main-braces,  and  fore-braces. 

Rigging  is  either  Standing  or  Running.  The  former  is 
employed  in  maintaining,  in  fixed  position,  the  masts 
and  bow-sprit ;  the  latter  runs  freely  through  numer- 
ous blocks,  and  its  functions  are  to  raise  and  lower 
the  upper  masts  and  the  yards,  to  trim  the  sails,  to 
hoist  the  signals  and  other  flags,  and  occasionally  to 
furl  the  sails. 

Each  mast  has  the  following  standing  rigging :  at  each 
side  shrouds  (I.,  it.,  hi.),  consisting  of  several  very  thick 
(usually  plaited)  ropes ;  in  f ront,the  stay  (iv.,  v.,  vi.,vii.)  ; 
and  behind,  the  backstays  (viii.,  ix.,  x.),  coming  down  to 
the  ship's  sides  behind  the  shrouds.  Across  the  lower- 
mast  and  topmast  shrouds,  thin  ropes,  called  ratlings, 
are  hi tohed  horizontally,  and  form  convenient  ladders 
for  the  mm  in  aoing  aloft.    Th©  standing  rigging  of  tfe* 


RIGGING. 

lower  mast  reaches  the  chains  on  the  ship's  sides;  while 
the  shrouds  of  the  topmast  and  topgallantmast  are  worked 
into  the  top,  their  stays  to  the  tops  of  the  masts  nearer 
the  bow  in  each  case  (the  bowsprit  serving  as  an  ante- 
rior mast  for  the  fore-rigging) ;  all  the  backstays,  how- 
ever, are  brought  down  to  the  ship's  sides.  In  steamers, 
the  mainstays  require  modification  to  avoid  the  fun- 
nel; they  are  often  adjusted  on  a  plan  similar  to  that 
of  the  backstays.  The  standing  rigging  of  the  bowsprit 
consists  of  the  bobstays  (xiv.),  generally  of  chain •  the 
martingale  stays  (xi.,  xn.),  and  martingale  backstays 
(xiii.),  which  all  exert  an  adverse  pressure  to  that  of 
the  stays  from  the  foremast,  topmast,  etc. 


Fig.  2. 

The  running  rigging  is  of  four  classes:  1.  Lifts  for 
the  upper  masts  and  the  jib-boom  ;  these  are  not  shown 
in  the  diagrams,  from  the  fact  that  they  run  parallel, 
and  contiguous  to  the  masts,  topmasts,  and  bowsprit. 

2.  The  lifts  for  the  yards  and  sails.  Each  yard  has 
two  lifts,  one  proceeding  from  a  point  near  either  ex- 
tremity, and  passing  through  a  pulley  at  the  head  of  that 
section  of  the  mast  to  which  the  sail  or  yard  belongs. 
They  ar«  worked  <ntho,v  on  the  deck  ov  in  tha  top. 


BIGGING. 


Fig.  3. 


Spars,  eta— A,  Mast;  B,  Topmast ;C,  Topgallantmast:  D,  Royal- 
mast;  E,  Yard;  F,  Topsailyard;  G,  Topgallantsail-yard ;  H, 
Royal-yard ;  K,  Truck ;  L,  Bowsprit ;  M,  Jib-boom ;  N,  Flying 
Jib-boom  ;  O,  Martingale  ;  P,  Chains  ;  Q,  Top ;  R,  Cap ;  S, 
Crosstrees ;  T,  Topmast  Cap ;  U,  Gaff;  V,  Boom,  or  Spanker- 
boom. 

Sails— a,  Mainsail ;  &,  Topsail ;  c,  Topgallantsail ;  d,  Royal ;  e, 

Spanker. 

Standing  Rigging— I.  Shrouds;  n.  Topmast  Shrouds,  crossed  by 
Ratlings  ;  in.  Topgallant  Shrouds  ;  iv.  Stay  ;  v.  Topmast 
Stay;  vi.  Topgallantmast  Stay;  vn.  Royal  Stay;  vm.  Top- 
mast Backstay;  ix.  Topgallantmast  Backstay  ;  x.  Loyal 
Backstay;  xi.  Flying  Jib-boom  Martingale  Stays;  xn.  Jib- 
boom  Martingale  Stays;  xiii.  Martingale  Backstays;  xiv. 
Bobstays. 

Running  Rigging .— 1,  Lifts;  2,  Topsail  Lifts;  3,  Topgallantsail 
Lifts  ;  4,  Royal  Lifts  ;  5,  Braces;  6,  Topsail  Braces;  7,  Top- 
gallant Braces;  8,  Royal  Braces;  9,  Signal  Halyards;  10,  Jib- 
stay;  11,  Flying  Jib-stay;  12,  Sheet  ;  13,  Peak  Halyards  ;  1% 
Vangs;  15,  Topping  Lifts;  16,  Spanker  Sheet. 


HIGGLE — MGGS. 
yard -lifts  are  shown  by  the  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4.  The  gaff 
and  bourn  have  separate  lifts  working  into  the  mizzen- 
top  (13,  15).  Each  jib-sail  has  a  lift  (not  shown),  which 
iacts  parallel  and  close  to  iv.,  v.,  10,  or  11.  If  the  ship 
carry  stay-sails,  there  will  be  lifts  parallel  to  the  main 
and  mizzen  topmast  stays  and  higher  stays. 

3.  The  ropes  for  adjusting  the  sails  when  spread. 
These  comprise,  first,  the  sheets  for  hauling  down  the 
lower  corners  of  each  sail — specimens  are  shown  at  12; 
secondly,  the  braces  for  turning  the  yards  about,  to  trim 
the  sails  to  the  wind.  Each  yard  has  two  braces,  one 
from  either  end  passing  to  an  adjoining  mast,  except 
the  main  braces,  which  are  brought  to  the  ship's  side 
near  the  stern.  The  braces  are  shown  as  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  8. 
The  vangs  and  spanker  sheet  (14,  18)  perform  similar 
offices  for  the  spanker.  There  are  minor  ropes  in  con- 
nection with  the  sails,  for  assisting  in  furling,  reefing, 
spreading,  etc. ;  but  their  insertion  would  render  the 
diagram  too  complicated. 

4.  Ropes  in  connection  with  the  flags.  Each  mast 
has  at  its  head  a  truck,  containing  two  or  more  small  pul- 
leys. Over  each  of  these,  a  thin  halyard  is  passed,  and 
brought  down  double  to  the  deck.  On  these,  any  re- 
quired flag  is  rapidly  bent  and  hoisted  with  great  ea.se. 
There  are  two  pair  of  similar  halyards  to  the  gaff-peak ; 
and  when  the  ship  is  to  be  decorated  on  any  festive  oc- 
casion, similar  halyards  are  affixed  to  the  end  of  each 
yard-arm. 

In  different  classes  of  ships,  slight  modifications  occur 
in  the  rigging,  to  suit  particular  circumstances  ;  but  the 
main  principles  of  rigging  are  as  detailed  above  for  all 
sizes  of  decked  vessels.    See  Sails. 

RIGGLE,  v.  rig'gl:  spelling  of  Wkiggle,  (q.v.). 

RIGGS,  rigz,  Elias,  d.d.,  ll.d.  :  Christian  mis- 
sionary to  the  orient :  b.  New  Providence,  N.  J.,  1810,  Nov. 
19;  graduated  at  Amherst  1829,  and  Andover  1832.  He 
was  a  missionary  of  the  Amer.  Board  at  Athens  and 
Argos,  Greece,  1832-38;  at  Smyrna  1838-53;  and  since 
at  Constantinople.  On  visiting  home,  he  taught  Hebrew 
at  Union  Theol.  Seminary  1857-8,  declined  a  professor- 
ship, and  returned  to  Turkey.  To  him  is  due  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  into  Turkish,  in  both  the  Arabic  an 
Armenian  alphabet  (1878) ;  and  he  has  published  A 
Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language  (1832) ;  The  Young  Fores- 
ter, a  memoir  of  the  Swede  missionary  Fjelstedt  (1840) ; 
translatio'n  of  the  Scriptures  into  modern  Armenian 
(1853) ;  Grammatical  Notes  on  the  Bulgarian  Language 
(1844) ;  Grammar  of  Modern  Armenian  Language,  with 
Vocabulary  (1847) ;  Grammar  of  the  Turkish  Language,  as 
Written  in  the  Armenian  Character  (1871) ;  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  into  the  Bulgarian  language  (1871) ;  A  Har- 
mony of  the  Gospels  in  the  Bulgarian  (1880) ;  A  Bible  Diet, 
in  the  Bulgarian  (1884);  suggested  emendations  of  the 
revised  version  of  the  Bible,  and  many  tracts  and  hymns 
hi  the  languages  mentioned.    He  was  still  living  1890. 


BIGHI— EIGHT. 

RIGHI,  re'ghe :  mountain  of  Switzerland,  canton  of 
Schwyz,  between  Lakes  Lucerne,  Zug,  and  Lowerz :  it  is 
isolated,  and  commands  extensive  views  of  some  of  the 
finest  Swiss  scenery.  It  is  easily  accessible ;  six  mule- 
paths  and  the  R.  railway,  opened  1871,  lead  to  the  sum- 
mit, which,  though  it  forms  an  admirable  natural  observ- 
atory in  favorable  weather,  is  only  5,905  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Verdant  pastures  clothe  the  entire  summit,  and 
the  slopes  are  belted  with  forests.  Crowds  of  tourists, 
men  and  women,  ascend  the  R.  every  season,  for  th» 
fine  views  which  it  commands.  There  is  a  large  hotel 
at  the  top,  where  tourists  pass  the  night,  in  order  to  sei 
the  sun  rise.    The  native  spelling  is  Rigi. 

RIGHT,  a.  rit  [AS.  riht ;  Goth,  raihts;  Ger.  recht ;  L 
rectus,  straight,  stretched  out ;  regere,  to  rule :  Gr« 
orego,  I  stretch]  :  straight ;  not  crooked ;  direct ;  true ; 
not  wrong  ;  according  to  the  standard  of  truth  or  oi 
moral  rectitude,  or  to  the  will  of  God  ;  not  erroneous  or 
wrong ;  fit ;  proper ;  well  performed ;  applied  to  one  of 
the  hands  which  it  is  most  convenient  or  right  to  make 
use  of,  or  which  is  naturally  used  in  preference  to  the 
other,  from  some  inherent  physical  power  in  itself  (see 
Left)  ;  on  the  right  hand,  as  a  leg  or  a  part ;  applied  to 
the  side  or  bank  of  a  river  on  the  right  hand  when  look- 
ing toward  its  mouth :  denoting  an  angle  of  90° :  denot- 
ing the  side  of  cloth  designed  to  appear  externally :  N. 
not  the  wrong;  the  side  which  is  not  the  left — i.e.,  the 
right  side  is  toward  the  e.  when  one  faces  the  n. :  per^ 
feet  standard  of  truth  and  justice;  justice;  freedom 
from  error;  legal  title  (see  Right,  in  Law);  just  claim; 
that  which  justly  belongs  to  one ;  privilege :  V.  to  re- 
lieve from  wrong ;  to  do  justice  to ;  to  restore  to  its  up- 
right position,  as  a  ship :  Ad.  according  to  the  standard 
of  truth  and  justice;  in  a  right  manner;  according 
to  fact  and  truth ;  directly ;  in  a  direct  line ;  very ; 
thoroughly,  as  right  valiant — also  in  this  sense,  right 
honorable;  in  OK,  just;  immediately;  at  the  instant : 
Int.  an  expression  of  approval.  Right'ing,  imp. 
Righted,  pp.  Right'ful,  a.  -ful,  consonant  to  jus- 
tice ;  having  a  legal  or  just  claim  ;  equitable.  Right- 
fully, ad.  -1%.  Rightfulness,  n.  -wes,  the  state  of 
being  rightful;  accordance  with  the  rules  of  right. 
Right'ly,  ad.  -tt,  according  to  justice;  properly;  fitly; 
honestly;  uprightly.  Right'ness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of 
being  right;  conformity  to  truth.  Right  and  left,  in 
all  directions;  on  all  sides.  Right  angle,  in  geom.,  an 
angle  formed  by  one  straight  line  standing  on  another 
when  the  adjacent  angles  are  equal ;  an  angle  of  90°. 
Right-angled,  a.  -ang'gld,  in  gcom.,  containing  one  or 
more  right  angles.  Right  ascension  and  declination, 
the  equinoctial  co-ordinates  for  defining  the  position  of 
points  of  the  celestial  concave,  and  indicating  their  posi- 
tions relatively  to  each  other,  the  former  being  measured 
on  the  equinoctial  from  the  first  point  of  Aries  eastward, 
the  latter  on  the  secondaries  of  the  equinoctial  to  the 


RIGHT. 

north  and  south  poles  of  the  heavens  from  0®  to  90°. 
Eight  away  or  off,  at  once ;  without  delay.  Right- 
handed,  a.  using  the  right  hand  more  easily  than  the 
left.  To  put  one's  eight  foot  foremost  [the  Romans 
held  it  a  good  omen  to  enter  a  dwelling  by  crossing  the 
threshold  with  the  right  foot  first]  :  to  do  one's  very  best 
in  order  to  be  successful.  Right-handed  screw,  a 
screw  the  threads  of  which  wind  spirally  from  left  to 
right.  Right-hearted,  a.  good-hearted.  Right  Hon- 
orable, title  used  in  addressing  all  noblemen  below  the 
rank  of  marquis,  their  wives,  their  eldest  sons  where 
there  is  a  second  title,  and  the  daughters  of  those  above 
the  rank  of  viscount,all  privy  councilors,  the  lord  mayors 
of  London  and  Dublin,  the  provosts  of  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow,  and  certain  others.  Right  line,  n.  in  geom., 
a  straight  line.  Right-minded,  a.  -mind  ed,  well-dis- 
posed. Right  or  Left,  Extreme  Right,  Extreme 
Left,  terms  derived  from  the  usage  of  the  French 
chamber  of  deputies  or  legislative  assembly,  where  the 
party  on  the  side  of  the  administration  occupy  the  right 
side  of  the  hall,  and  the  opposition  the  left  side  (see 
Prance — Political  Parties).  Right  side,  the  side  to  be 
shown;  familiarly,  good  graces.  Right  sphere,  that 
position  of  the  sphere,  being  the  appearance  to  a  specta- 
tor on  the  equator,  in  which  the  circles  apparently  de- 
scribed by  the  heavenly  bodies  are  at  right  angles  to  the 
horizon.  Right-whale,  n.  the  Greenland  whale:  see 
Whale.  At  right  angles,  applied  to  a  line  which  crosses 
or  stands  on  another  perpendicularly.  Bill  of  rights 
(see  Rights,  Declaration  and  Bill  of).  By  rights, 
properly;  correctly.  On  the  right,  on  the  same  side 
with  the  right  hand.  In  one's  own  right,  by  absolute 
right.  To  right  a  vessel,  to  restore  her  to  an  upright 
position.  To  set  or  put  to  rights,  to  arrange;  to  put 
into  good  order. — Syn.  of  4  right,  a.':  direct;  straight; 
correct ;  true ;  perpendicular ;  just ;  equitable ;  suitable ; 
becoming;  lawful;  upright;  rightful;  proper;  fit; 
honest. 

RIGHT,  in  Law :  that  kind  of  interest  in  or  connec- 
tion with  a  subject-matter  which  serves  as  foundation 
for  an  action  or  suit,  or  other  protection  of  a  court  of 
law  or  equity ;  hence  it  means  an  interest  that  can  be 
enforced,  for  if  it  is  such  as  a  court  of  law  or  equity  can- 
not take  notice  of,  it  may  be  called  a  natural  or  moral, 
but  not  a  legal  right.  Strictly  speaking,  right  means 
merely  a  -relation  between  external  nature  and  some 
person,  therefore  there  is  no  such  thing  as  abstract 
rights,  for  a  right  is  intelligible  only  when  predicated  of 
some  person  who  can  exercise  or  enforce  it.  There  is  an 
old  practical  division  of  all  rights  into  rights  of  the  per- 
son and  rights  of  things.  In  the  former  class  are  in- 
cluded such  divisions  as  rights  of  personal  security  and 
liberty ;  rights  connected  with  marriage,  infancy,  etc. ; 
while  in  the  latter  class  are  included  the  general  rights 
arising  out  of  the  possession  of  real  and  personal  prop- 


RIGHTEOUS— RIGHTS, 
erty.  There  are  various  subjects  which  do  not  fall  un- 
der either  division  exclusively  ;  indeed,  none  of  the  usual 
divisions  of  rights  can  be  said  to  be  mere  than  vaguely 
descriptive  of  their  subjects.  It  might  naturally  be  ex- 
pected that  the  correlative  legal  expression  for  rights 
should  be  wrongs,  but  this  is  not  the  case,  the  word 
wrong  being  used  technically  to  mean  only  that  class  of 
infringements  of  one's  rights  which  are  connected  with 
the  person  or  the  personal  use  of  property.  Thus,  the 
refusing  or  withholding  payment  of  a  debt  is  not  cor- 
rectly called  a  legal  wrong;  but  an  assault  or  injury  to 
one's  person,  or  to  one's  property,  irrespective  of  any 
contract,  is  properly  called  a  wrong  or  a  tort.  The 
word  right  is  used  also  more  or  less  technically,  in  a 
narrower  sense.  An  action,  called  a  writ  of  right,  had 
for  its  object  to  establish  the  title  to  real  property;  but 
it  was  abolished,  the  same  object  being  secured  by  the 
order  of  ejectment.  A  petition  of  right  is  a  proceeding 
resembling  an  action  by  which  a  subject  vindicates  his 
rights  against  the  crown,  or  a  citizen  against  the  govt., 
and  recovers  debts  and  claims.  A  right  of  way,  is  a  right 
of  a  private  owner  or  occupier  to  a  way  over  the  land  of 
an  adjoining  proprietor,  as  incidental  to  his  possession 
of  a  house,  or  premises,  or  land.  Right  of  action,  means 
simply  a  right  to  commence  an  action  in  one  of  the  courts 
of  law  to  recover  damages  or  property.  Right  of  common, 
means  a  right  of  one,  not  the  owner  or  occupier  of  waste 
land,  to  send  cattle  to  graze  on  it,  or  to  cut  turf,  or  ex- 
ercise some  partial  right  of  property  over  it.  Right  of 
entry,  is  a  right  to  possess  and  Use  land  or  premises,  etc. 

RIGHTEOUS,  a.  rit'yus  or  rl'chus  [from  Eng.  right: 
OE.  rightwys;  AS.  rihtwis,  righteous,  pious — from  AS. 
riht,  right,  and  wis,  wise]  :  literally,  wise  as  to  what  is 
right;  agreeing  with  right;  living,  acting,  or  done  ac- 
cording to  the  will  of  God;  honest;  just;  equitable. 
Right'eously,  ad.  -Vi.  Righteousness,  n.  -nes  [AS. 
rihtwisn%s]:  what  is  right;  justice;  uprightness;  con- 
formity of  heart  and  life  to  the  divine  law ;  integrity ; 
the  perfection  of  God's  nature. — Syn.  of  'righteous': 
godly;  upright;  holy;  equitable;  rightful;  just;  un- 
corrupt;  virtuous;  honest;  faithful; — of  'rightful': 
just;  lawful;  equitable;  proper;  honest. 

RIGHTS,  Declaration  and  Bill  of:  solemn  in- 
strument set  forth  by  the  convention  which  called  the 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange  to  the  throne  of  England, 
(1688),  known  as  the  Declaration  of  Rights,  in  which  were 
stated  those  fundamental  principles  of  the  constitution 
which  were  to  be  imposed  on  William  and  Mary  on  their 
acceptance  of  the  crown.  This  declaration,  drawn  up  by 
a  committee  of  the  commons,  and  assented  to  by  the 
lords,  began  by  declaring  that  King  James  II.  had 
committed  certain  acts  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  realm. 
The  king,  by  whose  authority  these  unlawful  acts  had 
been  done,  had  abdicated  the  throne ;  and  the  Prince  of 
Orange  having  invited  the  estates  of  the  realm  to  meet 


EIGHTS. 


and  deliberate  on  the  security  of  religion,  law,  and  free- 
dom, the  lords  and  commons  had  resolved  to  declare 
and  assert  the  ancient  rights  and  liberties  of  England. 
It  was  therefore  declared,  that  the  power  of  suspending 
and  of  dispensing  with  laws  by  regal  authority  is  illegal ; 
that  the  commission  for  creating  the  late  Court  of  Com- 
missioners for  Ecclesiastical  Causes,  and  all  commis- 
sions and  courts  of  the  like  nature,  are  illegal;  that  the 
levying  of  money  for  the  use  of  the  crown  by  preroga- 
tive, without  grant  of  parliament,  is  illegal;  that  it  is 
the  right  of  the  subjects  to  petition  the  king,  and  all 
prosecutions  for  such  petitioning  are  illegal;  that  the 
raising  or  keeping  of  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace, 
except  with  consent  of  parliament,  is  illegal ;  that  Prot- 
estant subjects  may  have  arms  for  their  defense ;  that 
the  election  of  members  of  parliament  should  be  free; 
that  freedom  of  speech  in  parliament  should  not  be 
questioned  in  any  place  out  of  parliament ;  that  exces- 
sive bail  ought  not  to  be  required,  or  excessive  fines  im- 
posed, or  cruel  or  unusual  punishments  inflicted ;  that 
jurors  should  be  duly  impanelled,  and  that  jurors  in 
trials  for  high  treason  should  be  freeholders ;  that  grants 
and  promises  of  fines  and  forfeitures  before  conviction 
are  illegal ;  and  that  for  redress  of  all  grievances,  and 
the  amendment,  strengthening,  and  preserving  of  the 
laws,  parliaments  ought  to  be  held  frequently.  All 
these  things  the  lords  and  commons  claimed  as  their 
undoubted  rights  and  liberties ;  and  having  done  so, 
they  resolved  that  William  and  Mary  should  be  king  and 
queen  of  England  for  their  joint  and  separate  lives,  the 
administration  being  during  their  joint  lives  in  William 
alone;  and  that  on  their  decease  the  crown  should 
descend  to  the  issue  of  the  queen,  then  to  that  of  Anne 
and  her  posterity,  and,  failing  them,  to  the  issue  of 
William. 

This  Declaration  of  Eights  was  presented  to  the 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange  at  Whitehall,  and  ac- 
cepted by  them  with  the  crown.  Being  originally  a  rev- 
olutionary instrument,  drawn  up  in  an  irregular  as- 
sembly, it  was  considered  necessary  that  it  should  be 
turned  into  law.  The  Declaration  of  Eights  was  there- 
fore brought  forward  in  the  parliament,  into  which  the 
convention  had  "been  turned,  as  a  Bill  of  Eights,  and, 
after  various  discussions,  passed  both  houses  1689,  and 
obtained  the  royal  assent — a  clause,  however,  being 
added,  which  originated  in  the  house  of  lords,  to  the 
effect  that  the  kings  and  queens  of  England  should  be 
obliged,  on  coming  to  the  throne,  in  full  parliament  or 
at  the  coronation,  to  repeat  and  subscribe  the  declara- 
tion against  transubstantiation ;  and  that  a  king  or 
queen  who  should  marry  a  papist  would  be  incapable  of 
reigning  in  England,  and  his  subjects  would  be  absolved 
from  their  allegiance. 


RIGHTS  OF  MAN— RIGID. 

RIGHTS  OF  MAN:  famous  statement  of  rights, 
drawn  up  principally  by  Dumont,  author  of  Souvenirs  de 
Mirabeau,  and  solemnly  adopted  by  the  French  National 
Assembly,  1789,  Aug.  18.  It  declares  that  all  mankind 
are  originally  equal ;  that  the  ends  of  the  social  union 
are  liberty,  property,  security,  and  resistance  to  op- 
pression; that  sovereignty  resides  in  the  nation,  and 
that  all  power  emanates  from  it ;  that  freedom  consists 
in  doing  everything  which  does  not  injure  another;  that 
law  is  the  expression  of  the  general  will;  that  public 
burdens  should  be  borne  by  all  members  of  the  state  in 
proportion  to  their  fortunes ;  that  the  elective  franchise 
should  be  extended  to  all;  and  that  the  exercise  of 
natural  rights  has  no  other  limit  than  their  interference 
with  the  rights  of  others.  Mirabeau  endeavored  in  vain 
to  induce  the  assembly  to  postpone  publishing  any  de- 
claration of  rights  until  after  the  formation  of  the  con- 
stitution; but  the  deputies,  feeling  that  a  contrary 
course  might  imperil  their  popularity,  issued  the  decla- 
ration— a  proceeding  which  Dumont  himself  afterward 
compared  to  placing  a  powder-magazine  under  a  build- 
ing, which  the  first  spark  of  fire  would  blow  into  the 
air.  Louis  XVI.,  under  the  pressure  of  the  events  of 
Oct.  5,  after  first  refusing,  was  induced  to  yield  assent 
to  it.  The  dogma  of  the  equality  of  mankind,  on  which 
the  declaration  rests,  had  before  been  set  forth  in  the 
American  Declaration  of  Independence  of  1776.  Thinkers 
are  now  much  less  inclined  than  in  the  age  of  Rousseau 
to  build  social  theories  on  such  abstract,  a  priori  assump- 
tions ;  and  the  truth  of  this  doctrine  of  original  equality 
is  directly  impugned.  Dumont  himself  asks:  'Are  all 
men  equal  ?  Where  is  the  equality  ?  Is  it  in  virtue, 
talents,  fortune,  industry,  situation  ?  Are  they  free  by 
nature?  So  far  from  it,  they  are  born  in  a  state  of  com- 
plete dependence  on  others,  from  which  they  are  long  of 
being  emancipated.'  To  this,  the  rejoinder,  so  far  at 
least  as  concerns  the  principle  stated  in  the  Amer.  Dec- 
laration, is  that  the  equality  claimed  is  no  abstraction 
but  a  fundamental  element  in  all  rightful  and  stable 
government— that  all  men  are  to  be  counted  originally 
equal  before  the  law. 

The  principles  laid  down  in  the  Rights  of  Man  were  at- 
tacked by  Edmund  Burke  in  his  Reflections  on  the  French 
Revolution,  who  represented  the  declaration  as  a  digest 
of  anarchy.  It  was  in  reply  to  Burke's  Reflections  that 
Thomas  Paine  published  in  London  his  Rights  of  Man,  an 
apology  for,  and  commentary  on,  the  principles  of  the 
French  constitution,  for  which  he  was  prosecuted  for  libel 
on  an  information  by  the  atty.gen.  and  found  guilty. 

RIGID,  rlfid  [L.  rigidus,  stiff,  inflexible— from  rigere, 
to  be  stiff :  It.  rigido :  F.  rigide]  :  not  pliant  or  easily 
bent;  stiff;  severely  just;  strict;  unyielding;  inflexi- 
ble; rigorous;  in  OE.,  sharp;  cruel.  Rigidly,  ad.  -ft, 
severely ;  inflexibly.  Rig'idness,  n.  -nes,  or  Rigidity, 
n.  rl $%d'%-t%  inflexibility ;  stiffness ;  quality  of  resisting 


RIGID  DYNAMICS — RIGMAROLE, 
change  of  form;  want  of  ease.    Rigidulous,  a.  r%-Q%d'u* 
lus,  in  bot.,  rather  stiff. — Syn.  of  'rigid':  inflexible; 
unyielding ;  rigorous ;  unmitigated  ;  unremitted ;  stern ; 
austere ;  severe  ;  exact ;  stiff ;  unpliant ;  strict. 

RIG'ID  DYNAMICS:  that  portion  of  theoretical 
Dynamics  (q.v.)  which,  based  on  the  theory  of  the  free 
and  constrained  motion  of  points,  applies  the  principles 
thence  deduced  to  a  system  of  points  rigidly  connected, 
so  as  to  bear  throughout  the  whole  continuance  of  their 
motion  the  same  invariable  position  with  relation  to 
each  other ;  in  other  words,  as  no  body  in  nature  can 
be  considered  as  a  point,  but  is  truly  a  system  of  points, 
rigid  dynamics  has  for  its  aim  to  apply  the  abstract 
theory  of  dynamics  to  the  cases  actually  occurring  in  na- 
ture. For  a  long  time,  problems  of  this  sort  were  not 
resolved  by  any  general  and  adequate  method,  but  each 
class  was  worked  out  according  to  a  method  specially 
applicable  to  its  particular  circumstances.  The  great 
general  principle  discovered  by  the  French  geometer, 
commonly  known  as  U  Alemberf  s  principle,  which  ap- 
plies equally  to  all  such  problems,  and  removes  the 
necessity  for  specially  investigating  each  particular  case, 
was  an  inestimable  boon  to  mechanical  science.  It  is 
thus  stated  in  his  Traitt  de  Dynamique:  *  In  whatever 
manner  a  number  of  bodies  change  their  motions,  if  we 
suppose  that  the  motion  which  each  body  would  have  in 
the  following  moment,  if  it  were  perfectly  free,  is  de- 
composed into  two  others,  one  of  which  is  the  motion 
which  it  really  takes  in  consequence  of  their  mutual  ac- 
tions, then  the  other  component  will  be  such,  that  if 
each  body  were  impressed  by  a  force  which  would  pro- 
duce it  alone,  the  whole  system  would  be  in  equilibrium.' 
In  this  way  every  dynamical  problem  can  be  compelled 
to  furnish  an  equation  of  equilibrium,  and  so  be  changed 
into  a  problem  of  Statics  (q.v.) ;  and  thus  the  solution 
of  a  difficult  and  complex  problem  is  effected  by  means 
of  the  resolution  of  a  much  easier  one.  D'Alembert  ap- 
plied his  principle  to  various  problems  on  the  motions 
and  actions  of  fluids,  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
etc. ;  and  subsequently,  in  a  modified  form,  the  same 
general  property  was  made  the  basis  of  a  complete 
system  of  dynamics,  by  La  Grange,  in  his  Mecanique 
Analytique. 

RIGLET :  see  Reglet. 

RIGMAROLE,  n.  rig'ma-rol  [a  corruption  of  Ragman- 
jtOLL,  formerly  a  popular  game  consisting  in  drawing 
characters  from  a  roll  by  means  of  hanging  strings,  the 
amusement  consisting  in  the  application  or  misapplica- 
tion of  the  characters  to  the  persons  who  drew  them : 
OE.  ragman,  a  name  applied  to  the  devil :  see  Ragman's 
ilOLL] :  a  succession  of  confused  or  nonsensical  sen- 
tences or  statemei_ts ;  a  repetition  of  idle  or  long  foolish 
stories :  Adj.  pert,  to  or  consisting  of  rigmarole ;  non- 
sensical. 


EIGOL— RIGOR  MOKTIS. 

RIGOL,  n.  ri'gol  [from  OE.  ringle,  a  dim.  of  Eng.  ring1. 
Ger.  ringel,  a  ring,  a  circle]  :  in  OE.,  a  circle;  a  diadem. 

BIGOB,  n.  ri'gdr  or  rig'er  [L.  rigor,  stiffness,  rigidity 
4 — from  rigere,  to  be  stiff:  It.  rigore :  F.  rigueur]  :  in  med., 
a  sudden  coldness  accompanied  by  shivering,  symptom- 
atic of  the  beginning  of  a  disease,  especially  of  a  fever. 
Rigor  mortis,  mor'tis  [L.  stiffness  of  death] :  the 
stiffening  of  the  body  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  after  death. 

RIGOR,  n.  rig'er  [F.  rigueur,  rigor — from  L.  rigdrem, 
stiffness,  rigidity  (see  Rigor  1)] :  stiffness  or  severity  in 
opinion,  temper,  or  maimers ;  strictness ;  sternness ; 
quality  of  being  strict  or  exact ;  quality  of  being  severe 
or  very  cold,  as  the  weather;  unabated  exactness; 
severity  of  life;  in  Oi£,  rage;  cruelty;  fury;  hardness. 
Rigorous,  a.  rig'er -us,  allowing  no  abatement  or  relaxa- 
tion ;  scrupulously  exact  or  accurate ;  severe ;  harsh ; 
very  cold,  as  a  winter.  Big'orously,  ad.  -li'  severely ; 
without  tenderness  or  mitigation ;  exactly ;  nicely.  Big'- 
orousness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of  being  rigorous.  Rigor- 
ist,  n.  rig'er-ist,  one  very  severe  and  exact  in  matters  of 
religion;  a  Jansenist. — Syn.  of  'rigor':  rigidness;  in- 
flexibility ;  severity ;  austerity ;  sternness ;  cold ;  stiff- 
ness ;  harshness  ;  strictness  ;  exactness ; — of  '  rigorous ' : 
rigid;  inflexible;  unyielding;  severe;  stiff;  austere; 
stern  ;  harsh ;  strict ;  exact. 

BIG'OB  MOR'TIS  [L.  stiffness  of  death] :  peculiar 
temporary  rigidity  of  the  muscles  that  occurs  shortly 
after  death.  It  begins  immediately  after  all  indications 
of  irritability  (see  Muscle)  have  ceased,  but  before  the 
commencement  of  putrefaction.  In  the  human  subject 
it  usually  shows  itself  about  seven  hours  after  death, 
though  in  some  cases  20,  or  even  30,  hours  may  elapse 
before  it  appears.  This  condition  of  rigidity  usually 
lasts  about  30  hours ;  but  it  may  pass  off  in  ten  hours 
or  less,  or  may  be  prolonged  to  four  or  six  days.  The 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  lower  jaw  are  first  affected,  then 
those  of  the  trunk,  then  those  of  the  upper  extremities, 
and  lastly  those  of  the  lower  extremities.  In  its  depart- 
ure, which  is  immediately  followed  by  decomposition, 
the  same  order  is  followed. 

This  subject  has  been  admirably  discussed  by  Dr. 
Brown-Sequard  in  the  '  Croonian  Lecture  '  for  1861  (see 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Soc.  for  that  year).  In  this  lect- 
ure he  examines  successively  the  relations  existing  be- 
tween muscular  irritability,  post-mortem  rigidity,  and 
putrefaction,  in  i  variety  of  cases.  The  following  are 
his  chief  conclusions  :  1.  Paralyzed  muscles  are  endowed 
with  more  irritability  than  healthy  muscles ;  cadaveric 
rigidity  sets  in  late,  and  lasts  long;  and  putrefaction 
appears  late,  and  progresses  slowly.  2.  Experiments 
made  on  numerous  animals  show  that  when  muscular 
irritability  is  increased  by  diminution  of  temperature,  the 
increase  has  the  same  effect  on  rigidity  and  putrefaction 
as  when  caused  by  paralysis.    As  a  general  rule,  when 


BIG  VEDA — BILE, 
there  was  a  difference  of  14°  to  18°  F.  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  two  animals  of  the  same  age  and  species,  irrita- 
bility and  rigidity  lasted  twice  or  three  times  longer  in 
the  cooler  animal  than  in  the  other,  and  putrefaction  in 
the  former  was  much  less  rapid.  3.  It  was  maintained 
by  John  Hunter  that  cadaveric  rigidity  does  not  take 
place  after  death  by  lightning ;  but  it  is  now  known  that 
this  view  is  not  generally  true.  When  lightning  destroys 
life  by  producing  such  violent  convulsion  of  every  mus- 
cle in  the  body  that  muscular  irritability  at  once  ceases, 
the  ensuing  rigidity  may  be  of  such  short  duration  as  to 
escape  notice ;  but  if  lightning  causes  death  by  fright, 
hemorrhage,  or  concussion  of  the  brain,  cadaveric  rigid- 
ity will  appear  as  usual.  4.  In  animals  that  have  been 
over-driven,  hunted  to  death,  etc.,  rigidity  comes  on 
very  quickly,  lasts  a  very  short  time,  and  is  rapidly 
succeeded  by  putrefaction ;  and  various  facts  quoted  by 
Brown-Sequard  show  that  over-exertion  acts  similarly  in 
man.  5.  The  nutrition  of  the  muscles  exerts  a  modify- 
ing influence  on  rigidity  and  putrefaction.  In  cases  of 
death  from  decapitation,  strangulation,  sudden  hemor- 
rhage from  a  wounded  artery,  etc.,  cadaveric  rigidity 
does  not  begin  till  16  or  18  hours  after  death,  and  lasts 
six  to  eight  days ;  while  in  a  case  of  death  from  exhaus- 
tion, after  a  prolonged  typhoid  fever,  rigidity  became 
evident  within  three  minutes  after  the  last  breathing, 
while  the  heart  was  still  beating ;  disappeared  in  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour,  and  was  at  once  succeeded  by  signs  of 
putrefaction  before  the  man  had  been  dead  an  hour.  6. 
When  death  follows  violent  and  prolonged  convulsions 
(as  in  cases  of  tetanus,  hydrophobia,  etc.),  cadaveric 
rigidity  sets  in  soon  (usually  within  an  hour  after  death), 
and  ceases  before  the  end  of  the  tenth  hour ;  and  when 
the  convulsions  were  caused  by  strychnine,  similar  re- 
sults were  observed.  From  these  facts  this  accomplished 
physiologist  deduces  the  general  law,  that  *  the  greater 
the  degree  of  muscular  irritability  at  the  time  of  death, 
the  later  the  cadaveric  rigidity  sets  in :  and  the  longer 
it  lasts,  the  later  also  putrefaction  appears,  and  the 
slower  it  progresses.* 

The  exact  cause  of  this  rigidity  is  not  accurately 
known.  The  old  view  that  it  depended  on  the  coagula- 
tion of  the  blood  is  no  longer  tenable.  It  most  probably 
results  from  the  spontaneous  coagulation  of  a  fibrinous 
material  contained  in  the  muscular  juice.  j 

BIGrVEDA,  rig-ve'da  :  the  first  and  principal  of  the  four  [ 
Vedas :  see  Veda. 

BILE,  v.  rll  [see  Boil  1,  which  is  the  same  word] :  to 
stir  up  and  make  muddy,  as  water;  to  put  out  of  temper, 
Bii/ing,  imp.    Biled,  pp.  rild. 


RILEY— -RILIEVO, 

RILEY,  ri'tt,  Bennett  :  soldier  :  1787,  Nov;  27—1853, 
June  9  ;  b.  Alexandria,  Va.  He  served  in  the  war  of 
1812,  in  the  Indian  disturbances  at  various  points,  won 
great  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  bre vetted 
brig. gen.  and  maj.gen.  ;  was  afterward  in  command  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  was  gov.  of  the  territory  of  Cal. 
till  it  became  a  state.  By  various  promotions  he  reached 
the  rank  of  col.    He  died  at  Buffalo. 

RILEY,  rl'll,  Charles  Valentine,  ph.d.,  entomolo- 
gist :  b.  London,  England,  1843,  Sep.  18.  He  was  sent  to 
a  college  in  Dieppe,  France,  1854  ;  entered  the  Univ.  of 
Bonn,  Germany,  1857  ;  came  to  the  United  States  when  17 
years  of  age  ;  and  did  editorial  work  on  the  Prairie  Farm- 
er, Chicago,  interrupted  by  militaiy  service  from  1864  to 
the  end  of  the  war.  He  was  state  entomologist  of  Mo. 
1868-77,  publishing  9  valuable  annual  reports  ;  and  en- 
tomologist to  the  U.  S.  dept.  of  agriculture  (organizing  an 
entom.  div.  1881)  1878-1894.  Meanwhile  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Rocky  Mt.  locust  commission,  writing  much  of 
the  reports.  To  the  National  Museum  he  gave  115,000 
insect  specimens.  His  investigations  of  farm,  vineyard, 
and  plantation  pests  are  well  known.  From  the  French 
govt,  and  the  Edinburgh  Forestry  exhibition,  he  received 
gold  medals,  and  was  member  of  many  learned  societies, 
and  pres.  of  some.  He  published  The  American  Entomolo- 
gist, besides  hundreds  of  papers  ;  Potato  Pests  (1876)  ;  The 
Locust  Plague  (1877),  and  continued  to  issue  reports  and 
bulletins  of  the  U.  S.  agric.  dept.,  of  great  value.  He  d. 
1895,  Sept.  14. 

RILEY,  Foet,  rVVifort :  U.  S.  milit.  reservation,  sub- 
urb  of  Junction  City,  Kan.,  near  the  geographical  centre 
of  the  United  States,  named  after  Gen.  Bennett  Biley, 
tj.s.a.  It  comprises  20,000  acres,  was  selected  for  milit. 
purposes  1852,  occupied  1855,  and  made  the  location  of 
a  permanent  school  of  instruction  for  drill  and  practice 
for  the  cav.  and  light  artil.  service  for  the  army  of  the 
United  States  1887.  When  all  the  buildings  are  com- 
pleted (estimated  cost  $1,500,000),  it  will  be  the  largest 
milit.  post  on  the  continent,  and  its  maintenance  in  all 
details  will  aggregate  more  than  $1,000,000  per  annum. 

RILEY,  James  Whitcomb  :  poet:  born  Greenfield, 
Ind.,  1853.  He  attended  school  but  a  short  time;  be- 
came a  sign-painter;  and  joined  a  strolling  theatrical 
troupe  for  which  he  revised,  and  sometimes  wrote,  plays 
and  songs.  After  gaining  reputation  by  his  contribu- 
tions of  dialect  poems  to  local  papers,  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  Indianapolis*  Jowrnal.  He  has  written 
for  various  periodicals,  and  recited  nis  poems  at  literary 
entertainments  in  many  cities  and  towns.  Among  his 
published  wor&s  are  The  Old  Swim?ninf-Hole,  and  'Leven 
More  Poems,  by  BenJ.  F.  Johnson,  of  Boone  (1883);  The 
Boss  Girl,  and  Other  Sketches  (1886)  ;  Rhymes  of  Child- 
hood (1891);  Home  Folks  (1900);  Old  Aunt  Mar,/ 
(1903). 

RILIEVO,  n.  rl-lc'vo  [It.]  :  the  pi'oper  spelling  of 
Relievo,  a  term  in  the  line  arts:  see  under  Relief. 


EILL — BIME. 

RILL,  n.  rtl  [Low  Ger.  rille,  a  little  stream :  Dut. 
rillen,  to  shiver :  Icel.  rylla,  to  tumble  about]:  a  very 
small  brook ;  a  streamlet :  V.  to  run  in  very  small 
streams.    Rill'ing,  imp.    Rilled,  pp.  rlld. 

RIM,  n.  rim  [AS.  rima,  margin,  edge :  Dan.  bryn,  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  the  brow  or  rim  of  the  eye :  W.  rhim, 
the  edge  or  rim :  eomp.  Gael,  riomh,  a  wheel] :  the  edge 
or  margin  which  surrounds  a  thing,  as  of  a  bowl ;  the 
outer  circle  of  a  wheel ;  the  border ;  the  lower  part  of 
the  belly :  V.  to  put  a  rim  or  hoop  to.  Rim'ming,  imp. : 
N.  the  act  of  putting  around  a  rim  or  border.  Rimmed, 
pp.  rirnd. 

RIM,  n.  rim  [see  Rim  1 :  comp.  Gael,  reamhar,  fat] : 
in  0E.f  the  peritoneum ;  a  thin  fatty  membrane  which 
lines  the  interior  of  the  abdomen,  and  envelops  the 
internal  viscera. 

RIMA,  n.  ri'ma  [L.] :  a  cleft,  as  the  rima  of  the  glottis ; 
in  hot.,  the  cleft-like  ostiolum  of  certain  fungals. 

RIMA-SZOMBATH,  re'md-sdm'bdt :  market-town  of 
Hungary,  on  the  river  Rima,  23  m.  n.e.  of  Pesth.  Arti- 
cles in  wood  are  largely  manufactured,  and  there  is 
trade  in  linen  and  bullock's  hides.    Pop.  (1880)  4,500. 

RIMBLE-R AMBLE,  a.  rim'bl-ram'bl  [imitative  word] : 
vague  and  humdrum ;  applied  to  a  rambling  and  un- 
meaning discourse. 

RIME,  n.  rim  [AS.  hrim;  Dut.  rijm ;  Sw.  rim,  hoar- 
frost :  Icel.  hrim,  soot,  hoar-frost]  :  hoar-frost ;  con- 
gealed dew  or  vapor.  Rimy,  a.  riml,  abounding  with 
rime;  frosty. 

RIME,  n.  rim  [L.  rima,  a  crack  or  cleft]:  chink;  fis- 
sure ;  a  rent  or  long  aperture. 


Bl&E. 

RIME,  or  Khime,  or  Rhyme,  n.  rim  [AS.  rim;  Ir. 
rimh,  number,  rime :  It.  rima ;  F.  rime ;  Ger.  reim, 
rime] :  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  terminations  of 
words  at  the  end  of  successive  or  alternate  lines  of 
certain  kinds  of  poetry ;  a  word  or  sound  to  answer  to 
another;  poetry:  V.  to  put  into  rime;  to  make  verses 
or  lines  terminate  in  words  or  syllables  similar  in  sound. 
Ri'ming,  imp.  Rimed,  pp.  rimd:  Adj.  put  into  rime. 
Rim'er,  n.  -er,  or  Rimester,  n.  rtm'ster,  a  versifier;  a 
poor  poet,  in  contempt.  Rime'eess,  a.  -les,  without 
rime.  Without  rime  or  reason,  literally,  without 
number  or  sense;  proverbially,  without  sense  or  motive; 
absurd.  Note. — The  proper  spelling,  Rime,  has  been 
rarely  used :  it  is  now  being  adopted.  The  spelling 
rhyme  has  obtained  currency  from  a  supposed  connection 
with  rhythm — from  L.  rhyihmus  :  rhyme  and  rhythm  are 
not  identical  in  meaning.  It  is  very  natural  that  L. 
rhythmus,  which  signified  metrical  writing,  should  be 
gradually  applied  to  the  rhyme  which  became  the  most 
striking  and  characteristic  feature  in  such  compositions. 
r-Rime,  in  early  English  (and  the  same  is  true  of  Ger. 
reim  and  the  other  forms  of  the  word  in  northern  tongues 
as  well  as  in  the  Romanic),  meant  simply  a  poem,  a 
numbered  or  versified  piece  (compare  Lat.  numeri,  num- 
bers =  verses,  versification) ;  but  it  has  now  come  to 
signify  what  is  the  most  prominent  mark  of  versification 
in  all  these  tongues,  namely,  the  recurrence  of  similar 
sounds  at  certain  intervals.  As  there  may  be  various 
degrees  and  kinds  of  resemblance  between  two  syllables, 
there  are  different  kinds  of  R.  V/hen  words  begin  with 
the  same  consonant,  we  have  Alliteration  (q.v.),  which 
was  the  prevalent  form  of  R.  in  the  earlier  Teutonic 
poetry  (e.g.,  Anglo-Saxon).  In  Spanish  and  Portuguese, 
there  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  R.  called  Assonance,  consist- 
ing in  the  coincidence  of  the  vowels  of  the  correspond- 
ing syllables,  without  regard  to  the  consonants;  this 
accords  well  with  the  character  of  these  languages, 
which  abound  in  full-toned  vowels,  but  is  ineffective  in 
English  and  other  languages  in  which  consonants  pre- 
dominate0  In  its  usual  sense,  however,  R.  denotes  cor- 
respondence in  the  final  syllables  of  words,  and  is  used 
chiefly  to  mark  the  ends  of  the  lines  or  verses  in  poetry. 
Complete  identity  in  all  the  parts  of  the  syllables  con- 
stitutes what  the  French  call  rich  R.  as  in  modele, 
fidele;  beaufe,  santfe.  But  though  such  rimes  are  not 
only  allowed  but  sought  after  in  French,  they  are  con- 
sidered faulty  in  English,  or  rather  as  not  true  rimes. 
No  careful  writer  would  make  deplore  rime  with  explore. 
Riming  syllables  in  English  must  agree  so  far,  and  must 
differ  so  far;  the  vowel  and  what  follows  it — if  anything  fol- 
low it — must  be  the  same  in  both ;  the  articulation  before  the 
vowel  must  be  different.  Thus,  mark  rimes  with  lark, 
hark,  ark,  but  not  with  remark.  In  the  case  of  mark  and 
ark,  the  absence  of  any  initial  articulation  in  the  last  of 
the  two  makes  the  necessary  difference.  As  an  example 
of  R.  where  nothing  follows  the  vowelf  we  may  take  be- 


RIME. 

low,  which  rimes  with  forego,  or  with  Of  but  not  with 
lo.  To  make  a  perfect  R.,  it  is  necessary,  besides,  that 
both  the  syllables  be  accented  ;  free  and  memly  is 
hardly  an  allowable  R.,  though  such  rimes  are  used  by 
some  writers.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  R.  depends  on  the 
sound,  and  not  on  the  spelling.  Plough  and  enough  do 
not  make  a  R.,  nor  ease  and  decease. 

Such  words  as  roaring,  de-ploring,  form  double  rimes ; 
and  an-nuity,  gra-tuity,  triple  rimes.  In  double  or  triple 
rimes,  the  first  syllable  must  be  accented,  and  the 
others  ought  to  be  unaccented,  and  to  be  completely 
identical  in  sound.  In  the  sacred  Latin  hymns  of  the 
middle  ages,  the  rimes  all  are  double  or  triple.  This 
was  a  necessity  of  the  Latin  language,  in  which  the  in- 
flectional terminations  are  without  accent,  which  throws 
the  accent  in  most  cases  on  the  syllable  next  the  last — 
rto-lorum,  vi-rorum ;  su\)-plicia,  eon-vicia.  Although 
rimes  occur  chiefly  between  the  end-syllables  of  different 
lines,  they  are  frequently  used  within  the  same  line, 
especially  in  popular  poetry : 

And  then  to  see  how  ye're  negleckit, 
How  hujf'd,  and  cuff'd,  and  disrespeckit. 

Burns. 

And  ice  mast-high  came  floating  by. 

Coleridge. 

(See  Leonine  Verses.) 

When  two  successive  lines  rime,  they  form  a  couplet ; 
three  form  a  triplet.  Often  the  lines  rime  alternately  or 
at  greater  intervals,  forming  groups  of  four  (quatrains) 
or  more.  A  group  of  lines  embracing  all  the  varieties 
of  metre  and  combinations  of  R.  that  occur  in  the  piece, 
forms  a  section  called  a  stave,  sometimes  a  stanza,  often, 
but  improperly,  a  verse.  In  the  days  of  Acrostics  (q.v.) 
and  other  conceits,  it  was  the  fashion  to  interlace  rimes 
in  highly  artificial  systems ;  the  most  complex  arrange- 
ments still  current  in  English  are  the  Sonnet  (q.v.)  and 
the  Spencerian  (q.v.)  stanza.  Tennyson  has  accustomed 
the  English  ear  to  a  quatrain,  in  which,  instead  of  alttr- 
nate  rimes,  the  first  line  rimes  with  the  fourth,  and  the 
second  with  the  third. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  deem  R.  a  mere  ornament  to  versi- 
fication. Besides  being  in  itself  a  pleasing  musical 
accord,  it  serves  to  mark  the  endings  of  the  lines  and 
other  sections  of  the  metre,  and  thus  renders  the 
Rhythm  (q.v.)  more  distinct  and  appreciable  than  the 
accents  alone  can  do.  So  much  is  this  the  case,  that  in 
French,  in  which  the  accents  are  feeble,  metre  without  R. 
is  so  indistinguishable  from  prose,  that  blank  verse  has 
never  obtained  a  footing,  notwithstanding  the  war  once 
waged  by  French  scholars  against  rimed  versification. 
4  The  advantages  of  rime,'  says  Guest  (Mnglish  Rhythms), 
'  have  been  felt  so  strongly,  that  no  people  have  ever 
adopted  an  accentual  rhythm  without  also  adopting 
rime.'  The  Greek  and  Latin  metres  of  the  classic  period, 
depending  on  time  or  quantity,  and  not  on  accent,  were 
Vol.  32  —  9 


RIME. 

able  to  dispense  with  the  accessory  of  R. ;  but,  aa  has 
been  well  observed  by  Trench  (Sacred  l*atm  Poetry,  In- 
troduction, 1864),  even  4  the  prosodic  poetry  of  Greece  and 
Rome  was  equally  obliged  to  mark  this  (the  division 
into  sections  or  verses),  though  it  did  it  in  another  way. 
Thus,  had  dactyls  and  spondees  been  allowed  to  be  pro- 
miscuously used  throughout  the  Hexameter  (q.v.)  line, 
no  satisfying  token  would  have  reached  the  ear  to 
indicate  the  close  of  the  verse ;  and  if  the  hearer  had 
once  missed  the  termination  of  the  line,  it  would  have 
been  almost  impossible  for  him  to  recover  it.  But  the 
fixed  dactyl  and  spondee  at  the  end  of  the  line  answer 
the  same  purpose  of  strongly  marking  the  close,  as  does 
the  rime  in  the  accentuated  verse ;  and  in  other  metres, 
in  like  manner,  licenses  permitted  in  the  beginning  of 
the  line  are  excluded  at  its  close,  the  motives  for  this 
greater  strictness  being  the  same.'  It  is  chiefly,  perhaps, 
from  failing  to  satisfy  this  necessary  condition,  that 
modern  unrimed  verse  is  found  unsatisfactory,  at  least 
for  popular  poetry ;  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  it 
is  not  owing  to  the  classical  prejudices  of  scholars  that 
our  common  English  blank  verse  got  or  maintained  its 
hold.  It  may  however  be  conceded  that  a  defective  or 
strained  R.  is  worse  than  none ;  such  futile  attempts  at 
art  reduce  some  hymns  in  common  use  to  the  grade  of 
doggerel. 

The  objection  that  R.  was  '  the  invention  of  a  bar- 
barous age,  to  set  off  wretched  matter  and  lame  metre,' 
rests  on  ignorance  of  its  real  history.  It  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  the  exclusive  invention  of  any  particular 
people  or  age.  Its  use  has  its  due  limits;  but  in  its 
place  it  is  something  human,  and  universal  as  poetry  or 
music — the  result  of  the  instinctive  craving  for  well- 
marked  recurrence  and  accord.  The  oldest  poems  of 
the  Chinese,  Indians,  Arabians,  etc.,  are  rimed;  so  are 
those  of  the  Irish  and  Welsh.  In  the  few  fragments  of 
the  earliest  Latin  poetry  extant,  in  which  the  metre  was 
of  accentual,  not  quantitative  kind,  there  is  a  manifest 
tendency  to  terminations  of  similar  sound.  This  native 
tendency  was  overlaid  for  a  time  by  the  importation 
from  Greece  of  the  quantitative  metres ;  yet  even  under 
the  dominance  of  this  exotic  system,  riming  verses  were 
not  altogether  unknown ;  Ovid  especially  shows  a  liking 
for  them : 

Quot  coelum  stellas,  tot  habet  tua  Roma  paellas; 

and  in  the  decline  of  classicality  they  became  more 
common.  At  last,  when  learning  began  to  decay  under 
the  irruptions  of  the  northern  nations,  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  quantity  of  words — a  thing  in  a  great  measure 
arbitrary,  and  requiring  to  be  learned — began  to  be  lost, 
the  native  and  more  natural  property  of  accent  gradually 
reappeared  as  the  ruling  principle  of  Latin  rhythm,  and 
with  it  the  tendency  to  rime.  In  this  new  vehicle  the 
early  Christian  poets  sought  to  convey  their  new  ideas 
and  aspirations.    The  rimes  were  at  first  often  rude, 


RIMINI — RIMMING. 

and  not  sustained  throughout,  as  if  lighted  upon  by 
chance.  Distinct  traces  of  the  adoption  of  R.  are  seen 
as  early  as  the  hymns  of  Hilary  (died  368),  and  the 
system  attained  its  greatest  perfection  in  the  12th  and 
13th  c.  In  refutation  of  the  common  opinion,  that  the 
Latin  hymnologists  of  the  middle  ages  borrowed  the  art 
of  R.  from  the  Teutonic  nations,  Dr.  Guest  brings  the 
conclusive  fact,  that  no  poem  exists  written  in  a  Teu- 
tonic dialect  with  final  R.  before  Otfried's  Evangely, 
written  in  Frankish  about  870.  Alliteration  had  previ- 
ously been  the  guiding  principle  of  Teutonic  rhythms ; 
but  after  a  struggle,  longer  protracted  in  England  than 
on  the  continent,  it  was  superseded  by  end-rimes. — See 
Guest's  History  of  English  Rhythms  (2  vols.  Lond.  1838), 
where  the  whole  subject  is  learnedly  and  elaborately 
treated ;  Trench's  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  Introduction  (Lond. 
1864) ;  F.  Wolf,  Ueber  die  Lais,  Sequenzen,  und  Leiche 
(Heid.  1841). 

RIMINI,  re'me-ne  (anc.  Ariminium) :  famous  old  city 
of  Italy,  prov.  of  Forli,  in  Romagna;  having  the 
Adriatic  on  the  n.,  the  small  stream  Ausa  on  the  e.,  and 
the  Marecchia  river  on  the  w.  It  seems  to  have  been 
inhabited  first  by  the  Umbrians,  then  for  many  centuries 
by  the  Etruscans.  The  Senones,  a  Gaulish  tribe,  took 
the  place  B.C.  4th  c,  and  Brennus,  toward  the  end  of  the 
same  c,  fixed  his  seat  here.  The  Gauls  were  dispossessed 
by  the  Romans  after  a  century  of  occupation,  and  R. 
became  a  Roman  military  colony  and  cap.  of  Gallia 
Togata.  Later  the  great  Flaminian  Way  was  constructed 
from  R.  to  Rome;  and  the  town  was  connected  by 
other  great  highways  with  the  important  places  in  n. 
Italy.  A  marble  bridge  of  5  arches,  built  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  across  the  Marecchia,  is  yet  standing,  as  is 
also  the  marble  arch  erected  by  decree  of  the  senate  in 
honor  of  that  emperor.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Rom. 
empire,  R.  was  a  bone  of  contention  for  Goths,  Byzantines, 
Longobards,  Franks,  popes,  emperors,Guelfs  andGhibel- 
lines:  under  the  family  of  Malatesta,  R.  was  for  200 
years  prominent  among  the  states  of  mediaeval  Italy.  In 
modern  times  its  prosperity  and  size  have  declined. — 
R.  has  been  a  bishop's  see  since  260.  It  has  fine  streets, 
well-built  houses,  a  handsome  town  hall  with  porticoes, 
many  fine  churches — including  the  cathedral,  a  noble 
pile  erected  by  Leone  Tattista  Alberti :  its  interior  is 
full  of  monuments.  In  the  Piazza  Cavour  is  a  bronze 
statue  of  Pope  Paul  V. ;  in  the  Piazza  Giulio  Cesare  a 
pillar  marks  the  spot  on  which  Julius  Caasar  harangued 
the  13th  legion  after  the  crossing  of  the  Rubicon. 
There  is  a  considerable  public  library,  founded  1617 
now  containing  23,000  vols.  The  Palazzo  del  Comune 
has  a  small  collection  of  paintings.  The  industries  of 
R.  are  fishery,  sulphur  mining,  silk  weaving,  and  traffic. 
Pop.  over  13,000. 

RIMMING:  see  under  Rim  1. 


RIMMON— RINES. 

RIMOSE,  a.  rt-mos',  of  Rimous,  a.  ri'mus  [L.  rimosus, 
full  of  cracks — from  rima,  a  cleft:  It.  rimoso]:  in  hot,, 
covered  with  cracks  or  fissures,  mostly  parallel,  as  the 
bark  of  a  tree;  chinky.  Rimose'ly,  ad.  -li.  Rimosity, 
n.  ri-mds'iti,  the  state  of  being  rimose  or  chinky. 
Rimulose,  a.  rim'u-lds,  having  small  marks  or  chinks. 

RIMPLE,  v.  rim' pi  [AS.  hrympelle;  0.  Dut,  rimpel,  a 
wrinkle]:  to  wrinkle;  to  pucker;  to  corrugate:  N.  a 
fold  or  wrinkle.  Rim'pling,  imp.  Rim'pled,  pp.  -pld: 
Adj.  puckered;  wrinkled. 

RIND,  n.rind  [A.S.  rind;  Dut.  and  Ger.  rinde,  crust 
or  bark] :  the  skin  or  outer  coat  of  fruit,  etc.;  the  peel; 
the  bark  of  trees. 

RINDERPEST,  n.  rin'der-pest  [Ger.  rinderpest — from 
rinder,  black  cattle,  kine;  pest,  a  pestilence]:  cattle- 
plague;  a  peculiarly  fatal  disease  of  cattle  and  dairy 
stock,  propagated  by  contagion:  see  Cattle-plague. 

RINEHART,  rin'hart,  William  Henry:  sculptor: 
1825,  Sep.  13—1874,  Oct.  28;  b.  Carroll  co.,  Md.  In 
1844  began  the  study  of  drawing  and  other  arts.  He 
studied  in  Italy  1855-57,  returned  to  Baltimore,  where 
he  remained  only  a  short  time,  and  1858  took  up  his 
residence  in  Rome,  though  he  visited  the  U.  S.  1866  and 
72.  He  finished  the  bronze  doors  of  the  national  capitol 
at  Washington,  which  had  been  left  incomplete  at  the 
death  of  Crawford;  executed  a  statue  of  Chief- Justice 
Taney  for  the  state  of  Maryland,  and  a  large  number 
of  ideal  works,  among  which  are  Hero  and  Leander,  St. 
Cecilia,  Clytie,  The  Woman  of  Samaria,  and  The  Angel 
of  the  Resurrection.    He  died  at  Rome. 

RINES,  George  Edwin:  editor  and  encyclopedist; 
1860,  Dec.  28,  b.  Maitland,  N.  S.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  when  11  years  old,  and  attended  the  public  schools 
of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  graduating  from  grammar  and  high 
school.  After  leaving  school  he  was  engaged  for  some 
time  in  business,  but  continued  his  studies  and  in  1887 
entered  Colgate  Univ.  In  1890  he  entered  Hamilton 
Theol.  Seminary  (Colgate  Univ.)  for  the  full  Hebrew 
and  Greek  course  in  theology,  graduating  in  1893.  He 
became  pastor  at  Bingham  ton,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained 
two  years,  then  was  called  to  the  pastorship  of  the 
Baptist  Church  at  Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  which  he  served 
three  years,  resigning  to  devote  himself  to  literary  work. 
Mr.  Rines  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  reli- 
gious press  and  other  periodicals.  In  1903  he  was  ap- 
pointed managing  editor  of  the  Encyclopedia  Americana, 
and  has  contributed  very  largely  to  that  work  biographi- 
cal and  historical  articles.  While  still  holding  this 
position,  in  1906  became  a  member  on  the  board  of  the 
United  Editors9  Encyclopedia  and  Dictionary.  Among 
his  distinguishing  characteristics  are  originality,  busi- 
ness aptitude,  and  a  talent  for  organization. 


RING. 

RING,  n.  ring  [Icel.  hringr ;  OHGer.  hrinc,  a  circle, 
a  ring :  Dan,  kringel,  crooked,  twisted] :  a  circle ;  any- 
thing  in  the  form  of  a  circle:  a  small  hoop  of  gold, 
variously  ornamented,  worn  as 
on  the  finger  (see  below):  a 
hoop  :  a  circular  course ;  the  bet- 
ting arena  on  a  race-course:  in 
politics,  a  small  company  of  per- 
sons privately  associated  for 
certain  objects,  usually  for  per- 
sonal advantage :  V.  to  encircle ; 
to  fit  with  a  ring ;  to  cut  a  ring 
of  bark  out  of  a  tree ;  to  form  a 
circle.  Ringing,  imp.  Ringed, 
pp.  ringd.  Ring'less,  a.  -les, 
without  a  ring.  Ring-bolt,  an 
Ring-mail.  iron  bolt  having  a  ring  at  one 

end.  Ring-dove,  wood-pigeon  or  cushat  (see  Pigeon). 
Ring-fence,  a  fence  encircling  an  estate  within  one  ill- 
closure  ;  an  inclosing  fence  or  line.  Ring-finger,  the 
third  finger  of  the  left  hand,  on 
which  the  wedding-ring  is  put. 
Ring-head,  an  instrument  used  to 
stretch  woolen  cloth.  Ring-mail, 
in  armor,  small  rings  of  steel 
sewed  edgewise  upon  a  strong 
garment  of  leather  or  quilted  cloth. 
Ring-sail,  a  light  sail  set  abaft 
the  spanker.  Ring-shaped,  a. 
having  the  shape  of  a  ring.  Ring- 
streaked,  a.  having  circular 
streaks  or  lines  on  the  body.  Ring- 
tail, the  female  of  the  hen-har- 
rier. Ring-tailed  cat,  n.  name  given  by  the  miners 
to  Bassaris  astuta,  one  of  the  Procyonidce,  occurring  in 
California,  Texas,  and  the  higher  regions  of  Mexico. 
It  is  about  3  ft.  long,  the  tail  being  one-third  of  this 
length.  The  fur  is  brown,  and  the  tail  beautifully 
ringed.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  makes  an  excellent 
mouser,  whence  its  misleading  popular  name;  called 
also  cacomixle.    Fairy  rings  :  see  Fairy  Rings. 

RING,  v.  ring  [Icel.  hringia,  to  ring  bells :  Dan.  ringe  ; 
Sw.  ringa ;  Dut.  ringen,  to  ring  or  tinkle]  :  to  sound,  as 
a  bell  or  other  sonorous  body ;  to  cause  to  sound ;  to 
resound ;  to  utter  a  sound  as  a  bell ;  to  tinkle ;  to  be 
spread  abroad,  as,  the  whole  town  rang  with  the  news : 
N.  the  sound  as  of  a  bell  or  a  metallic  body ;  the  loud 
repeated  sounds,  as  of  voices  in  acclamation ;  a  peal  or 
chime  of  bells.  Ring'ing,  imp.  Rang,  pt.  rang.  Rung, 
pp.  rung.  Ringer,  n.  ring'er,  one  who  rings  bells.  Ring- 
ing the  changes,  literally,  ringing  a  peal  in  which  the 
order  of  the  bells  is  changed  in  each  round ;  hence,  re- 
peating the  same  thing  again  and  again  with  variations ; 
also,  a  trick  employed  by  vagabond  gamesters  to  cheat 
their  victims  by  changing  or  juggling  with  money. 


Ring-sail. 


RING. 

RING :  circle  of  gold  or  other  material  worn  as  orna- 
ment. The  practice  of  wearing  rings  has  been  widely 
prevalent  in  different  countries  and  at  different  periods. 
Rings  have  been  used  to  decorate  the  legs,  arms,  feet, 
toes,  neck,  fingers,  nose,  and  ears.  The  practice  of 
wearing  rings  suspended  from  the  nose,  which  is  bored 
for  that  purpose,  has  been  found  among  various  savage 
tribes,  particularly  the  South  Sea  islanders.  Bracelets, 
necklaces,  and  ear-rings  have  been  worn  among  nations 
both  savage  and  civilized ;  but  the  most  universal  and 
most  famous  use  of  rings  is  on  the  finger.  Finger- 
rings  are  alluded  to  in  the  Books  of  Genesis  and  Exodus ; 
Herodotus  mentions  that  the  Babylonians  wore  them ; 
and  from  Asia  probably  they  were  introduced  into 
Greece.  The  rings  worn  in  early  times  were  not  purely 
ornamental,  but  had  also  their  use  as  signet-rings.  The 
Homeric  poems  make  no  mention  of  rings,  except  ear- 
rings; but  in  the  later  Greek  legends,  the  ancient 
heroes  are  described  as  wearing  finger-rings ;  and  every 
freeman  throughout  Greece  seems  afterward  to  have 
had  one.  The  practice  of  counterfeiting  signet-rings  is 
alluded  to  as  existing  in  Solon's  time.  The  devices  on 
the  earlier  rings  were  probably  cut  in  the  gold ;  but  at  a 
later  period,  the  Greeks  came  to  have  signet-rings  set 
with  precious  stones,  which  gradually  passed  from 
articles  of  use  into  the  category  of  ornament.  Persons 
were  no  longer  satisfied  with  one  ring,  but  wore  two  or 
three — and  their  use  was  extended  to  women.  The 
Lacedaemonians  wore  iron  rings.  The  Romans  are  said 
to  have  derived  the  use  of  rings  from  the  Sabines;  their 
rings  were  at  first,  as  those  of  the  Greeks,  signet-rings, 
but  of  iron.  Every  free  Roman  had  a  right  to  wear 
one ;  and  till  the  close  of  the  republic,  the  iron  ring  was 
worn  by  those  who  affected  the  simplicity  of  old  times. 
Ambassadors,  in  the  early  age  of  the  republic,  wore  gold 
rings  as  part  of  their  official  dress— a  custom  afterward 
extended  to  senators,  chief  magistrates,  and  in  later 
times  to  the  equites,  who  were  said  to  enjoy  the  jus 
annuli  aurei,  from  which  other  persons  were  excluded. 
It  became  customary  for  the  emperors  to  confer  the  jus 
annuli  aurei  on  whom  they  pleased,  and  the  privilege 
grew  gradually  more  extensive,  till  Justinian  embraced 
within  it  all  citizens  of  the  empire,  whether  ingenui  or 
libertini.  The  signs  engraved  on  rings  were  very  various, 
including  portraits  of  friends  or  ancestors,  and  subjects 
connected  with  mythology  or  religion ;  and  in  the  art  of 
engraving  figuies  on  gems,  the  ancients  far  surpassed 
artists  of  modern  times  (see  Gem).  The  later  Romans, 
like  the  Greeks,  crowded  their  fingers  with  rings,  and 
the  more  effeminate  among  them  sometimes  had  a 
different  ring  for  summer  and  winter.  Rings  entered 
into  the  ground-work  of  many  oriental  superstitions,  as 
in  the  legend  of  Solomon's  ring,  which,  among  its  other 
marvels,  sealed  up  the  refractory  Jinns  in  jars  and  cast 
them  into  the  Red  Sea.  The  Greeks  mention  various 
rings  endowed  with  magic  power,  as  that  of  Gyges, 


Fig.  1. 


RING. 

which  rsndered  him  invisible  when  its  stone  was  turned 
inward;  and  the  ring  of  Polycrates,  which  was  flung 
into  the  sea  to  propitiate  Nem- 
esis, and  found  by  its  owner 
inside  a  fish;  and  there  were 
persons  who  made  a  lucrative 
traffic  of  selling  charmed  rings, 
worn  mostly  by  the  lower 
classes. 

Various  explanations  have 
been  given  of  the  connection  of 
the  ring  with  marriage.  It  ap- 
pears that  wedding-rings  were 
worn  by  the  Jews  prior  to 
Christian  times.  Fig.  1  shows 
a  Jewish  marriage-ring  beauti- 
fully wrought  in  gold  filigree, 
and  richly  enamelled,  recently 
in  possession  of  Lord  Londes- 
borough.  It  has  been  said  that 
as  the  delivery  of  the  signet- 
ring  to  any  one  was  a  sign 
of  confidence,  so  the  delivery  of  a  ring  by  the  hus- 
band to  the  wife  indicated  that  she  was  admitted  into 
his  confidence.  Another  explanation  is,  that  the  form 
of  the  ring  symbolizes  eternity  and  constancy ;  and  it 
has  been  alleged  that  the  left  hand  was  chosen  to  de- 
note the  wife's  subjection  to  her  husband,  and  the  third 
finger  because  it  thereby  pressed  a  vein  which  was  sup- 
posed to  communicate  directly  with  the  heart.  The 
third  finger  has  always  been  selected  as  the  finger  on 
which  official  rings  are  worn.  Bishops  on  their  con- 
secration receive  a  ring  to  be  worn  on  the  third  finger 
of  the  right  hand,  in  order  to  indicate  ecclesiastical 
authority ;  and  doctors  formerly,  for  a  similar  reason, 
wore  a  ring  on  the  same  finger.  A  ring  has  been  much 
used  at  betrothal  as  well  as  marriage,  and  in  many 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  a  wedding-ring  is  worn 
by  the  husband  as  well  as  the  wife.  Rings  are 
occasionally  worn  on  all  the  fingers  (even  on  the  first 
finger)  except  the  thumb ;  the  Germans  usually  wear  a 
signet-ring  on  the  first  finger. 
During  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  c. 
it  was  very  common  to  have  mot- 
toes inscribed  on  rings  (fig.  2), 
including  wedding-rings,  and  the 
motto  was  called  the  posy  or  chart- 
son.  The  ring  was  the  symbol  of 
the  dominion  of  Venice  over  the 
Adriatic ;  and  yearly,  on  Ascension 
Bay,  a  ring  was  thrown  by  the  doge  from  the  ship 
Bucentaur  into  the  sea,  to  denote  that  as  the  wife  is  sub- 
ject to  her  husband,  so  is  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the 
republic  of  Venice. 

In  pagan  times  in  Europe,  the  ring  seems  to  have  been 
connected  with  fidelity  or  with  espousals.    Fig.  3  shows 


Fig.  2. 


KING. 

a  form  of  betrothal-ring  called  a  gimmal,  or  linked  ring, 
used  in  later  times ;  the  upper  fig.  shows  the  three  parts 


Fig.  3. 


brought  together ;  the  lower  fig.,  the  parts  separately.  By 
an  ancient  Norse  custom,  described  in  the  Eyrbrygia  Saga, 
when  an  oath  was  imposed,  he  by  whom  it  was  pledged 
passed  his  hand  through  a  silver  ring,  sacred  to  that 
ceremony;  and  in  Iceland  the  ceremony  of  betrothal 
used  to  be  accompanied  by  the  bridegroom  passing  his 
four  fingers  and  thumb  through  a  large  ring,  and  in  this 
manner  receiving  the  hand  of  the  bride,  as  represented 
In  a  woodcut  in  an  old  ed.  of  Olaus  Magnus.  As  lately 
as  1780,  the  practice  existed  in  Orkney  of  a  man  and 
woman  plighting  their  faith  at  the  Standing  Stones  of 
Stennis  by  joining  their  hands  through  the  perforated 
stone  of  Odin. 

Rings  were  greatly  used  in  ancient  Egypt.  They  were 
called  tebh,  finger-rings,  and  khatem,  signets,  both  kinds 
being  represented  in  the  sculptures  and  mentioned  in 
the  hieroglyphs.  Besides  these  two  classes,  solid  rings 
of  gold  and  silver  were  used  as  money  (see  Ring  Money). 
Rings  for  the  fingers  are  of  most  remote  antiquity,  and 
were  emblems  of  rank  and  power.  They  were  of  two 
kinds :  the  solid  ring,  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  or  iron, 
having  a  square  or  oval  bezel,  on  which  the  subject  to 
be  impressed  was  sunk  or  cut  in  intaglio.  The  oldest 
of  these  were  of  gold,  iron  not  having  been  in  use  till 
the  Roman  rule  over  Egypt,  or  about  the  1st  c.  after 
Christ.  A  remarkably  fine  specimen  is  one  of  a  Hem- 
phite  priest  or  flamen  of  the  monarch  Cheops,  in  the 
time  of  the  26th  dynasty,  about  B.C.  5th  c.  But  rings 
of  this  class  are  probably  not  so  old  as  the  other  kind, 
which  have  a  square  or  oblong  plinth  of  gold,  stone,  or 
glass,  on  which  the  subjects  are  engraved  also  in  in- 
taglio. These  plinths  are  pierced  through  their  long 
axis  to  admit  the  metal  ring  on  which  they  revolve,  and 
are  secured  to  it  by  wire  coiled  round  the  ring  at  the 
place  of  insertion.  Scarabaei  of  glazed  steatite,  set  in 
frames  of  gold  or  silver,  were  often  used  for  bezels. 


RINGBONE— RINGGOLD. 

The  bezels  have  their  base  engraved  with  hieroglyphs 
and  other  subjects,  the  names  of  monarchs,  figures  of 
deities,  mottoes,  and  devices.  Such  rings  were  used  by 
functionaries ;  and  in  the  account  of  the  investiture  of 
Joseph  in  the  Book  of  Genesis,  a  ring  was  put  on  his 
finger  as  a  symbol  of  his  rank.  The  poorer  classes  had 
rings  of  ivory  or  blue  porcelain,  with  solid  oval  bezels, 
having  in  intaglio  similar  subjects.  Rings  appear  to 
have  been  placed  on  all  the  fingers,  and  even  the  thumb, 
and  the  hands  of  ladies  were  loaded  with  these  costly 
ornaments.  A  cat,  emblem  of  the  goddess  Bast  or 
Pasht,  the  Egyptian  Diana,  was  a  favorite  subject  of 
ladies'  rings.  The  third  finger  of  the  left  hand  was  the 
ring-finger.  Some  remarkable  instances  of  gold  rings 
with  revolving  bezels  have  been  found — e.g.,  that  of 
Thothmes  III.  in  the  collection  of  Lord  Ashburnham, 
and  aaother  with  the  name  of  the  monarch  Horus,  which 
contained  gold  to  the  value  of  $100.  Such  rings  could 
give  two  impressiona,  like  the  seal  and  counterseal  of 
modern  times. — Wilkinson,  Mann,  and  Cust.  III.  370, 
et  seq, ;  Bonomi,  Trans.  R.  Soc.  Lit.,  New  Series,  I.  108; 
Prisse,  Mon.  Egypt.,  PI.  xlvii. ;  also  Antique  Gems  and 
Rings,  by  King,  2  vols.  1872 ;  Finger  Ring  Lore,  by 
William  Jones,  1876. 

RING' BONE,  in  Horses :  a  circle  of  bony  matter  round 
the  horse's  coronet,  most  frequent  in  the  fore  limbs  of 
draught  horses  with  short  upright  pasterns,  which  are 
much  worked  on  the  hard  roads ;  but  appearing  occa- 
sionally also  on  the  hind  limbs  of  lighter-bred  horses. 
It  is  sometimes  hereditary  but  is  often  caused  by  a  vio- 
lent strain.  Though  the  lameness  can  often  be  relieved  by 
proper  treatment,  R.  is  always  a'blemish.  Rest  should 
be  enjoined,  and  cold  bran  poultices  or  swabs,  kept  cool 
and  moist  by  any  refrigerant  mixture,  applied  continu- 
ously until  heat  and  tenderness  are  removed,  when  tho 
fetlock  is  to  be  dressed  with  fly-blister  or  the  ointment 
of  red  iodide  of  mercury. 

RINGENT,  a.  rin'jent  [L.  ringens  or  ringen'tem,  open- 
ing wide  the  mouth — from  ringor,  I  open  the  mouth] : 
in  hot.,  applied  to  a  labiate  flower  in  which  the  upper  lip 
is  much  arched  and  the  lips  are  separated  by  a  distinct 
gap;  gaping. 

RINGGOLD,  ring' gold,  Cadwalader  :  naval  officer: 
1802,  Aug.  20—1867,  Apr.  29 ;  b.  Md.  He  became  mid- 
shipman in  the  navy  1819,  was  in  the  expedition  against 
the  pirates  in  the  W.  I.  1823-4,  commanded  a  brig  in  an 
exploring  expedition  to  the  Antarctic  continent  1838, 
aided  in  the  survey  of  Puget  Sound  and  San  Francisco 
harbor,  was  on  special  duty  at  Washington  1859-60,  and 
at  the  opening  of  the  civil  war  was  given  command  of 
the  Sabine,  and  assisted  in  the  blockade  of  southern 
ports.  He  was  promoted  capt.  1856,  commodore  1862, 
was  placed  on  the  retired  list  1864,  and  promoted  rear- 
admiral  1866.    He  died  at  New  York. 


RINGLEADER— RING  MONEY. 

RINGLEADER,  n.  ring'  led-er  [ring,  and  leader] :  the 
leader  of  a  ring ;  the  head  of  a  society  engaged  in  an 
illegal  enterprise ;  the  head  or  chief  of  a  riotous  body 
of  persons. 

RINGLET,  n.  ring' let  [dim.  of  Ring  1] :  a  small  ring; 
a  curl  of  hair.    Ringleted,  a.  having  ringlets. 

RING  MONEY  :  primitive  medium  of  exchange,  con- 
sisting of  the  precious  metals  formed  into  rings,  in  an 
early  stage  of  society,  prior  to  the  invention  of  coinage, 
but  after  the  inconveniences  of  direct  barter  had  been 
discovered.  R.  M.  was  in  use  among  the  Egyptians. 
The  gold  or  silver  rings  were  formed  of  a  wire  or  bar  of 
metal  bent  into  a  circle,  but  not  quite  united  at  the 
extremities,  so  that  it  could  be  easily  made  into  a  chain, 
from  which  portions  could  be  detached  at  pleasure.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  individual  loops  were  not  ad- 
justed to  a  particular  weight,  but  that  each  bundle  of 
loops  amounted  in  the  aggregate  to  a  particular  weight. 
R.  M.  of  gold  and  silver,  similar  to  what  is  represented 
in  the  Egyptian  paintings,  was  brought  by  Bonomi  from 
Nubia.  Some  of  the  silver  rings  had  been  worn  as 
bracelets,  and  were  ornamented  with  engraved  work. 
This  kind  of  currency  has  probably  never  gone  out  of 
use  in  parts  of  Africa  since  the  remote  period  when  it 
was  employed  in  paying  the  exactions  of  the  Pharaohs. 
R.  M.  for  African  traders  is,  or  was,  not  long  ago,  regu- 
larly manufactured  at  Birmingham,  England,  of  copper, 
or  an  alloy  of  copper  and  iron,  and  known  under  the 
name  of  «  Manillas.' 

The  R.  M.  of  the  East  early  found  its  way  to  western 
Europe.  In  Sweden  and  Norway  its  use  seems  to  have 
continued  till  the  12th  c,  or  even  later.  A  Norse  law 
about  1220  alludes  to  an  established  R.  M.,  of  which  each 
ring  was  of  definite  weight.  The  mediaeval  had  so  far 
advanced  beyond  the  Egyptian  as  to  have  each  ring  ad- 
justed to  a  special  weight,  for  which  it  might  pass  with- 
out weighing.  Caesar  mentions  gold  and  iron  rings  as 
used  in  Gaul  and  Britain  for  money;  and  gold  and 
silver  and  occasionally  brass  R.  M.  has  been  dug  up  in 
many  parts  of  Britain,  consisting  of  bars  of  metal  bent 
in  circular  shape.  A  remarkable  silver  chain  of  33 
rings,  weighing  above  93  ounces,  was  dug  up  1805  near 
Inverness,  in  the  course  of  the  excavations  for  the  Cale- 
donian canal,  and  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Scottish 
Antiquaries.  Some  of  the  larger  specimens  of  gold 
R.  M.  are  very  highly  decorated.  The  gold  torque  worn 
round  the  neck  of  the  Gallic  warriors,  weighing  some- 
times as  much  as  four  lbs.,  besides  being  a  personal  or- 
nament, was  adjusted  to  a  certain  weight  as  money.— 
There  were  various  modifications  of  R.  M. — e.  g.,  the  sil- 
ver fish-hook  money  of  Ceylon,  mentioned  by  Tavernier. 


RING  OUZEL. 
RING  OTJ'ZEL  (Turdus  iorquatus,  or  Meruta  torquata :) 
species  of  thrush,  rather  larger  than  the  blackbird, 
which  it  much  resembles.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe, 
chiefly  of  the  w.  parts ;  spends  the  winter  in  s.  Europe 
or  in  Africa,  and  visits  more  northern  regions  in  sum- 
mer. It  is  frequent  in  many  parts  of  the  British  Islands, 
not  in  the  thickly-peopled  districts.  It  makes  its  nest 
generally  in  heathy  banks,  often  under  a  bush.  The 
nest  is  of  coarse  grass,  within  which  is  a  thin  shell  of 
clay  and  an  inner  lining  of  fine  dry  grass.  The  R.  O. 
is  a  constant  visitor  of  gardens  in  the  neighborhood  of 
its  hunts,  committing  great  depredations,  particularly 
when  cherries  are  ripening.  In  Scotland  it  is  known  as 
the  Moor  Blackbird.  It  is  of  dark-brown  color,  almost 
black;  the   feathers  edged  with  blackish-gray,  the 


Ring  Ouzel  (Turdus  torquatus). 


feathers  of  the  wings  more  conspicuously  edged  with 
gray;  a  crescent-shaped  white  collar  on  the  throat. 
The  song  consists  of  a  few  loud,  clear,  and  plaintive 


RINGWORM. 
RING'W ORM :  popular  term  for  several  distinct  forms 
of  skin-disease  which  occur  in  patches  of  circular  or  annu- 
lar form  on  the  body,  especially  on  the  scalp.  Thus,  a 
species  of  Lichen  (q.v.),  known  to  dermatologists  as 
Lichen  circumscripta,  in  which  the  papules  assume  a 
circular  arrangement,  is  commonly  regarded  as  R. ;  and 
the  two  species  of  Herpes  (q.v.),  Herpes  circinatus  and 
H.  Iris,  in  which  the  vesicles  occur  in  circular  patches 
and  in  concentric  rings,  are  usually  included  in  the 
same  term.  These,  however,  are  not  true  R.  (Tinea 
tondens),  which  is  a  disease  dependent  on  the  presence 
of  a  special  vegetable  (fungus)  parasite,  now  known  to 
botanists  as  Trichophyton  tonsurans,  or  hair-plant,  and 
discovered  1845  by  Malmsten.    It  consists  of  oval, 


Parasitic  Fungus  from  the  Root  of  the  Hair  in  a  Case  of  True 

Ringworm,  highly  magnified. 
'Copied  from  Aiiken's  Science  and  Practice  of  Medicine,  3d  ed.) 
A,  isolated  spores;  B,  spores  united  at  their  ends;  C,  C,  empty 
tubes ;  D,  sporular  tubes, 

transparent  spores  or  globules,  about  y0100  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  mostly  isolated,  but  sometimes  connected 
by  articulated  filaments.  This  fungus  is  seated  in  the 
interior  of  the  hair-roots,  and  the  hairs  and  the  fungi 
simultaneously  increase  in  size.  The  diseased  hairs 
lose  their  elasticity  and  break,  when  they  have  risen  a 
line  or  two  above  the  scalp.  In  these  cases  the  short 
stump  of  hair  soon  loses  all  its  characteristics.  If  the 
hair  breaks  before  emerging  from  the  scalp,  a  little  prom- 
inence is  formed,  consisting  of  fungus,  epidermis,  and 
sebaceous  matter,  and  the  assemblage  of  such  little 
prominences  gives  the  scalp  the  rough  appearance  known 
as  goose-skin.  There  are  three  varieties  of  true  R., 
described  by  Aitken  under  the  following  names :  (1.)  R. 
of  the  Body  (Tinea  circinatus) ;  (2.)  R.  of  the  Scalp  (Tinea 
tonsurans);  (3.)  R.  of  the  Beard  (Tinea  sycosis). 

1.  Ringworm  of  the  Body  appears  first  as  a  rose- 
colored  and  slightly-elevated  spot  about  the  size  of  a 
half-dime,  on  which  a  bran-like  desquamation  of 
epidermis  soon  begins,  accompanied  by  slight  itching. 


RINGWORM. 

This  spot  gradually  increases  in  size,  but  retains  its 
circular  form;  and  as  it  extends,  the  healing  process 
commences  at  the  centre,  so  that  the  circular  red  patch 
is  converted  into  a  ring,  inclosing  a  portion  of  healthy 
skin  %  -and  a  ring  thus  formed  may  continue  to  increase 
till  it  reaches  a  diameter  of  four  inches5  or  even  more. 
It  is  apt  to  affect  the  face,  the  neck,  the  back,  and  the 
outside  of  the  wristo  This  form  of  R.  frequently  ter- 
minate;- spontaneously,, 

2.  Rmwworm  of  ihe  Scalp  usually  occurs  in  children, 
especially  when  the  nutrition  is  defective,  or  there  is 
scrofulous  taint  in  the  constitution.  It  appears  in  the 
form  of  round,  scaly,  irritable  patches  on  different  parts 
of  the  head ;  and  the  irritation  often  occasions  the  forma- 
tion of  minute  vesicles.  The  hairs  at  these  spots  be- 
come dry  and  twisted,  and  are  easily  extracted;  and 
when  the  disease  advances,  they  break  close  to  the  scalp 
if  an  attempt  is  made  to  extract  them.  The  stumps, 
and  the  epidermis  surrounding  them,  become  covered 
with  a  characteristic  grayish-white  powder,  consisting 
of  the  sporules  of  the  fungus.  The  diseased  parts  are 
slightly  elevated  and  puffy,  and  differ  from  the  healthy 
scalp  in  color,  being  bluish  or  slate-colored  in  dark  per- 
sons, and  grayish-red  or  yellow  in  fair  patients.  The 
inflammation  will  last  as  long  as  the  growth  of  the 
fungi  continues ;  and  even  when  the  fungi  die  spontane- 
ously, as  sometimes  occurs,  the  affected  spots  re- 
main permanently  bald?  tue  hair-bulbs  having  become 
obliterated, 

3.  Ringworm  of  the  Beard  occurs  chiefly  on  the  chin, 
hairy  part  of  the  cheeks,  and  upper  lips  of  men ;  but  it  oc- 
casionally attacks  the  axillae  and  pubic  region  of  women. 
It  commences  like  R.  of  the  body,  but  when  the  deeper 
structures  become  affected,  pustular  indurations,  re- 
sembling Acne  (q.v.),  occur,  and  the  kairs  become 
readily  detached.  On  examining  the  hairs  under  the 
microscope,  it  is  seen  that  they  are  thickened;  that 
their  bulbs  are  partially  disorganized;  and  that  the 
medullary  portion  is  atrophied. 

The  essential  point  in  the  treatment  of  all  the  varie- 
ties of  true  R.  is  to  apply  to  the  roots  of  the  hairs  a 
preparation  which  will  destroy  the  fungus ;  but  before 
this  can  be  done,  the  hair  must  be  removed,  if  the  dis- 
ease has  not  already  effected  the  removal  sufficiently. 
This  is  best  effected  with  small  pincers  about  three 
inches  long,  and  constructed  so  that  the  two  extremi- 
ties, which  should  be  a  couple  of  lines  broad,  shaL  come 
together  very  exactly.  Or,  in  place  of  using  the  forceps, 
an  ointment  of  lime  and  carbonate  of  soda,  of  each  1 
part,  and  30  parts  of  lard,  may  be  applied,  which  will 
soon  remove  the  hair.  French  dermatologists  recom- 
mend the  application  of  THuile  de  Cade,'  or  'oil  of 
pitch,'  obtained  by  dry  distillation  of  the  wood  of  the 
Juniperus  oxycedrus,  to  the  part  from  which  the  hairs  are 
to  be  removed,  believing  that  it  lessens  the  sensibility, 
and  tends  to  loosen  the  attachment  of  the  hair.  To 


RINK— RIO  BRAVO  DEL  NORTE. 

destroy  and  remove  the  plant,  lint  dipped  in  a  solution 
of  sulphurous  acid  should  be  continuously  applied — 
sulphurous  acid  being  probably  the  most  energetic 
parasiticide  at  present  known.  Other  solutions  have 
been  applied  with  the  same  object.  The  general  health 
must  be  attended  to. 

R.  in  the  lower  animals  is  common  among  young 
animals,  is  decidedly  contagious,  and  communicable 
from  man  to  the  animals,  probably  also  from  them  to 
man.  Commencing  with  a  small  itchy  spot,  usually 
about  the  head  or  neck,  or  root  of  the  tail,  it  soon 
spreads,  producing  numbers  of  scurfy  circular  bald 
patches.  It  is  unaccompanied  by  fever,  and  seldom  in- 
terferes seriously  with  health.  After  washing  with 
soap  and  water,  the  spot  may  be  touched  lightly  every 
day  with  a  pencil  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  a  little  of  the 
red  ointment  of  mercury,  or  some  iodide  of  sulphur 
liniment  may  be  rubbed  in. 

RINK,  n.  ringk  [a  form  of  Ring  1 :  Ger.  ring,  the 
arena]:  in  Scot.,  a  course;  a  race;  a  straight  line  or 
mark  of  division ;  a  long  clear  space  on  a  frozen  pond 
or  any  considerable  piece  of  water,  for  the  Scotch  na- 
tional game  of  curling ;  in  America,  a  skating-ground  on 
the  ice  prepared  by  clearing  away  the  snow;  a  hard 
smooth  surface  artificially  prepared  for  1  roller  skating/ 
an  indoor  amusement  in  imitation  of  skating  on  ice. 

RINNS  OF  GAL'LOWAY:  see  Wigtonshire. 

RINSE,  v.  rins  [F.  rincer ,  Dan,  reuse,  to  cleanse  I 
Icel.  hreinn ;  Ger.  rein  ;  Goth,  hrains ;  Dan.  reen,  pure, 
clean] :  to  cleanse  by  the  introduction  of  water ;  to 
give  a  final  cleansing  to  after  washing,  as  to  linen; 
to  wash  by  laving.  Rins'ing,  imp. :  N.  a  cleansing  with 
a  second  water.  Rinsed,  pp.  rinst.  Rinser,  nc  rins'er, 
one  who  rinses. 

RIOBAMBA,  re-d-vamfba :  town  of  Ecuador,  100  m. 
s.  from  Quito,  among  the  Andes,  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Pastasa,  a  large  branch  of  the  Amazon.  It  is  sometimes 
called  New  R.,  having  been  built  instead  of  the  former 
town  of  R.,  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  1797,  whose 
ruins  are  9  m.  distant  at  the  foot  of  Chimborazo. — Pop, 
about  165O00,  mostly  Indians. 

RIO  BRANCO,  re'd  bran'kd :  river  of  Brazil,  largest 
affluent  of  the  Rio  Negro,  rising  near  the  sources  of  the 
Orinoco,  lat.  about  3°  n.,  long,  about  64°  w.  It  flows  e. 
to  long.  61°  w.,  then  s.s.w.  to  the  Rio  Negro,  which  it 
joins  after  a  course  estimated  at  700  ms  At  its  junction 
with  the  Negro  it  is  more  than  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  its 
lower  course  resembles  a  string  of  lakes  connected  by 
narrow  canals.  Its  navigation  is  mush  impeded  by 
rapids  and  waterfallSo 

Rro  BRA'VO  DEL  NOR'TE,  or  ftio  Gran'de:  see 
Bravo  del  Norte. 


RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 
RIO  BE  JANEIRO,  re'd  da  zha-na'e-rd :  maritime 
province  in  s.e.  Brazil;  bounded  s.  and  e.  by  the  At- 
lantic; 26,530  sq.  m.  The  coast  on  the  n.e.  is  low  and 
lined  with  lagoons ;  but  in  the  s.  the  scenery  of  the 
shores  is  unusually  beautiful.  Mountain-ranges  occupy 
the  middle  of  the  province,  among  which  the  peaks  of 
the  Organ  Mountains,  rising  to  6,000  or  7,000  ft.,  are 
conspicuous.  Of  the  rivers  the  Parahiba  is  the  chief. 
The  soil  Is  fertile;  principal  productions  are  sugar, 
coffee,  cocoa,  cotton,  rice,  and  maize.  The  province  is 
traversed  by  a  railway.  The  cap.  is  PraH  Grande  or 
Nitherohi,  which,  including  the  district  of  St.  Domingo, 
contains  about  25,000  inhabitants.  The  city  Rio  de 
Janeiro  is  a  municipality  distinct  from  the  province, 
though  inclosed  by  it. — Pop.,  province  without  the  city 
1,227,600. 

RFO  DE  JANEIRO,  generally  called  Rio :  city,  cap. 
of  the  Brazilian  republic,  and  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant commercial  emporium  of  S.  America;  on  a 
magnificent  harbor,  75  m.  w.  of  Cape  Frio,  lat.  22°  54'  s.» 
long.  43°  15'  w.  The  harbor  or  bay  of  R.,  said,  ap- 
parently with  justice,  to  be  the  most  beautiful,  secure, 
and  spacious  bay  in  the  world,  is  landlocked,  being  en- 
tered from  the  s.  by  a  passage  about  a  mile  in  widthc  It 
extends  inland  17  m.,  and  has  an  extreme  breadth  of 
about  12  m.  Of  its  numerous  islands,  the  largest, 
Governor's  Island,  is  six  m.  long*  The  entrance  of  the 
bay,  guarded  on  either  side  by  granite  mountains,  is 
deep,  and  so  safe,  that  the  harbor  is  entered  without  aid 
of  pilots.  On  the  left  of  the  entrance  rises  the  peak 
called,  from  its  peculiar  shape,  Sugar-loaf  Mountain; 
and  all  round  the  bay,  the  blue  waters  are  girdled  with 
mountains  and  lofty  hills  of  every  variety  of  picturesque 
and  fantastic  outline.  The  haiuor  is  protected  by  a 
number  of  fortresses.  The  city  stands  on  the  w.  shore 
of  the  bay,  about  4  m.  from  its  mouth.  Seven  green 
and  mound-like  hills  diversify  its  site ;  and  the  white- 
walled  and  vermilion-roofed  nouses  cluster  in  the  inter- 
vening valleys,  and  climb  the  eminences  in  long  lines. 
From  the  central  portion  of  the  city,  lines  of  houses 
extend  four  m.  in  three  principal  directions.  The  old 
town,  nearest  the  bay,  is  laid  out  in  squares ;  the  streets 
cross  at  right  angles,  are  narrow,  and  are  paved  and 
flagged ;  and  the  houses,  many  of  granite,  are  commonly 
two  stories  high.  West  of  it  is  the  elegantly  built  new 
town ;  and  the,  two  districts  are  separated  by  the  Campo 
de  Santa  Anna,  an  immense  square  or  park,  on  different 
pa-rts  of  which  stand  an  extensive  garrison,  the  town- 
hall,  the  national  museum,  the  palace  of  the  senate,  the 
foreign  office,  a  large  opera-house,  etc.  From  a  number 
of  springs  on  and  around  Mt.  Corcovado  (3,000  ft.  high, 
3J  m.  s.s.w.  of  the  city),  water  is  conveyed  to  R.  by  a 
splendid  aqueduct,  supplying  the  fountains  for  ^the 
numerous  squares.  Great  municipal  improvements  have 
been  made;  most  of  the  streets  are  now  as  well  paved 
as  those  of  the  finest  European  capitals;  the  city  is 


RIO  GRANDE  DO  NORTE. 

abundantly  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity;  and  com- 
modious wharfs  and  quays  are  built  along  the  water- 
edge.  R.  contains  several  excellent  hospitals  and  in- 
firmaries, asylums  for  foundlings  and  female  orphans, 
and  other  charitable  institutions,  some  richly  endowed; 
about  60  chapels  and  churches,  generally  costly  and  im- 
posing structures,  with  rich  internal  decorations;  and 
several  convents  and  nunneries.  In  the  College  of  Pedro 
II.,  founded  in  1837,  the  various  branches  of  a  liberal 
education  are  efficiently  taught  by  a  staff  of  eight  or 
nine  professors;  the  Imperial  Acad,  of  Medicine,  with 
full  corps  of  professors,  is  attended  by  more  than  300 
students;  there  is  also  a  theol.  seminary.  The  national 
library  contains  100,000  vols.  The  trade  and  commerce 
of  R.  is  great,  and  annually  increasing.  The  aggregate 
value  of  imports  average  annually  between  $45,000,000 
and  $60,000,000;  the  total  value  of  exports  varies  from 
$42,000,000  to  $52,000,000.  The  chief  exports  are  coffee 
(from  2,500,000  to  4,000,000  bags  of  132  pounds  each 
annually),  gold,  diamonds,  tobacco,  and  hides.  The 
chief  imports  are  silk,  linen,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods, 
iron,  etc.  Of  the  imports  Great  Britain  furnishes  41 
per  cent.,  the  United  States  8  per  cent.  Of  the  coffee 
exports,  68  per  cent,  go  to  the  United  States.  In  1900 
there  entered  the  port  843  sea-going  vessels,  of  1,522,754 
tons.  Steam  communication  with  other  ports  of  Brazil  is 
frequent ;  European  steamships  arrive  and  depart  almost 
daily,  and  there  is  telegraphic  connection  with  Europe. 

The  vicinity  of  R.  was  settled  first  by  the  French  1555, 
but  was  occupied  1567  by  the  Portuguese,  who  founded 
the  present  city,  and  gave  it  the  name  St.  Sebastian. 
For  140  years  after  its  foundation,  the  city  had  tranquil 
prosperity,  and  1763  it  superseded  Bahia  as  the  seat  of 
govt.,  and  became  the  residence  of  the  viceroys  of  Por- 
tugal. On  the  proclamation  of  independence  1822  (see 
Brazil),  R.  became  cap.  of  the  Brazilian  empire,  and  is 
new  the  seat  of  the  republican  govt. — Pop.  750,000. 

RI'O  DE  LA  PLATA:  see  Plata,  Rio  de  la. 

RIO  GRANDE,  re' o  gran' da:  name  sometimes  given 
to  upper  course  of  river  Parana  ( q.  v. )  in  Brazil. 

RI'O  GRAN'DE :  river  of  Senegambia  (q.  v.). 

RI'O  GRAN'DE,  or  Rio  Grande  del  Norte:  see 
Bravo  del  Norte. 

RI'O  GRAN'DE  DO  NORTE,  do  nor'ta:  small  maritime 
state  of  Brazil,  in  the  n.  e.  angle  of  the  country; 
bounded  n.  and  e.  by  the  Atlantic;  22,190  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  268,300.  It  is  named  from  a  river,  formerly  called 
the  Rio  Grande,  now  the  Potengi,  which  flows  into  the 
Atlantic  at  Natal ;  but  the  principal  river  is  the  Piranhas. 
The  surface  is  flat  along  the  shores,  which  are  skirted 
by  many  dangerous  shoals,  but  is  hilly  and  mountainous 


RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL— RIOM. 


in  the  interior.  Salt  is  obtained  in  large  quantity  from 
salt  lakes,  and  building-stone  is  abundant.  The  soil, 
generally  sterile,  is  fertile  on  the  river-banks.  The  prin- 
cipal crop  raised  is  cotton,  and  large  herds  of  horses 
and  cattle  are  reared  on  the  pastures,  which  are  exten- 
sive. About  35,000  bags  of  cotton  are  exported  yearly. 
The  capital  and  principal  town  is  Natal,  on  the  Potenzi 
or  Rio  Grande  river. 

RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL,  in  full,  Sao  Pedro  do  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul,  sowng  pa'dro  do  re' 6  gran' da  do  sol: 
maritime  state  of  Brazil,  the  extreme  south  portion 
of  the  country;  bounded  n.  and  w.  by  the  river  Uruguay, 
s.w.  by  the  republic  of  Uruguay,  s.e.  by  the  Atlantic; 
91,310  sq.  m.  The  central  districts  are  occupied  by  a 
range  of  mountains,  almost  parallel  to  the  Uruguay,  and 
from  which  the  land  falls  away  into  plains  toward  the 
Uruguay  on  the  w.,  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  east.  Be- 
tween the  mountains  and  the  flat  coast  regions  are  the 
large  lakes  Merib  and  Des  Patos — the  latter,  175  m. 
long  and  about  40  m.  broad.  The  great  wealth  of  the 
state  is  in  its  flocks  and  herds;  it  is  stated  that  500,000 
cattle,  whose  hides  and  flesh  are  preserved,  are  slaugh- 
tered here  annually,  while  as  many  more  are  driven  n. 
for  ordinary  consumption.  A  considerable  area  is  now 
covered  with  crops  of  maize,  beans,  wheat,  and  potatoes ; 
and  the  agricultural  products,  formerly  of  little  ac- 
count, now  form  one-eighth  of  the  total  exports.  The 
gold-mines  of  the  province  have  yielded  in  one  year  6,100 
ounces,  valued  at  about  $120,000.  Principal  articles  of 
export  are  beans,  horns,  hair,  cattle  and  horse  hides, 
grease  and  tallow,  jerked  or  dried  beef,  tongues,  mandioc 
flour,  and  maize.  Of  the  most  of  these  articles,  the  ex- 
port has  in  a  few  years  considerably  more  than  doubled. 
Half  of  all  the  imports  consists  of  cotton,  woolen,  and 
linen  manufactures,  coals,  earthenware,  and  hardware 
from  Great  Britain.  The  principal  towns  are  Porto 
Alegre  (q.v.)  and  Sao  Pedro  (or  Rio  Grande).  The 
latter,  a  prosperous  and  increasing  seaport  at  the  s.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Lake  des  Patos,  and  close  to  the  sea 
(pop.  18,000)  imports  yearly  goods  to  the  value  of 
$6,779,000:  chief  articles  of  export  were,  beef  valued  at 
$2,433,000;  and  hides,  tallow,  and  hair,  etc.,  $4,345,000. 
About  600  vessels  of  134,000  tons  enter  and  clear  the 
port  annually.  Many  German  anl  Italian  colonists 
have  settled  in  the  state  which  is  increasing  its  railway 
facilities.    Pop.  968,250. 

RIOM,  re- dug' :  small  town  of  France,  dept.  of  Puy- 
de-Dome,  picturesquely  situated  on  a  hill,  1,173  ft.  above 
sea-level,  8  m.  n.n.e.  of  Clermont.  It  is  built  of  dark 
lava,  and  is  a  perfect  treasure  of  domestic  architecture, 
especially  of  the  Renaissance.  Linen,  leather,  and 
brandy  are  manufactured.    Pop.  11,200. 


RIO  NEGRO — KIOT. 

RIO  NE'GRO,  refo  na'grb :  one  of  the  principal  affluents 
of  the  Amazon,  rising  in  an  unexplored  district  of  the 
south  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  (New  Granada), 
flowing  generally  s.s.e.,  and  joining  the  Amazon  at 
Manaos,  after  a  course  estimated  at  1,000  miles.  It  re- 
ceives from  the  n.  the  Cassiquiare  (q.v.),  giving  commu- 
nication between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon ;  also  the 
Cababuri,  Padaviry,  Branca,  and  other  large  streams ; 
from  the  s.  comes  its  greatest  affluent,  the  Vaupes.  It 
is      m.  broad  when  it  enters  the  Amazon. 

RFO  NE'GRO  :  river  of  S.  America,  forming  the  greater 
part  of  the  boundary  between  the  Argentine  Republic 
and  Patagonia.  At  its  source,  it  is  called  by  the  natives 
Melly-roumey-co — i.e.,  four  small  rivers — from  the  fact 
i:hat  it  is  formed  by  four  head- waters  from  the  bosom  of 
the  Cordilleras.  It  is  afterward  called  by  the  natives 
Courou-roumey-co,  or  Black  River  (Span.  Rio  Negro), 
from  the  dark  color  of  its  waters,  caused  by  the  depth 
and  narrowness  of  its  channel.  It  flows  first  n.e.,  then 
e.  and  s.e.  through  the  plains  to  the  Atlantic  in  lat.  41° 
3' s.,  after  a  course  of  more  than  700  m.  Shoals  and 
islands  obstruct  its  channel,  and  it  is  navigable  only  20 
m.  above  its  mouth. 

RIONERO,  re-d-na'rd  :  large  town  of  s.  Italy,  province 
of  Potenza,  7  m.  s.  of  Melfi.  It  produces  grain,  maize, 
pulse,  and  wine.  The  inhabitants  are  agriculturists 
and  shepherds.  There  is  a  great  trade  in  maple  snuff- 
boxes, manufactured  here.    Pop.  12,000. 

RIOSECO,  Medina  de,  rneh-de'na  da  re'd-safko :  small 
town  of  Spain,  province  of  Valladolid,  26  m.  n.w.  of  the 
city  of  Valladolid ;  on  two  hills  in  a  fertile  district.  In 
the  middle  ages,  it  was  the  centre  of  considerable  trade* 
but  it  has  much  declined  in  recent  times.  The  chief 
church  is  that  of  Santa  Maria,  a  beautiful  Gothic  edifice, 
richly  decorated,  and  containing  several  excellent  pict- 
ures. Here,  1808,  a  Spanish  army,  50,000  strong,  under 
Blake  and  Cuesta,  was  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  6,000  men, 
by  12,000  French  troops,  under  Bessieres,  with  the  re- 
sult that  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  placed  on  the  throne 
of  Madrid.  After  the  defeat,  the  unresisting  town  was 
sacked  with  more  than  wonted  barbarity.  Pop.  about 
5,000. 

RIOT,  n.  ri'ot  [OF.  rioter,  to  attack  with  weapons,  to 
rob :  prov.  F.  riota,  to  chide,  to  brawl :  It.  riotta,  riot : 
Gael,  raoit,  indecent  mirth] :  disturbance  of  the  peace 
by  few  or  many  persons :  wild  and  noisy  festivity ;  ex- 
cessive and  expensive  feasting:  tumult;  uproar:  V.  to 
raise  an  uproar  or  disturbance  of  the  peace ;  to  feast 
with  loose  and  noisy  mirth  ;  to  run  to  excess  in  feasting 
or  other  sensual  indulgence.  Rioting,  imp.:  N.  act 
ol  one  who  riots ;  revelling.  Ri'qted,  pp.  Ri'otek, 
n.  -er,  one  who  disturbs  by  riots.  Ri'otous,  a.  -us,  par- 
taking of  the  nature  of  an  unlawful  assembly;  sedi- 
tious; uproarious;  noisy  and  licentious  in  festivity. 
Riotously,  ad.  -II.    Ri'otousness,  n.  -nes%  the  state  or 


RIOUW. 

quanty  or  oeing  riotous.  To  run  riot,  to  act  or  move 
without  control  or  restraint. — Riot  is  a  tumultuous  dis- 
turbance of  the  peace  by  persons  assembled  by  their 
own  authority  to  execute  some  design  in  a  violent  and 
turbulent  manner.  By  the  statutes  of  most  of  the  states 
there  must  be  at  least  three  offending  actors.  The 
wrongdoers  must  be  engaged  in  some  private  purpose 
and  not  in  a  public  attempt  to  overthrow  or  subvert  the 
government  by  arms  or  force,  which  is  treason.  The 
action  must  be  concerted,  but  need  not  be  the  result  of 
previous  deliberations.  No  distinction  is  made  between 
the  relative  degrees  of  violence  on  the  part  of  the  rioters ; 
all  the  participants  are  responsible  for  all  that  takes 
yplace.  Mere  presence  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  make  a 
person  guilty  of  engaging  in  a  R. ;  he  must  in  some 
way  encourage  it  or  take  part  therein.  In  some  of  the 
states  statutes  provide  for  compensation  to  parties 
whose  property  may  be  destroyed  in  consequence  of 
mobs  or  riots,  by  the  city  or  county  in  which  such  prop- 
erty is  situated;  provided  the  injury  to  or  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  property  was  not  aided  or  sanctioned  by  the 
carelessness  or  negligence  of  the  owner.  It  is  a  crime 
for  a  person  present  at  a  R.  to  refuse  to  aid  in  suppress- 
ing it  when  ordered  to  do  so  by  a  duly  authorized  public 
officer.  In  all  the  states  the  militia  may  be  ordered 
out  to  suppress  a  R.  The  crime  of  engaging  in  a  R.  is 
punishable  by  imprisonment,  in  most  of  the  states  from 
one  to  five  years  and  also  by  a  fine. 

RIOUW :  Netherlands  residency  or  govt,  in  the  East- 
ern Archipelago;  comprising,  since  Siak  and  depend- 
encies were  taken  from  it,  the  peninsula  of  Tandjong 
Pinang,  the  Lingga-Riouw  Archipelago,  part  of  the  coast 
of  Sumatra  n.  of  Djambi,  and  the  adjoining  kingdom  of 
Indragiri;  also  the  Tambilan,  Anambas,  and  Natuna 
Islands;  about  18,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  (est.)  of  the  resi- 
dency, 100,000— including  200  Europeans,  30,000  Chinese, 
and  the  rest  natives. 

The  islands  of  the  archipelago  are  mountainous,  the 
peak  of  Lingga  rising  to  3,712  ft.  Many  of  them  are 
covered  with  heavy  timber  and  dense  underwood.  As 
far  as  known,  the  prevailing  rocks  are  granitic  and  sand- 
stone. Gold  is  found  in  Lingga,  and  tin  was  formerly 
extensively  wrought ;  but  the  richer  mines  of  Sinkep 
and  the  Carimon  Islands,  in  the  s.  entrance  of  the  Strait 
of  Malacca,  now  yield  the  largest  amount  of  that  ore. 
Coal  also  is  found  in  the  Riouw-Lingga  Islands. 

The  climate  is  not  considered  unhealthful,  though  at 
times  the  heat  is  intolerable.  The  chief  products  are 
sago,  pepper,  damar  resin,  gambir,  gutta-percha,  ratans, 
cotton,  fruits,  and  many  varieties  of  fine  timber.  Edible 
nests  are  abundant,  and  the  waters  swarm  with  fish. 
Agar-agar,  tripang  or  beche-de-mer,  and  shell-fish  are 
largely  collected.  The  native  Malays  gain  a  living  chiefly 
by  fishing,  and  the  Chinese  have  extensive  Uncaria 
gambir  and  pepper  gardens.    Imports,  about  $2,000,000 


RIP— RIPIENO. 

a  year ;  exports,  rather  less.  The  industries  are  manu- 
facturing gambir,  distilling  arrack,  weaving  silks,  ship- 
building, wood-cutting,  tile  and  brick  making,  together 
with  extensive  fisheries.  The  original  inhabitants  are 
Malays,  more  numerous  in  Lingga  than  in  the  other 
islands.  The  strangers  are  Europeans  in  the  pay  of 
the  Netherlands  colonial  govt.,  Chinese,  Buginese,  and 
Javans.  The  town  is  at  the  n.w.  end  of  Tandjong 
Pinang,  54/  4"  n.  lat.,  and  104°  26' 30"  e.  long.,  in  a  beauti- 
ful bay  where  there  is  safe  anchorage  :  pop.  10,000. — See 
Journal  of  the  Ind.  Archip.,  I. ;  Crawford's  Descriptive  Diet. ; 
De  Residence  Riouw,  by  De  Hollander;  and  the  official 
reports  on  the  Dutch  E.  Indies. 

RIP,  v.  rip  [Icel.  hrifa,  to  scrape,  to  snatch :  Dan. 
oprippe,  to  rip  up:  Dut.  roopen  ;  Ger.  raufen,  to  pluck: 
AS.  rypan,  to  spoil] :  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  thing  by 
cutting  or  tearing ;  to  cut  or  tear  open  or  off;  to  tear  up 
for  disclosure  or  alteration :  N.  a  place  torn :  a  rent 
caused  by  part  of  a  seam  giving  way.  Rip'ping,  imp. 
Ripped,  pp.  rlpt.  Rip'per,  n.  -per,  one  who  rips.  To 
kip  up  old  sores,  to  bring  to  recollection  old  grievances 
and  differences. 

RIP,  n.  rip  [Low  Ger.  rif  or  rift;  Ger.  gerippe,  a 
skeleton]  :  anything  worthless  or  thoroughly  vicious ; 
a  rip  of  a  horse  is  a  thin  worn-out  horse ;  a  morally  ill- 
conditioned  person. 

RIPARIAN,  a.  ri-pa'ri-an  [L.  riparms,  that  frequents 
the  banks  of  rivers — from  ripa,  the  bank  of  a  stream]  : 
pert,  to  the  bank  of  a  stream.  Riparian  Rights  :  see 
River. 

RIPE,  n.  rip  [Dut.  rijp  ;  Ger.  reif,  ripe]  :  brought  to 
perfection  or  maturity;  mature;  mellow;  fit  for  use; 
ready;  prepared:  V.  in  OE.,  to  ripen;  to  mature;  to 
make  ripe.  Ripe'dy,  ad.  -R.  Ripeness,  n.  -nes,  full 
growth ;  maturity ;  fitness  for  use ;  complete  suppura- 
tion, as  of  an  abscess.  Ripen,  v.  ri'pn,  to  become  ripe ; 
to  mature ;  to  grow  ripe,  as  grain  or  fruit ;  to  bring  to 
completeness  or  perfection.  Ripening,  imp.  Ripened, 
pp.  -pnd. — Syn.  of  'ripe':  mature;  comolete:  finished; 
mellow. 

RIPE,  v.  rip  [Icel.  rif  a ;  Dan.  oprippe,  to  rip  up]  :  in 
Scot,  and  OE.,  to  rake;  to  probe;  to  search  or  examine; 
to  investigate.    Raping,  imp.    Riped,  pp.  ript. 

RIPHEAN,  a.  ri-fe'an :  a  term  formerly  applied  to  cer- 
tain mountains  in  the  north  of  Asia. 

RIPIDOLITE,  n.  ri-pid'o-lit  [Gr.  rhipis  or  rhipida,  a 
fan ;  lithos,  a  stone] :  a  composition  of  an  olive-green 
color,  occurring  in  tabular  crystals,  often  united  in 
comb-like  or  fan-like  groups. 

RIPIENO,  a.  rip'e-a'no  [It. — from  L.  re,  again;  plenus, 
full] :  in  music,  a  term  meaning  *  fulL* 


RIPLEY— RIPON. 

RIPLEY,  rlp'Vi,  Eleazar  Wheelock:  soldier:  1782, 
A.pr.  15—1839,  Mar.  2 ;  b.  Hanover,  N.  H. ;  son  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Sylvanus  R.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth 
College  1800,  became  a  lawyer  in  Portland,  Me.,  was  a 
member  of  the  Mass,  legislature  1810  and  of  the  state 
senate  two  years  later.  He  served  through  the  war  of 
1812 ;  entering  as  lieut.,  rising  to  the  rank  of  brig.gen., 
and  receiving  the  brevet  of  maj.gen. ;  and  rendered  dis- 
tinguished service  at  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and 
Niagara,  and  the  defense  of  Fort  Erie,  for  which  con- 
gress presented  him  with  a  gold  medal.  He  resigned 
his  commission  1820,  became  a  lawyer  in  La.,  served  in 
the  state  senate,  and  was  member  of  congress  1834  till 
his  death,  which  resulted  from  wounds  received  in  the 
war  of  1812.    He  died  at  his  home  in  Louisiana. 

RIP'LE  Y,  George,  ll.d.  :  scholar,  critic,  and  editor : 
1802,  Oct.  3—1880,  July  4;  b.  Greenfield,  Mass. ;  son  of 
a  justice  and  legislator;  his  mother  was  related  to  Ben- 
jamin Franklin.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  1823,  and, 
after  a  divinity  course,  was  first  pastor  of  a  Unitarian 
church  on  Purchase  and  Pearl  sts.,  Boston.  He  was  a 
leader  of  the  so-called  transcendentalists,  and  one  of 
the  first  editors  of  the  Dial.  In  1841  he  gave  himself  to 
the  Brook  Farm  socialistic  experiment,  teaching  phi- 
losophy and  doing  manual  work,  till  the  failure  of  the  en- 
terprise 1847.  Afterward,  he  was  engaged  in  journalistic 
work,  especially  as  literary  editor  of  the  Tribune.  His 
critiques  were  noted  for  learning,  penetration,  and 
geniality.  Besides  very  many  reviews  and  essays  in 
monthlies  and  quarterlies,  he  edited  a  series  of  volumes 
entitled  Foreign  Standard  Literature,  beginning  1838. 
In  1857,  with  Charles  A.  Dana,  he  undertook  the  editor- 
ship of  the  New  American  Cyclopedia,  finished  1863,  and 
revised  1873-76  as  the  Amer.  Cyc.  His  life  by  O.  B. 
Frothingham  was  published  in  the  Amer.  Men  of  Letters 
(1882).    He  died  in  New  York. 

RIPON,  rip' on:  city,  in  Fond  du  Lac  CO.,  Wis.;  on 
the  outlet  of  Green  Lake,  and  on  the  Chicago  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  rail- 
roads; 20  m.  w.  by  n.  of  Fond  du  Lac,  86  m.  n.w.  of 
Milwaukee.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  has  excel- 
lent water-power,  ships  large  quantities  of  wool  and  live- 
stock, and  manufactures  carriages,  wagons,  and  flour. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Ripon  College  (Congl.)  ;  was  settled  in 
1844  by  the  '  Wisconsin  Phalanx/  based  upon  the  princi- 
ples of  Fourier  (q.  v.),  and  claims  to  have  originated 
the  Republican  party.    Pop.  (1900)  3,818. 

RIP'ON:  municipal  borough,  in  the  w.  Riding  oi 
Yorkshire,  England,  23  m.  n.w.  of  York.  The  market- 
place, to  which  the  four  principal  streets  lead,  is  spa- 
cious, surrounded  by  good  houses  and  shops,  and  has  in 
its  centre  an  obelisk  90  ft.  high.  R.  is  a  bishop's  see. 
The  cathedral,  founded  1109-14  is  cruciform,  surmounted 
with  two  uniform  towers,  110  ft.  high  at  the  w.  end, 
also  bv  a  centre  tower:  it  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best 


RIPPLE— RISE, 
proportioned  churches  in  the  kingdom.  Trinity  Churchy 
built  1826,  is  a  fine  cruciform  edifice  in  Early  English! 
There  are  other  places  of  worship,  two  hospitals,  and 
important  schools.  Principal  branches  of  industry  are 
machine-making,  tanning,  and  malting.  About  two  m. 
from  R.  are  the  famous  ruins  of  Fountains  Abbey,  ad- 
joining the  grounds  of  Studley  Royal,  seat  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Ripon. — Pop.  8,300 

RIPPLE,  v.  rip'pl  [Fris.  rebbel ;  Dan.  ribbel,  a  frame 
with  iron  teeth,  through  which  thrashed  straw  is  drawn, 
to  save  any  remnants  of  corn :  Ger.  riffel,  a  ripple ;  riffeln, 
to  strip  flax] :  to  pluck  off  the  seed-capsules  of  flax  by 
drawing  the  straw  through  a  fixed  iron  comb :  N.  a  kind 
of  comb  or  frame  with  long  wire  teeth,  through  which 
flax-plants  are  passed,  to  remove  the  capsules  contain- 
ing the  seeds.    Ripple-gbass,  a  species  of  plantain. 

RIPPLE,  n.  rip'pl  [AS.  hrympelle ;  O.  Dut.  rimpel,  a 
wrinkle :  OHG.  hrimfan,  to  wrinkle] :  the  little  curling 
waves  on  the  surface  of  water :  V.  to  ruffle  the  surface  of 
water ;  to  curl  on  the  surface  of  water.  Rip'pling,  imp. : 
N.  the  breaking  of  ripples  on  the  shore,  or  the  noise  of  it. 
Rip'pled,  pp.  ~pld.  Rip'plingly,  ad.  -pVing-ti.  Ripple- 
marks,  marks  made  on  the  sand  of  a  sea-beach  by  the 
receding  tide :  in  geol.,  similar  marks  have  been  observed 
on  the  surface  of  sandstones  of  all  ages.  They  are 
deemed  generally  as  indicating  that  the  deposition  of 
the  bed  on  which  they  occur  took  place  on  a  sea-beach, 
or  under  water  not  more  than  ten  ft.  deep.  Recent  rip- 
ple-marks have,  however,  been  observed  at  a  depth  of 
60  ft.,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  mud  and  sand 
may  be  disturbed  at  much  greater  depths  by  currents  of 
water.  Loose  sand  also  may  be  driven  by  the  wind  into 
ripple-waves,  that  cannot  be  distinguished  from  those 
produced  by  the  receding  tide. 

RIPRAP,  n.  rxp'rap:  in  civil  engin.,  a  foundation  of 
stones  thrown  together  without  order,  #s  in  deep  water 
or  on  a  soft  bottom. 

RIPT,  v.  rlpt:  another  spelling  of  Ripped:  see  Rip  1. 

RISE,  v.  rlz  [Icel.  risa  ;  Goth,  urreisan  ;  AS.  arisan,  to 
rise  up :  Dut.  riisen,  to  rise  up :  OHG.  risan,  to  move 
up] :  to  ascend ;  to  move  upward ;  to  get  up,  as  from  a 
recumbent  or  sitting  position ;  to  get  up  from  rest  or 
repose;  to  spring  or  grow;  to  begin  to  appear  or  to 
exist;  to  increase;  to  swell  in  quantity;  to  advance,  elz 
in  price ;  to  gain  elevation  in  position ;  to  break  forth ; 
to  be  elevated  above  the  surface;  to  ascend,  as  ground; 
to  have  its  source  in ;  to  commence ;  to  make  insurrec- 
tion ;  to  make  a  hostile  attack ;  to  be  roused ;  to  close  a 
sitting,  as  a  court  of  justice  or  parliament ;  in  Scrip,, 
to  be  revived  from  death :  N.  act  of  rising ;  ascent ; 
elevation ;  first  appearance,  as  of  the  sun  in  the  east ; 
source ;  beginning ;  increase ;  advance,  as  in  value,  in 
rank,  or  in  prosperity.  Rising,  imp. :  Adj.  mounting ; 
advancing ;  appearing  above  the  horizon ;  increasing,  as 


KISHI— RISING  IN  THE  AIR. 
in  wealth  or  position;  reviving  from  death :  in  her.,  ap- 
plied to  a  bird  represented  as  opening  his  wings  about 
to  take  flight :  N.  act  of  getting  up  from  any  recumbent 
posture ;  act  of  ascending ;  a  tumor ;  ascent ;  appearance 
of  a  star  above  the  horizon ;  act  of  reviving  from  the 
dead;  an  insurrection  against  government;  sedition; 
the  close  of  the  sitting  of  a  court.  Rising  of  paklia- 
ment,  prorogation  of  parliament.  Rose,  pt.  rbz,  did 
rise.  Risen,  pp.  riz'n.  Risek,  n.  rl'zer,  one  who  rises. 
— Syn.  of  « rise,  v.' :  to  get  up ;  spring ;  grow  up ;  ascend ; 
mount;  climb;  scale:  move  upward;  break  out;  be  ex- 
cited; be  produced;  appear;  begin; — of  'rising,  n.': 
appearance;  tumult;  insurrection;  resurrection;  sedi- 
tion; swelling. 

RISHI,  rishl  [from  obsolete  Sanskrit  r'ish,  see,  kin- 
dred with  drV-,  Sep*'-]  :  title  given  to  the  poets  of  the 
Vedic  hymns,  as  they  were  supposed  to  have  *  seen/  or, 
in  other  words,  received,  the  Vedic  hymns  from  the  Deity 
through  the  sense  of  sight.  The  R'ishis  were  therefore 
the  oldest  poets  of  India,  and  the  word  R.  itself  becomes 
thus  even  identified  with  Vedic  poetry.  Later,  how- 
ever, the  title  R.  was  given  to  renowned  authors,  though 
not  considered  as  inspired  by  a  deity ;  e.g.,  to  the  authors 
of  the  Vedic  Kalpa.— Compare  Goldst  ticker,  Pan'ini,  etc., 
p.  64,  ff. 

RISIBLE,  a.  rizl-bl  [F.  risible— from  L.  risibiUs, 
laughable — from  risus  laughter;  rided,  I  laugh:  Sp. 
risible ;  It.  risibile,  risible]  :  having  the  faculty  or  power 
of  laughing;  capable  of  exciting  laughter;  prone  to 
laugh.  Ris'ibly,  ad.  -bU.  Ris'ibii/ity,  n.  -bil'i-ti,  the 
quality  of  being  risible ;  proneness  to  laugh. — Syn.  of 
4  risible ' :  amusing ;  ridiculous ;  ludicrous ;  laughable. 

RISING  IN  THE  AIR,  or  Levitation  :  act  ascribed 
according  to  a  belief  (prevalent  in  the  middle  ages)  that 
the  .bodies  of  holy  persons  were  sometimes  lifted  up  and 
suspended  in  the  air  while  those  persons  were  in  a  re- 
ligious ecstasy.  Calmet  states  in  his  work  on  Appari- 
tions that  this  phenomenon  might  be  produced  by  the 
fervor  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  by  the  ministry  of  good 
angels ;  or  by  a  miraculous  favor  of  God.  Numerous 
instances  are  recorded  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum.  It  is  re- 
ported that  St.  Philip  of  Neri,  in  his  religious  ecstasies, 
was  elevated  in  the  air,  sometimes  almost  to  the  ceiling 
of  his  room,  and  this  quite  involuntarily ;  he  tried  in  vain 
to  hide  it  from  the  knowledge  of  those  present,  for  fear 
of  attracting  their  admiration.  St.  Ignatius  de  Loyola, 
it  is  declared,  was  sometimes  raised  up  from  the  ground 
to  the  height  of  two  ft.,  while  his  body  shone  like  light. 
St.  Robert  de  Palentin  also  is  said  to  have  risen  from  the 
ground  sometimes  to  the  height  of  a  foot  and  a  half,  to 
the  astonishment  of  his  disciples  and  assistants.  In  the 
life  of  St.  Dunstan  it  is  stated  that,  a  little  time  before 
his  death,  as  he  was  going  upstairs  to  his  apartment, 
accompanied  by  several  persons,  he  was  observed  to 
rise  from  the  ground ;  and  as  all  present  were  astonished 


BISK — RISTORI. 

at  the  circumstance,  he  took  occasion  to  speak  of  his  ap- 
proaching death.  In  a  recent  biography  of  Girolamo 
Savonarola,  it  is  also  stated  that  while  that  martyr  was 
in  prison,  shortly  before  his  execution,  he  was  observed 
once,  while  in  prayer,  raised  from  the  ground,  and  was 
seen  distinctly  suspended  in  the  air  for  a  short  period. 
These  relations  account  for  the  frequency  with  which 
representations  of  saints  are  exhibited  in  an  aerial  posi- 
tion in  mediaeval  paintings  and  works  of  art.  This  be- 
lief falls  in  with  one  of  the  alleged  phenomena  of  modern 
Spiritism  (q.v.). 

RISK,  n.  risk  [Sp.  risco,  a  bare  steep  rock:  F.  risque; 
It.  risico ;  Sp.  riesgo,  risk :  comp.  Bret,  riska,  to  slip  or 
slide]  :  exposure  to  injury  or  loss;  danger;  hazard  (see 
Warranty:  Carriers:  Insurance):  V.  to  expose  to 
the  chaDce  of  injury  or  loss ;  to  hazard ;  to  peril.  Risk'- 
ing,  imp.  Risked,  pp.  riskt.  Risk'er,  n.  -er,  one  who 
risks.  Risk'ful,  a.  ~ful,  or  Risk'y,  a.  4,  attended  with 
danger ;  hazardous.  To  run  a  risk,  to  incur  hazard ; 
to  encounter  danger.  To  take  a  risk,  to  assume 
danger;  to  insure. — Syn.  of  'risk,  n.' :  hazard;  jeopardy; 
danger ;  peril ;  exposure ;  venture ;  liability. 

RISOTTO,  re-zot'to :  Italian  dish,  consisting  chiefly 
of  rice.  Onions  are  shredded  into  a  frying-pan  with 
plenty  of  butter,  and  they  are  fried  together  until  the 
onions  become  very  brown,  and  communicate  their  color 
to  the  butter.  The  butter  is  then  run  off,  and  to  this  is 
added  some  rich  broth,  slightly  colored  with  saffron,  and 
the  whole  is  thickened  with  well  boiled  rice,  and  served 
up  instead  of  soup,  at  the  commencement  of  a  dinner. 

RISSOLE,  n.  ris'sol  [F.  rissoler,  to  fry  meat  till  it  is 
brown  :  Dan,  riste,  to  fry] :  culinary  preparation  used  as 
an  entree.  It  consists  of  meat  or  fish  of  any  kind  finely 
minced  and  made  into  small  forms,  which  are  then 
coated  with  a  very  thin  crust  either  of  pastry  or  of  bread- 
crumbs mixed  with  yolk  of  egg,  and  fried. 

RISTORI,  res-td're,  Adelaide  :  famous  Italian  tragic 
actress :  was  born  in  1821  at  Cividale  in  Frioul.  Her 
parents  were  strolling  players,  and  she  almost  began 
life  in  the  theatre.  At  the  age  of  14,  she  played  in  Fran- 
cesca  da  Rimini,  and  in  a  few  years  became  the  leading 
Italian  actress.  Her  talents,  her  beauty,  and  her  grace 
made  her  a  universal  favorite.  In  1847,  her  marriage 
with  Marquis  Capranica  del  Grillo  (died  1861)  temporar- 
ily interrupted  her  dramatic  career ;  but  after  two  years, 
she  returned  to  the  stage,  and  appeared  at  Rome  1849 
in  Alfieri's  tragedy  of  Myrrha.  But  the  French  attack 
on  the  city  caused  her  to  desert  the  theatre  for  the  hos- 
pital, where  she  employed  herself  assiduously  in  nurs- 
iug  the  wounded.  After  having  acted  in  1850  and  suc- 
ceeding years  at  Rome  and  Turin  in  various  characters 
of  Alfieri  with  immense  applause,  she  presented  herself 
before  a  French  audience  1855,  when  Rachel  was  in  the 
height  of  her  fame,  a  proceeding  considered  as  a  chal- 
lenge by  the  first  Italian  aciress  to  the  first  French  ac- 


RISUS— RITE, 
tress.  Even  at  Paris  she.obtained  a  triumph,  her  genius 
creating  irrepressible  enthusiasm.  Without  the  extreme 
sympathetic  sensibility  of  Rachel,  she  surpassed  her  in 
vivacity  and  expansion.  She  appeared  with  great  suc- 
cess in  the  United  States,  etc.    Died  1906,  Oct.  9.  • 

RISUS,  n.  ri'sus  [L.  risus,  laughter :  It.  riso  ;  F.  ris, 
laughter]  :  a  laugh  ;  laughter.  Risus  sardonicus,  sar- 
don'i-kus,  in  med.,  the  peculiarly  horrible  expression  of 
countenance  observed  in  cases  of  tetanus,  so  called  be- 
cause supposed  to  be  produced  by  the  eating  of  a  specie? 
of  ranunculus  growing  in  Sardinia. 

RITARDANDO,  a.  re-tar-dan' do  [It.] :  in  mus.t  a 
direction  to  play  and  sing  slower  and  slower. 

RITCHIE,  richl,  Anna  Cora  (Mowatt)  :  1819-1870, 
July  28 ;  b.  Bordeaux,  France ;  dau.  of  Samuel  G.  Ogden, 
of  New  York.  Her  childhood  was  passed  in  France,  but 
in  early  youth  she  removed  to  New  York,  and  soon  after- 
ward eloped  with  a  lawyer  named  James  Mowatt.  She 
gave  much  attention  to  private  theatricals,  and  when  her 
husband  lost  his  property  she  gave  public  readings. 
She  appeared  as  an  actress  1845,  June,  taking  the  part 
of  Pauline  in  The  Lady  of  Lyons.  She  also  wrote  plays 
entitled  Fashion,  and  Armand,  in  which  she  appeared  in 
England  and  the  United  States.  On  the  death  of  her 
husband  1851,  she  returned  to  this  country,  and  1854 
married  William  F.  Ritchie.  From  1860  till  her  death 
she  resided  in  Europe.  Among  her  publications  were 
Autobiography  of  an  Actress  (1855) ;  Twin  Roses  (1857) ; 
Italian  Life  and  Legends  (1870).    She  died  near  London. 

RITCH'IE,  Thomas:  journalist:  1778,  Nov.  5—1854, 
July  12;  b.  Tappahannock,  Va.  He  studied  medicine, 
taught  school  in  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  and  1804  became 
editor  and  publisher  of  the  Richmond  Enquirer,  which  he 
controlled  for  40  years,  and  made  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential democratic  papers  in  the  country.  This  paper  he 
transferred  to  his  sons  1845.  in  order  to  edit  the  Union, 
an  administration  organ  in  Washington,  to  which  serv- 
ice he  was  called  by  President  Polk,  and  from  which  he 
retired  1849.    He  died  at  Richmond. 

RITE,  n.  rlt  [F.  rit  or  rite,  a  rite — from  L.  rltus,  a 
religious  usage  or  ceremony :  It.  rito]  :  a  formal  act  of 
religious  worship ;  external  observance ;  form ;  cere- 
mony. Ritual,  a.  rit'u-al,  pert,  to  rites,  or  prescribed 
by  them :  N.  a  book  of  rites  or  services  (see  below). 
Rit'ually,  ad.  -It.  Rit'ualism,  n.  -izm,  observance  of 
prescribed  forms  in  religious  services;  excessive  or 
prominent  observance  of  forms  (see  below) :  sometimes, 
in  controversy,  opposed  to  spiritual  worship.  Ritualist, 
n.  -1st,  one  who  makes  much  of  ritual,  or  external  forms 
in  worship ;  one  unduly  devoted  to  mere  external  forms 
in  worship.  Ritualists,  n.  plu.  4sfe,  extreme  party  in 
the  Chh.  of  Eng.  which  seeks  both  in  doctrine  and  ritual 
to  assimilate  it  to  the  Rom.  Cath.  Chh. :  see  Ritualism, 
below. — Syn.  of  4  rite ' :  ceremony ;  form ;  observance ; 
ordinance. 


BITE-  RITES. 

RITE,  rlt .  external  sign  or  action  employed  in  reli- 
gious use,  and  designed  either  to  express  or  to  excite  a 
corresponding  internal  religious  feeling;  e.g.,  the  uplift- 
ing or  outstretching  the  hands  in  prayer,  the  imposition 
of  hands  in  blessing,  etc.  The  ancient  Jewish  religion 
abounded  with  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  through  their 
excessive  multiplication  in  the  religions  of  the  Gentiles, 
religion  degenerated  almost  entirely  into  outward  form. 
A  marked  distinction  in  this  respect  is  drawn  by  the 
Lord  Jesus  (John  iv.  23)  between  the  old  and  the  new 
law,  which  one  class  of  Christians  have  interpreted  as 
a  condemnation  of  all  external  ceremonial,  while  even 
those  who  contend  for  retention  of  ceremonies  in  Chris- 
tian worship  require  that  their  use  should  always  be 
accompanied  and  elevated  by  the  corresponding  internal 
spirit.  All  forms  of  religion  use  rites  to  some  extent  in 
worship :  the  debate  is  as  to  the  proper  limit  in  their 
use.  The  great  ground  of  difference  in  the  Puritan  con- 
troversy in  England  and  in  the  corresponding  disputes 
in  continental  churches  was  the  lawfulness  of  certain 
ceremonies.    See  Genuflexion  :  Pukitan. 

The  name  rite  is  sometimes  used  to  signify  the  aggre- 
gate of  all  the  ceremonies  used  in  a  particular  religious 
office,  as  the  '  rite '  of  baptism  or  of  the  Eucharist.  In 
a  still  wider  sense,  it  is  used  of  the  whole  body  of  dis- 
tinctive ceremonial,  including  the  liturgy  employed  by 
a  particular  community  of  Christians ;  e.g.,  the  *  Roman 
rite,'  the  4  Greek  rite/  the  'Syrian  rite/  the  'Armenian 
rite,'  the  '  Coptic  '  or  the  '  Slavonic  rite/ 

RITENUTO,  re-ien-6'to  [Ital.  kept  back] :  in  music, 
a  term  implying  that  the  speed  of  the  movement  is  to  be 
diminished. 

RITES,  ritSy  CoNGKEGrATTON  of  (Congregatio  Sacrorum 
Rituum) :  in  the  Roman  Chh.,  a  standing  committee  of  the 
College  of  Cardinals.  Its  duty  is  to  maintain  throughout 
all  the  churches  uniformity  in  the  ceremonial  observ- 
ances employed  in  solemn  public  worship — especially  in 
the  Mass.  All  questions  of  ritual  or  liturgy  that  arise 
are  decided  by  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  But  this  Con- 
gregation does  not  require  the  immemorial  usage  of  cer- 
tain churches,  or  the  ancient  liturgies  of  certain  com- 
munions to  be  conformed  to  the  standard  of  the  Roman 
Chh.  Another  office  of  the  Congregation  of  R.  is  tho 
beatification  and  canonization  of  saints. 


RITORNELLE— RITSCHL. 

RITORNELLE,  n.  rit'dr-nel,  or  Ritornello,  n.  rit'dr- 
nel'lo  [F.  ritournellc;  It.  ritornello,  dim.  of  ritorno,  return ; 
ritornare,  to  return  (see  Return)]  :  in  music,  in  its  origi- 
nal sense,  a  short  repetition  like  that  of  an  echo,  or  a 
repetition  of  the  closing  part  of  a  song  by  one  or  more 
instruments.  The  same  term  has,  by  later  usage,  been 
applied  to  all  symphonies  played  before  the  voices  begin 
which  prelude  or  introduce  a  song ;  as  well  as  the  sym- 
phonies between  the  members  or  periods  of  a  song. 

RITSCHL,  ritsh'l,  Albrecht,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  ph.d.: 
German  theologian :  b.  1822 ;  nephew  of  Frederic  Wil- 
liam R.,  philologist.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  curator 
of  the  library  and  museum  of  the  Univ.  of  Bonn ;  1860 
prof,  of  theol. ;  and  1864  prof,  in  the  Univ.  of  Gottingen. 
Besides  many  papers  on  religious  questions,  he  has  pub- 
lished The  Gospel  of  Marcion  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Duke 
(1846) — Marcion  admitting  only  the  latter,  and  chang- 
ing it.  In  this  work,  R.  followed  the  critical  method  of 
Bauer;  but  in  1850  his  Origin  of  the  Ancient  Catholic 
Church  opposed  the  principles  of  the  school  that  he  had 
favored.  Other  works  are  :  The  Relation  of  the  Confession 
to  the  Church  (1854) ;  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of 
Justification  and  Reconciliation  (English  translation,  Edin- 
burgh 1872);  Concerning  Conscience  (1876):  History  of 
Pietism  (1880-86,  vol.  I.,  in  the  Ref.  Church— II.  III.,  in 
the  Lutheran) ;  Instruction  in  the  Christian  Religion;  and 
Theology  and  Metaphysics.  His  theology  is  based  on  a 
theory  of  cognition  that  recognizes  phenomena  only; 
and  to  this  his  rejection  of  traditional  doctrine  is  traced 
in  Stahlin's  Kant,  Lotze,  and  Ritschl,  translated  by  D.  W. 
Simon  (1889).   Died  1889,  March  20,  at  Gottingen. 

RITSCHL,  Friedrich  Wilhelm:  one  of  the  first 
(perhaps  the  very  first)  classical  philologists  of  modern 
times  :  1806,  Apr.  6 — 1876  ;  b.  Grossvargula  in  Thuringia. 
He  studied  at  Leipzig  under  Hermann,  and  1826-29  at 
Halle.  In  1832,  he  was  called  to  Breslau  as  extraordinary 
prof. ;  two  years  afterward  he  became  ordinary  prof ; 
and  1839  accepted  an  invitation  to  Bonn  as  prof,  of  clas- 
sical literature  and  rhetoric.  The  Prussian  govt,  con- 
ferred on  him  the  rank  of  privy-councillor  1856.  His 
first  literary  works  were  in  reference  to  the  Greek  gram- 
marians, as  the  edition  of  Thomas  Magister  (Halle  1832), 
the  acute  and  penetrating  treatise,  Be  Oro  et  Orione 
(Bresl.  1834),  and  the  richly  elucidatory  Die  Alexandrin. 
Bibliotheken  und  die  Sammlung  der  Homerischen  Gedichte 
durch  Pisistratus  (Bresl.  1838) ;  but  by  far  his  greatest 
work  is  his  edition  of  Plautus  (Bonn,  1848-53),  executed 
with  the  richest  critical  apparatus,  and  accompanied  by 
a  comprehensive  prolegomena  on  the  Plautinian  metres. 
The  work  secured  for  him  a  splendid  reputation. 
Among  the  numerous  productions  of  R.  preparatory 
to  this  chef-d'oeuvre,  most  important  is  Parerga  Plautina 
et  Terentiana  (Leip.  1845).  Subsequently  his  literary  ac- 
tivity turned  to  the  systematic  treatment  of  Latin  in- 
scriptions, with  the  view  of  illustrating  the  history  of 


RITSCHLIANISM. 
the  Latin  language.  By  his  numerous  works  in  this  de- 
partment (published  1851-62),  R.  has  thrown  more  light 
on  the  successive  phases  of  the  language  than  any  other 
individual.  Besides  these  works,  R.  contributed  many 
learned  dissertations  to  the  programs  of  the  Univ.  of  Bonn, 
in  Transactions  of  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  Rome, 
and  in  the  Rheinisches  Museum  fur  Philologie.  On  the  25th 
anniversary  of  his  appointment  to  Bonn,  there  began  to  be 
published  Symbola  Philologorum  Bonnensium  in  Honorem 
FricL  Ritschelii  (1864-67).  In  1867,  R.,  30  of  whose  pupils 
were  then  professors  in  German  universities,  was  appoint- 
ed foreign  associate  of  the  French  Acad,  of  Inscriptions 
and  Belles  Lettres. 

RITSCHLIANISM,  ritsh'li-an4sm  :  system  of  Albrecht 
Ritschl  (q.v.),  German  theologian.  Ritschl's  distinctive 
theological  views  are  most  fully  presented  in  his  great 
work  on  the  Christian  doctrine  of  justification  and  recon- 
ciliation. In  philosophy  he  is  of  the  school  of  Lotze(q.v.), 
holding  a  system  of  subjective  idealism.  He  doubts  the 
possibility  of  demonstrating  God  to  the  speculative  intel- 
lect, but  believes  that  God  is  revealed  to  man  through  the 
religious  consciousues3.  God  is  to  be  thought  of  chiefly 
as  love,  even  his  justice  and  righteousness  being  substan- 
tially identical  with  his  grace.  Metaphysical  speculations 
in  regard  to  God's  existence  as  absolute,  unconditioned, 
and  self -determining,  or  in  regard  to  a  distinction  and  unity 
of  three  persons  in  the  Godhead,  or  of  two  natures,  divine 
and  human,  in  the  person  of  Christ,  are  to  be  disregarded 
as  valueless  and  unprofitable,  Christ  is  held  to  be  divine, 
holding  a  unique  relation  to  the  church  founded  by  his 
earthly  life  and  work.  The  atonement  secures  reconcilia- 
tion of  man  with  God  and  freedom  from  the  sense  of  guilt, 
not  by  Christ's  vicarious  suffering  of  the  penalty  due  to 
sinful  men,  but  by  his  perfect  fulfilment  of  the  divine 
will,  and  his  patient,  loving,  and  unfaltering  endurance 
even  unto  death.  The  Christian's  justification  is  wit- 
nessed by  his  possessing  the  spirit  and  living  the  life  of 
Christ — a  life  of  trust  in  the  divine  providence,  of  humil- 
ity, of  patient  eudurance  of  suffering  or  trial,  of  prayerful- 
ness,  and  of  faithful  doing  of  the  will  of  God,  including 
faithfulness  to  one's  calling  as  part  of  the  divine  will  and 
contributing  to  build  up  the  kingdom  of  God.  Great  im- 
portance is  attached  to  the  church  as  the  community  in 
which  alone  men  can  have  reconciliation  with  God  and 
freedom  from  the  sense  of  guilt,  can  be  enabled  to  act  from 
motives  of  love,  and  can  realize  that  human  and  divine  fel- 
lowship of  perfect  lo^e  which  is  the  kingdom  of  God. 
The  Ritschlian  system  gives  great  prominence  to  the  prac- 
tical, ethical,  and  social  aspects  of  Christianity.  Its  au- 
thor has  been  termed  1  an  eclectic  mediating  theologian,' 
as  standing  between  the  rationalistic  and  orthodox  parties 
within  the  church.  The  system  has  had  a  wide  influence 
over  a  large  sehool  of  Christian  thinkers,  teachers,  and 
preachers  in  Germany. 


RITTENIIOUSE— RITTER. 

RITTENHOUSE,  rim-ftowss,  David,  m.d.  :  mechani- 
cian, mathematician,  and  astronomer :  1732,  Apr.  8 — 1796, 
June  26;  b.  Roxborough,  Penn. ;  son  of  a  Mennonite 
preacher  who  was  the  first  paper-maker  in  this  country. 
At  17  yrs.  of  age  he  made  a  wooden  clock,  and, 
two  years  later,  became  a  maker  of  clocks  and  mathe- 
matical instruments  in  Norriton,  achieving  great  rep- 
utation. A  constant  student,  he  independently  dis- 
covered the  method  of  fluxions,  and  educated  himself  in 
the  ancient  languages.  He  invented  a  compensating 
pendulum  and  a  metallic  thermometer,  and  made  im- 
proved orreries,  which  were  sold  at  $1,500 — $2,000  to  in- 
stitutions. His  services  were  in  requisition  to  deter- 
mine state  boundaries  accurately.  In  1769,  he  made 
even  better  observations  on  the  transit  of  Venus  than 
the  royal  astronomers  of  Europe;  and,  the  same  year, 
studied  the  transit  of  Mercury.  The  following  year, 
he  determined  the  orbit  of  a  comet.  During  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  he  was  pres.  of  a  committee  of  safety,  and 
his  engineering  and  inventive  genius  was  variously  ex- 
ercised. In  1776,  he  was  member  of  the  Penn.  assembly 
and  constitutional  convention ;  1777-89,  state  treasurer ; 
1779-82,  prof,  of  astron.  in  the  Univ.  of  Penn. ;  1792, 
director  of  the  mint.  He  succeeded  Franklin,  1790,  as 
pres.  of  the  Amer.  Philos.  Soc,  to  whose  vols,  he  con- 
tributed many  papers.  His  Oration  on  Astron.  was  pub. 
1775.  James  Renwick  wrote  his  life,  in  Sparks's  Amer. 
Biog.    He  died  in  Philadelphia. 

RITTER,  rit'ter,  Heineich :  German  philosopher: 
1791-1869 ;  b.  Zerbst.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle, 
Gottingen,  and  Berlin,  1811-15,  and  in  1824  was  created 
prof,  extraordinarius  at  Berlin  Univ.  In  1835,  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  the  univ.  at  Kiel,  and  went  thence  1837  to 
Gottingen.  R.  owes  his  literary  fame  especially  to  his 
profound  works  on  the  history  of  philosophy,  giving 
analyses  of  leading  ancient  and  modern  systems,  and 
tracing  their  relations  to  one  another.  He  was  not  a 
partisan  of  any  philosophical  school,  but  a  critic  of  all.  , 

RIT'TER,  Karl:  illustrious  geographer:  1779,  Aug. 
7 — 1859,  Sep.  28;  b.  Quedlinburg,  Prussia.  He  studied 
in  Halle,  was  nominated  1820  prof,  extraordinarius  of 
geog.  at  Berlin  Univ.,  became  subsequently  member  of 
the  Acad.,  and  director  of  studies  of  the  Milit.  School. 
With  R.,  as  the  founder  of  general  comparative  geogra- 
phy, begins  a  new  epoch  in  geographical  science.  His 
chief  works  are  :  Die  Erdkunde  im  Verhdltnisse  zur  Natur 
und  Geschichte  des  Menschen  (Geography  in  its  Relation 
to  Nature  and  the  History  of  Men),  17  vols.  Berl.  1822- 
54 :  in  4  parts,  1.  Introduction,  and  E.  Asia,  5  vols.,  con- 
taining Middle  Asia,  High  Asia,  Siberia,  China,  and 
India,  vols.  II.— VI. ;  2.  W.  Asia,  5  vols.  (VII.— XI.) ;  3. 
Arabia  (.XII — XIII.) ;  4.  The  Sinai  Peninsula,  Palestine, 
Syria  (XIV. — XVII.),  with  four  indexes,  and  an  Atlas  of 
Asia.  Introduction  to  an  Essay  on  a  more  Scientific 
Treatment  of  Geography  (Berl.  1852) ;  Europa,  ein  geo- 
graphisch.,  historisch.,  statisti&ches  Gemdlde  (Europe,  a  Geo- 


RITUAL. 


graphical,  Historical,  Statistical  Picture ) ,  2  vols.  Frankf . 
1807;  Die  Stupas,  oder  die  architect.  Monumente,  etc. 
(The  Stupas,  or  the  Architectural  Monuments  on  the 
Indo-Bactrian  Royal  Road,  and  the  Colossus  of  Bam- 
yan),  Berl.  1838.  Many  of  his  antiquarian  and  his- 
torico-antiquarian  researches  are  in  the  Monatsberichten 
of  the  Berlin  Geog.  Soc.  and  in  the  Zeitschrift  filr 
allgemeine  Erdkunde,  etc. 
RITUAL :  see  under  Rite.  . 

RIT'UAL:  name  of  one  of  the  service-books  of  the 
Roman  Church,  containing  the  prayers  and  order  of  cere- 
monial in  the  administration  of  certain  sacraments  and 
other  offices  of  the  church.  The  ceremonial  of  the  offices 
of  the  Roman  Church  administered  by  bishops  is  in  the 
books  entitled  Pontificate  and  Ceremoniale  Episcoporum, 
while  the  priestly  offices  are  detailed  in  the  Ritual.  In 
its  present  form,  the  R.  dates  from  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which  directed  a  revision  of  numerous  and  varying 
rituals  then  in  existence.  Paul  V.,  1614,  published 
an  authoritative  edition,  frequently  reprinted,  and 
of  which  a  further  revision  was  issued  by  Benedict 
XIV.  Besides  the  Roman  R.,  there  are  many 
diocesan  rituals,  some  of  which  are  of  much  historical 
interest.  In  the  Greek  Church,  as  in  the  other  eastern 
communions,  the  R.  forms  part  of  the  general  collection 
(which  contains  also  the  Eucharistic  service)  entitled 
Euchologion.  In  the  Anglican  and  the  Prot.  Episc. 
Church,  also,  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  may  be  said 
to  contain  the  R.  The  most  approved  commentary  on 
the  Roman  R.  is  that  of  Barrufaldo  (2  vols.  Florence 
1847). 

RITUAL  LAW,  that  portion  of  the  law  of  Moses 
which  prescribes  the  ceremonies  of  public  religious  wor- 
ship, the  manner  of  making  trespass  offerings,  the  pro- 
cedure for  the  discovery  of  leprosy,  for  the  purification 
of  women  after  childbirth,  the  discrimination  of  things 
clean  and  unclean,  etc.  The  ritual  laws  of  the  Hebrews 
are  contained  mostly  in  the  books  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers  and  Deuteronomy. 


RITUALISM. 


KIT'UALISM:  popular  but  inaccurate  name  for  the 
remarkable  increase  of  ceremonial  in  the  Church  of 
England  since  1863.  In  a  general  sense  it  denotes,  in 
the  United  States  and  in  Britain,  the  theory  of  the 
church  which  demands  a  certain  high  degree  of  symbol- 
ism for  proper  conduct  of  worship  or  for  adequate  setting 
forth  of  Christian  doctrine;  also  in  loose  popular  usage 
it  denotes  any  observance  of  elaborate  ritual  in  divine 
service.  It  may  be  considered  a  development  of  Trac- 
tarianism,  though  it  was  not  contemplated  by  the  authors 
of  that  movement,  whose  aim  was  rather  to  disseminate 
doctrines  than  to  introduce  ritual  changes.  Its  col- 
lateral causes  may  be  said  to  be :  (1)  The  great  advance 
of  aesthetic  taste,  and  the  increased  cultivation  of  the 
fine  arts  in  the  service  of  religion.  (2)  The  extended 
study  by  the  clerg}-  of  ancient  liturgies,  and  the  con- 
nection discovered  tc  exist  between  them  and  the  offices 
of  the  English  Church,  therefore  also  with  those  of  the 
Prot.  Episc.  Church  in  this  country.  With  the  spread 
of  High  Church  principles,  certain  changes  in  the  mode 
of  conducting  divine  service  had  been  introduced  by  the 
clergy,  which,  though  unpopular  at  first,  were  widely 
adopted,  and  to  a  certain  point,  had  received  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  law.  But  till  about  1863,  the  restored  church 
with  low  and  open  benches — the  separated  chancel — the 
altar-table  with  coverings  of  different  color  according  to 
the  ecclesiastical  seasons,  and  candlesticks,  and  a  cross 
upon  or  over  it — choral  services,  and  weekly  celebration 
of  the  communion,  were  all  that  had  been  attempted. 
To  these  comparatively  small  alterations,  important  ad- 
ditions have  since  been  made — viz.  (1)  Special  vest- 
ments at  celebration  of  the  holy  communion,  and  at 
certain  other  times;  viz.,  for  the  celebrant,  an  alb  and 
stoles,  of  different  color,  and  chasuble ;  for  the  assisting 
ministers,  albs  with  tunicles,  according  to  the  seasons : 
at  other  times,  a  cope  is  worn  instead  of  a  chasuble- 

(2)  Lighted  candles  on  the  altar  at  holy  communion. 

(3)  Incense  burned  either  in  a  *  thurible '  or  in  a  stand- 
ing vessel.  (4)  The  mixing  of  water  with  wine  for  the 
communion.  (5)  The  use  of  wafer-bread.  (6)  Elevation 
of  the  elements  either  during  or  after  consecration. 
(7)  The  attendance  of  non-communicants  at  the  holy 
communion.  (8)  Processions  with  crosses,  banners,  and 
vested  attendants. 

These  innovations  are  defended  by  their  promoters 
on  the  grounds  of  (a)  Law,  (6)  Doctrine,  (c)  Expediency. 

(a)  The  rubric  at  the  end  of  the  calendar  in  the 
Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer  enacts  *  that  such  or 
naments  of  the  church  and  of  the  ministers  thereof  at 
all  times  of  their  ministration  shall  be  retained  and  be 
in  use  as  were  in  this  Church  of  England  by  the  authority 
of  parliament  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King 
Edward  VI. '  The  judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
Council  in  the  case  of  Westerton  v.  Liddell  (1857),  ruled 
that  '  ornaments  '  here  means.  *  all  articles  used  in  divine 
service ; '  that  the  words  .«  by  authority  of  parliament/ 


RITUALISM. 


etc.,  refer  to  the  first  Prayer-book  put  forth  m  that 
reign  (1549) ;  and  that  « the  meaning  of  the  rubric,  as  or 
the  previous  statute  of  Elizabeth,  the  language  of  which 
it  adopts,  is,  that  the  same  dresses,  utensils,  and  arti* 
cles  which  were  used  under  the  first  Prayer-book  of 
Edward  VI.  may  still  be  used.'  Now,  the  first  Prayer- 
book  of  Edward  VI.  prescribes  that  at  the  time  of  the 
communion  <  the  priest  that  shall  execute  the  holy 
ministry  shall  put  on  him  a  white  alb  plain  with  a  vest- 
ment, i.e.,  a  chasuble,  or  cope;'  and  the  assistants 
s  likewise  the  vestures  appointed  for  their  ministry,  that 
is  to  say,  albs  with  tunicles : '  it  is  therefore  inferred 
that  the  above  are  the  only  legal  vestments  in  which 
the  holy  communion  should  be  celebrated.  To  this  it 
is  objected  (1)  That  the  word  '  retained  '  can  refer  only 
to  such  vestures  as  were  in  use  till  the  time  of  the  last 
publication  of  the  rubric — viz.,  the  surplice  in  parish 
churches,  and  copes  in  cathedrals.  (2)  That  the  rubric, 
when  first  inserted  under  Elizabeth,  was  limited  by  the 
Injunctions  and  Advertisements  of  that  reign,  which 
aimed  only  at  the  restoration  of  the  surplice.  (3)  That 
whatever  be  the  intention  of  the  rubric,  it  has  been  so 
long  obsolete  that  it  is  absurd  to  revive  it.  It  is  re- 
joined (1)  That  the  word  '  retained'  must  have  the  same 
meaning  that  it  had  in  the  rubric  of  Elizabeth,  in  which 
it  first  occurs.  (2)  That  the  Injunctions  and  Advertise- 
ments were  not  of  supreme  authority,  and  were  intended 
only  to  help  toward  restoring  a  decent  uniformity  in 
divine  worship.  (3)  That  the  fact  that  a  law  has  be- 
come obsolete  does  not  invalidate  its  force.  The  same 
reference  of  the  ornaments  rubric  to  the  second  year  of 
Edward  VI.  is  held  to  authorize  other  accessories 
known  to  have  been  in  use  at  that  time,  though  not 
specified  in  the  first  Prayer-book — e.g.,  lighted  candles, 
incense,  etc.  And  on  the  principle  that  the  Reformed 
Church  was  legally  identical  with  that  before  the  Ref- 
ormation— which  the  30th  canon  of  1603  is  cited  as 
maintaining — it  is  further  contended  that  all  ancient 
laws  and  usages  are  still  in  force,  except  where  directly 
or  implicitly  abrogated  by  subsequent  enactment.  And 
as  the  chief  ritual  authority  before  the  Reformation  was 
the  liturgy  of  Sarum  (the  Sarurn  '  use'  referred  to  in  the 
preface  to  the  present  Prayer-book),  it  is  to  that 
standard,  as  far  as  possible,  that  the  more  advanced 
Ritualists  desire  to  conform. 

(6)  The  doctrinal  grounds  of  defense  are  expressed  in 
the  following  statements :  (1)  The  Eucharist  (as  the 
Lord's  Supper  was  anciently  called)  is  the  special 
institution  of  Christ,  the  single  rite  of  continual  obser- 
vance which  He  enjoined  on  His  disciples,  and  the  chief 
act  of  Christian  worship.  It  is  therefore  right  to  exalt 
and  dignify  it  above  ail  other  services,  and  mark  it  as 
standing  on  different  and  higher  ground  than  any  other 
institution.  (2)  The  Eucharist,  according  to  the  uni- 
versal belief  of  the  ancient  church,  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  sacrifice,  commemorative,  as  the  Jewish  sacrifices  were 


RITUALISM. 

anticipatory,  of  the  death  of  Christ — not  as  iterating  or 
repeating  it  (which  idea  alone  the  31st  article  is  held  to 
condemn),  but  as  a  solemn  pleading  and  offering  of  it 
before  God,  as  Christ  Himself  offers  it  in  heaven.  Hence 
the  position  of  the  celebrant  in  front  of  the  altar,  and 
the  use  of  a  sacrificial  vestment,  as  the  chasuble  is  held 
to  be.  (3)  In  the  Eucharist,  there  is  a  real  presence  of 
Christ,  which,  though  spiritual,  is  objective,  i.e.,  not  de- 
pendent on  the  receiver,  but  as  a  result  of  consecration, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  local.  (The  growth  of  this  be- 
lief is  marked  by  the  change  made  in  a  later  edition  of 
Keble's  Christian  Year  of  the  words,  'nofinthe  hands/ 
in  a  poem  on  the  Eucharist,  to,  *  as  in  the  hands.') 
Hence  distinct  acts  of  adoration,  addressed  not,  as  is 
explained,  to  the  elements,  but  to  the  Divine  Presence, 
of  which  they  are  the  vehicles  and  signs. 

(c)  On  the  ground  of  expediency  also,  it  is  contended : 
(1)  That  experience  proves  that  the  only  way  of  attract- 
ing and  gaining  a  hold  on  the  vast  uneducated  masses 
of  great  towns  and  cities  is  by  a  worship  addressed  not 
•merely  to  the  ear,  but  to  the  eye.  *  Ritualism,'  says  one 
of  its  defenders,  4  is  the  object  lesson  of  religion.'  Services 
conducted  in  grand  and  beautiful  buildings — brilliantly 
lighted — with  splendid  vestments,  touching  music,  costly 
decorations,  and  every  outward  token  of  reverence  and 
solemnity,  will  impress  the  young  and  the  poor  as  nothing 
else  can  do.  Those  churches  in  London  where  advanced 
ritual  prevails  are  said  to  be  thronged  with  worshippers 
— mainly  of  the  lower  classes,  and  in  great  proportion 
of  men — when  others  are  almost  empty.  (2)  A  further 
argument,  under  this  head,  is  connected  with  the  de- 
sire, which  has  grown  up  of  late  years  among  the  High 
Church  party,  for  the  restoration  of  the  visible  unity  of 
Christendom,  and  specially  the  renewal  of  communion 
between  the  Church  of  England  and  both  the  Eastern 
and  the  rest  of  the  Western  Church ;  and  with  this  view, 
it  has  become  an  avowed  object  to  assimilate  the  An- 
glican service  as  much  as  possible  to  that  of  other 
*  Catholic '  churches. 

It  remains  to  notice  briefly  the  effect  of  these  inno* 
vations.  It  is  a  remarkable  index  of  the  change  of  pop- 
ular feeling  within  recent  years,  that  such  bold  and 
startling  changes,  altering  the  whole  character  of  the 
Anglican  service,  should,  by  a  large  number  of  people, 
be  not  only  tolerated,  but  approved.  In  1859,  the  at- 
tempt of  the  rector  of  St.  George's-in-the-East,  London, 
to  introduce  Eucharistic  vestments,  led  to  riots  which 
convulsed  East  London.  In  1867,  in  about  12  churches 
of  the  metropolis — and  in  several  country  towns  and 
villages — a  far  more  advanced  ritual,  with  vestments, 
altar-lights,  and  other  ceremonies,  regularly  attracted 
an  eager  tyirong,  not  of  spectators  only,  but  of  worship- 
pers. And  the  spread  of  the  movement  may  be  judged 
by  the  statement,  which  appears  authorized  by  facts, 
that  within  a  few  months  after  the  first  Report  of  the 
Royal  Commissioners  on  Ritual,  the  vestments  were 
Vol.  32—10 


RITUALISM. 


Introduced  in  more  than  '30  churches.  On  the  other 
hand,  among  the  *  Protestant '  members  of  the  church, 
and  those  of  other  denominations,  the  movement  pro- 
voked strong  opposition.  Most  of  the  bishops  have, 
directly  or  indirectly,  expressed  their  disapprobation; 
the  press,  except  two  or  three  journals,  which  were  its 
strenuous  advocates,  was  almost  unanimous  in  denounc- 
ing it ;  the  more  moderate  members  of  the  High  Church 
party  discourage  it ;  and  active  efforts  have  been  made 
to  arrest  it  by  legislative  interference.  In  the  Lower 
House  of  Convocation,  on  motion  of  the  Dean  of  Ely,  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the  subject,  which, 
after  careful  examination,  reported,  1866,  June,  that  vest- 
ments and  altar-lights,  legal  or  not,  should  not  be  intro- 
duced without  sanction  of  the  bishop ;  that  the  censing 
of  persons  and  things,  elevation  after  consecration, 
wafer-bread,  and  presence  of  non-communicants  (except 
in  special  cases)  were  to  be  discouraged.  In  deference 
to  this  opinion,  the  censing  of  persons  and  things  has 
been  in  some  churches  given  up.  In  the  beginning  of 
1866,  an  opinion  was  obtained,  at  the  instance  of  some 
of  the  bishops,  from  five  eminent  counsel,  against  the 
legality  of  all  ritualistic  innovations  (the  main  grounds  of 
which  opinion  are  given  in  the  objections  above  stated). 
In  reply  to  this,  another  opinion  was  obtained,  by  the 
council  of  the  English  Church  Union,  from  nine  leading 
counsel — some  of  whom  have  since  been  raised  to  the 
bench — all  of  whom  advise  in  favor  of  the  legality  of 
vestments,  all  but  two  in  favor  of  altar-lights,  and  all 
against  incense ;  on  the  mixed  chalice  and  wafer-bread, 
they  are  nearly  equally  divided. 

In  the  session  of  1867,  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  intro- 
duced a  bill — founded  on  the  58th  canon  of  1603 — to  limit 
ecclesiastical  vestments  to  the  ordinary  surplice  and 
hood,  in  favor  of  which  more  than  600  petitions  were 
presented;  while  one  against  it,  presented  by  Lord 
Redesdale,  was  signed  by  more  than  9,000  clergy  and  lay 
communicants.  (An  earlier  memorial,  to  the  Abp.  of 
Canterbury,  against  any  change  in  the  existing  law,  was 
signed  by  more  than  40,000  communicant  members  of 
the  church.)  This  bill  was  withdrawn  on  the  appoint- 
ment by  the  govt,  of  a  commission  *  to  inquire  into  the 
Rubrics,  Orders,  and  Directions  for  regulating  the  course 
and  conduct  of  Public  Worship,  etc.,  according  to  the 
use  of  the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland.'  The 
commissioners  included  the  Abps.  of  Canterbury  and 
Armagh,  and  the  Bps.  of  London,  St.  Davids,  Oxford, 
and  Gloucester.  They  published  a  report  to  the  effect 
that  '  it  is  expedient  to  restrain,  in  the  public  serv- 
ices of  the  church,  all  variations  in  respect  of  vesture 
from  that  which  has  long  been  the  established  usage  of 
the  said  church ;  and  that  this  may  be  best  secured  by 
providing  aggrieved  parishioners  with  an  'easy  and 
effectual  process  for  complaint  and  redress.'  The  evi- 
dence appended  to  the  report  supplies  much  information 
as  to  the  various  practices  prevail  in*?,  and  the  widely 


RIVAGE — RIVALITY. 

different  views  entertained.  The  general  conclusions 
appear  to  be  that  vestments,  and  probably  altar-lights 
and  the  mixed  chalice,  are  legal ;  that  an  ornate  ritual 
is  useful  among  some  classes,  and  might,  with  certain 
safeguards,  be  allowed ;  that  absolute  uniformity  is  im- 
possible, but  that  the  law  might  be  obeyed  much  more 
generally  than  it  is ;  that  the  maintenance  of  the  present 
law,  with  a  wide  and  liberal  interpretation,  but  limited 
as  a  maximum  to  the  ritual  of  the  2d  year  of  Edward 
VI.,  with  some  recognized  ecclesiastical  authority  to 
restrain  unauthorized  variations,  would  be  most  for  the 
welfare  of  the  church.  The  report  produced  no  restraint 
on  the  progress  of  Ritualism,  and  1873,  May,  60,000  per- 
sons of  standing  and  influence  presented  an  address 
to  the  two  abps.  requesting  them  to  adopt  means  for 
checking  the  growth  of  ritualistic  practices.  1874,  Apr., 
a  bill  for  this  purpose  was  introduced  in  the  house  of 
lords  by  the  Abp.  of  Canterbury,  entitled  The  Public 
Worship  Regulation  Act.  It  was  adopted  by  the  govt,, 
but  was  opposed  in  the  house  of  commons  by  Mr.  Glad- 
stone in  a  series  of  six  resolutions ;  and  notwithstanding 
considerable  ecclesiastical  agitation,  it  became  law  in 
August.  Its  main  provision  is  the  appointment  of  a 
judge  for  the  trial  of  ritualistic  cases.  A  complaint 
against  the  use  of  vestments,  ornaments,  and  rites  and 
ceremonies,  or  the  omission  of  such  as  are  ordained  in 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  in  the  churches  or  burial- 
grounds  of  the  Church  of  England,  may  be  presented  to 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese  by  an  archdeacon  or  church, 
warden,  or  by  three  parishioners,  members  of  the  church 
of  full  age,  and  a  year's  residence  in  the  parish.  In  the 
event  of  the  parties  not  submitting  to  the  directions  of 
the  bishop,  he  shall  forward  the  case  for  trial  by  the 
judge,  from  whose  decision  an  appeal  lies  to  the  privy 
council,— See  Tract  arianism  :  Vestments. 

RIVAGE,  n.  riv'aj  [F.  rivage,  a  shore  or  beach — from 
L.  ripa,  the  bank  of  a  stream] :  in  OE.,  a  bank ;  a  coast ; 
a  shore. 

RIVAL,  n.  ri'val  [F.  rival — from  L.  rlvdlis,  one  who 
uses  a  brook  or  small  stream  in  common  with  another,  a 
neighbor,  a  rival — from  rivus,  a  brook  or  small  stream  : 
It„  rivale] :  one  who  is  in  pursuit  of  the  same  object  as 
another;  a  competitor:  Adj.  having  the  same  preten- 
sions or  claims :  V.  to  strive  to  gain  the  object  which 
another  is  contending  for ;  to  stand  in  competition  with ; 
to  emulate;  in  02£,  to  be  in  competition ;  to  be  a  com- 
petitor. Rivalling,  imp.  Rivalled,  pp.  -vald.  Ri'- 
valry,  n.  -val-ri,  a  striving  to  obtain  an  object  another 
is  pursuing;  competition.  Ri'valship,  n.  state  of  a 
rival ;  contention  for  superiority  or  for  the  same  object.-— » 
Syn.  of  ♦rivalry':  competition;  emulation;  ambition-; 
rivalship;  strife. 

RIVALITY,  n.  rl-vall-ti  [L.  rival'itas,  rivalship,  as  in 
love:  see  Rival]:  in  OE.,  equal  rank;  competition; 
rivalry. 


RIVE — RIVER. 

RIVE,  v.  rlv  [Icel.  rifa,  to  tear  asunder:  Sw,  rifva, 
to  tear :  Dan.  rive,  to  rend  or  tear] :  to  split ;  to  rend  or 
burst  asunder ;  to  be  split.  Ri'ving,  imp.  Rived,  pp. 
rlvd,  or  Riven,  pp.  riv'n:  Adj.  cloven;  split.  River, 
n.  ri'ver,  one  who  rives. 

RIVE-DE-GIER,  rev-deh-zhe-a' :  flourishing  manufact- 
uring town  of  France,  dept.  of  Loire,  on  the  Gier,  in  the 
middle  of  the  best  coal-field  in  France,  13  m.  n.e.  of  St. 
Etienne  by  railway.  There  is  water-communication 
with  the  Rhone  by  the  Canal-de-Givors.  South  of  the 
town  is  the  immense  and  well-built  basin  of  Couson,  • 
containing  1,500,000  cubic  metres  of  water  for  supply  of 
the  canal.  R.  was  formerly  a  mere  stronghold,  sur-  \ 
rounded  by  high  walls,  and  defended  by  a  strong  castle ; 
and  1815,  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  was  less  than 
4,000.  Around  the  town,  there  are  about  50  coal-mines  in 
operation;  and  the  principal  manufacturing  establish- 
ments are  silk-mills,  important  glass-works,  factories  fo* 
steam-engines  and  other  machinery,  steel  factories  and 
foundries.    Pop.  16,100. 

RIVEL,  v.  riv'el  [AS.  ge-riflian;  Dut.  ruyffelen,  to 
wrinkle]:  in  OE.,  to  wrinkle;  to  shrivel;  to  corrugate. 
Rivalling,  imp.    Rivelled,  pp.  rWld. 

RIVER,  n.  riv'er  [F.  riviere,  a  river — from  mid.  L.  ri« 
paria,  a  shore,  a  river — from  L.  ripa,  a  bank :  Sp.  ribera ; 
It.  riviera9  a  shore,  bank,  or  river]  :  stream  of  water 
flowing  in  a  channel  into  another  river,  into  the  ocean, 
or  into  a  lake  or  sea  (see  below) :  a  copious  flow ;  abun- 
dance. River-basin,  the  whole  extent  of  valley  or  basin* 
shaped  country  drained  by  any  river  and  its  tributaries. 
River-craft,  small  vessels  or  boats  which  do  not  put 
to  sea.  River-bed,  the  bottom  of  a  river.  River-god, 
a  deity  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  preside  over  a  river. 
River-horse,  the  hippopotamus — an  animal  living  in 
rivers.  River-terrace,  a  more  or  less  steep  cliff,  a  few 
ft.  or  several  yds.  high,  with  a  flat  terrace  on  a  level 
with  top.  Terraces  occur  in  valleys  of  the  n.  hemi- 
sphere, and  show  the  action  of  the  river  in  scooping  out 
its  bed  when  it  flowed  at  a  higher  than  its  present  level. 
They  are  attributed  to  elevation  of  the  continents,  giv- 
ing increased  rapidity  to  the  flow  of  water,  together  with 
a  decrease  of  the  amount  of  water,  after  a  depression 
following  the  Glacial  Period,  when  river-beds  were  filled 
up  with  the  large  amount  of  material  deposited  during 
the  reign  of  ice,  and  especially  of  fine  material  from 
floods  on  the  melting  of  the  ice.  The  cliff  corresponds 
to  the  present  bank,  and  the  terrace  to  the  alluvial  plain 
through  which  the  river  runs.  The  cliffs  and  terraces 
are  repeated  several  times  in  some  river-basins,  and 
they  frequently  correspond  on  the  two  sides  of  the  valley. 
They  follow  the  course  of  the  river,  sloping  downward 
with  decline  similar  to  the  descent  of  the  stream ;  in 
this  differing  from  the  parallel  roads  formed  by  stand- 
ing water.    See  Quaternary  Age:  Terrace  Epoch: 

GliENROY. 


RIVER. 


RIVER:  natural  stream  of  water,  usually  of  consider- 
able size,  flowing  between  banks  or  walls.  Rivers  are 
the  result  of  the  natural  tendency  of  water,  as  of 
other  bodies,  to  move  downward  to  the  lowest  position 
it  can  reach.  The  supply  of  water  for  formation  of 
rivers,  though  apparently  derived  from  various  sources, 
as  from  rain-clouds,  springs,  lakes,  or  from  melting  of 
snow,  is  really  due  only  to  atmospheric  precipitation ; 
for  Springs  (q.v.)  are  merely  collections  of  rain-water; 
lakes  are  collections  of  rain  or  spring  water  in  natural 
hollows,  and  snow  is  merely  rain  in  a  state  of  congela- 
tion. The  rills  issuing  from  springs  and  from  surface- 
drainage  unite  during  their  downward  course  with  other 
streams,  forming  rivulets,  or  brooks;  these,  after  a 
further  course,  unite  to  form  rivers,  which,  receiving 
fresh  accessions  in  their  course  from  tributaries  or  afflu- 
ents (subordinate  rivers  or  rivulets)  and  their  feeders 
(the  tributaries  of  tributaries),  sweep  onward  through 
ravines,  and  over  precipices,  or  pass  with  almost  imper- 
ceptible motion  across  wide  plains,  till  they  reach  their 
lowest  level  in  ocean  or  lake.  The  path  of  a  R.  is  called 
its  course;  the  hollow  channel  along  which  it  flows,  its 
bed  ;  and  the  tract  of  country  from  which  it  and  its  sub- 
ordinates draw  their  supplies  of  water,  its  basin,  or 
drainage-area.  The  basin  of  a  R.  is  bounded  by  an 
elevated  ridge,  part  of  which  is  generally  mountainous, 
the  crest  forming  the  water-shed ;  and  the  size  of  the 
basin,  and  the  altitude  of  its  water-shed,  determine 
ceteris  paribus,  the  volume  of  the  R. :  see  Rain,  The 
greater  or  less  degree  of  uniformity  in  the  volume  of  a 
river  in  the  course  of  a  year  is  one  of  its  chief  physical 
features,  and  depends  much  on  the  mode  in  which  its 
supply  of  water  is  obtained.  In  temperate  regions, 
where  the  mountains  do  not  reach  the  limit  of  perpetual 
snow,  the  rivers  depend  for  their  increase  wholly  on 
the  rains,  which,  occurring  frequently,  and  at  no  fixed 
periods,  and  discharging  only  comparatively  small  quan- 
tities of  water  at  a  time,  preserve  a  moderate  degree  of 
uniformity  in  the  volume  of  the  rivers— a  uniformity 
aided  by  the  fact,  that  in  these  zones  only  about  one- 
third  of  the  rainfall  finds  its  way  directly  over  the  sur- 
face to  the  rivers;  the  remaining  two-thirds  sinking 
into  the  ground,  and  finding  its  way  to  spring-reservoirs, 
or  gradually  oozing  through  at  a  lower  level  in  little 
rills  which  continue  to  flow  till  the  saturated  soil  be- 
comes drained  of  its  surplus  moisture,  a  process  which 
continues  for  weeks,  and  helps  greatly  to  maintain  the 
volume  of  the  R.  till  the  next  rainfall.  This  process  is 
possible  only  where  the  temperature  is  mild,  the  climate 
moist,  evaporation  small,  and  the  soil  sufficiently  por- 
ous ;  and  under  these  circumstances,  great  fluctuations 
can  occur  only  from  long-continued  and  excessive  rains 
or  droughts.  In  the  hotter  tracts  of  the  temperate 
zones,  where  little  rain  falls  in  summer,  small  rivers 
and  mountain  torrents  occasionally  become  completely 
exhausted. 


RIVER. 

In  tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  year  is  divisible  into  one  dry  and  one  wet 
season  (see  Rain)  :  in  consequence,  the  rivers  also  have 
a  periodicity  of  rise  and  fall,  the  rise  taking  place  first 
near  the  source,  and,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of 
course  of  some  of  the  tropical  rivers,  and  the  excessive 
evaporation  to  which  they  are  subjected  (necessarily 
greatest  where  the  current  is  slow),  not  making  itself 
felt  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course  till  a  considerable 
time  afterward.  Thus,  the  rise  of  the  Nile  occurs  in 
Abyssinia  in  April,  and  is  not  observed  at  Cairo  till 
about  midsummer.  The  fluctuations  of  this  river  were 
a  subject  of  perpetual  wonder  to  the  ancient  civilized 
world,  and  were  of  course  attributed  to  superhuman 
agency ;  but  modern  travel  and  investigation  have  not 
only  laid  bare  the  reason  of  this  phenomenon,  but  dis- 
covered other  instances  of  it,  before  which  this  one 
shrinks  into  insignificance.  The  maximum  rise  of  the 
Nile,  about  40  ft.,  floods  2,100  sq.  m.  of  ground;  while 
that  of  the  Orinoco,  in  Guiana,  which  is  30  to  36  ft.,  lays 
45,000  sq.  m.  of  savannah  under  water;  the  Brahma- 
putra at  flood  covers  the  whole  of  Upper  Assam  to  a 
depth  of  10  ft.,  and  the  mighty  Amazon  converts  a  great 
portion  of  its  500,000  sq.  m.  of  silvas  into  one  extensive 
lake.  But  the  fluctuations  in  the  rise  of  the  flood-waters 
are  surpassed  by  some  of  the  comparatively  small  rivers 
of  Australia,  one  of  which,  the  Hawkesbury,  has  been 
known  to  rise  100  ft.  above  its  usual  level :  this,  how- 
ever, is  because  the  river-beds  are  hemmed  in  by  lofty 
abrupt  cliffs,  which  resist  the  free  passage  of  a  swollen 
stream. 

The  increase  from  the  melting  of  snow  in  summer 
occurs  most  frequently  during  the  rainy  season,  so  that 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  accurately  the  share  of  each 
in  producing  the  floods;  but  in  some  rivers,  as  the 
Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  the  increase  from  this  cause 
is  distinctly  observable,  as  it  occurs  some  time  after  the 
rains  have  commenced,  while  in  the  case  of  the  Indus 
it  is  the  principal  source  of  flood.  When  -the  increase 
from  melted  snow  does  not  occur  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son, we  have  the  phenomenon  of  flooding  twice  a  year, 
as  in  the  Tigris,  Euphrates,  Mississippi,  and  others; 
but  in  most  of  these  cases  the  grand  flood  is  that  due  to 
the  melting  of  the  snow  or  ice  about  the  source.  In 
illustration  of  the  enormous  variation  in  the  volume  of 
rivers  subject  to  periodical  rise  and  fall,  a  few  instances 
are  presented  in  which  the  minimum  and  maximum  de- 
livery per  second  have  been  ascertained : 


DELIVERY  IN  CUBIC  FT.  PER  SECOND. 

Average  for 

Minimum.  Maximum.         a  Year. 
Nile  (at  Assouan),..  24,000  362,000  101,000 

Ganges,   36,ooo  494,000  141,000 

Irrawadi,   84,000  (?)  1,000,000  (?)  350,000 

Brahmaputra          146,000  l,  800,000  (?)  520,000 


RIVER. 

The  advantages  of  this  periodical  flooding  in  bringing 
down  abundance  of  rich  fertile  silt — the  Nile  bringing 
down,  it  is  said,  no  less  than  140  millions  of  tons,  and 
the  Irrawadi  110  millions  of  tons  annually — are  well 
known.  Islands  are  thus  frequently  formed,  especially 
at  a  river's  mouth  (see  Delta).  Permanent  and  capa- 
cious lakes  in  a  river's  course  have  a  modifying  effect, 
owing  to  their  acting  as  reservoirs,  as  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence ;  while  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  others  in  the  same  tract,  inundate  the  dis- 
tricts surrounding  their  banks  for  miles.  In  tropical 
countries,  owing  to  the  powerful  action  of  the  sun,  all 
rivers  whose  source  is  in  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow 
experience  daily  augmentation  of  their  volume;  while 
some  in  Peru  and  Chili,  being  fed  only  by  snow-water, 
are  dried  up  regularly  during  the  night. 

The  course  of  a  R.  is  necessarily  the  line  of  lowest 
level  from  its  starting-point,  and  as  most  rivers  have 
their  sources  high  up  a  mountain  slope,  the  velocity  of 
their  current  is  much  greater  at  the  beginning.  The 
courses  of  rivers  seem  regulated  partially  by  geological 
conditions  of  the  country — e.g.,  the  San  Francisco  of 
Brazil,  which  forms  with  perfect  accuracy  the  boundary- 
line  between  the  granitic  and  the  tertiary  and  alluvial 
formations  in  that  country ;  and  many  instances  ar« 
known  of  rivers  changing  their  course  from  the  action 
of  earthquakes,  as  well  as  from  the  silting  up  of  the  old 
bed.  The  inclination  of  a  river's  course  also  is  con- 
nected with  the  geological  character  of  the  country; 
in  primary  and  transition  formations,  the  streams  are 
bold  and  rapid,  with  deep  channels,  frequent  waterfalls 
and  rapids,  and  pure  waters,  while  secondary  and  allu- 
vial districts  present  slow  and  powerful  currents,  sloping 
banks,  winding  courses,  and  tinted  waters ;  the  incline 
of  a  river  is,  however,  in  general  very  gentle — the 
average  inclination  of  the  Amazon  through  its  whole 
course  being  estimated  at  little  more  than  6  inches  per 
mile,  that  of  the  Lower  Nile  less  than  7  inches,  and  of 
the  Lower  Ganges  about  4  inches  per  mile.  The  average 
slope  of  the  Mississippi  through  its  whole  length  is 
more  than  17  inches  per  mile,  while  the  'arrowy  Rhone' 
is,  among  large  rivers,  the  most  rapid  in  the  world — its 
fall  from  Geneva  to  Lyon  being  80  inches  per  mile,  and 
32  inches  from  Lyon  to  its  mouth. 

The  velocity  of  rivers  does  not  depend  wholly  on 
their  slope ;  much  is  owing  to  their  depth  and  volume 
(the  latter  being  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  beds  of 
many  rivers  remain  unaltered  in  size  and  slope  after 
their  streams  have  received  considerable  accessions, 
owing  to  the  greater  rapidity  with  which  the  water  runs 
off);  while  bends  in  the  course,  jutting  peaks  of  rock  or 
other  obstacles,  whether  at  the  sides  or  bottom,  and 
even  the  friction  of  the  aqueous  particles,  which,  though 
slight,  produces  perceptible  effect,  are  retarding  agencies. 
In  consequence,  the  water  of  a  R.  flows  with  different 
Velocities  at  different  parts  of  its  bed ;  it  moves  more 


EIVER. 

slowly  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  surface,  and  at  the 
sides  than  the  middle.  The  line  of  quickest  velocity  is 
a  line  along  the  centre  of  the  current,  and  in  cases 
where  this  line  is  free  from  sudden  bends  or  sharp  turns, 
it  represents  also  the  deepest  part  of  the  channel.  The 
average  velocity  of  a  R.  may  be  estimated  approximately 
by  finding  the  surface-velocity  in  the  centre  of  the 
current  by  means  of  a  float  which  keeps  just  below  the 
surface,  and  taking  four-fifths  of  this  quantity  as  a 
mean.  If  the  mean  velocity  in  ft.  per  minute  be  multi- 
plied by  the  area  of  the  transverse  section  of  the  stream 
in  sq.  ft.,  the  product  is  the  amount  of  water  discharged 
in  cubic  ft.  per  minute.  According  to  Sir  Charles  Lyell, 
a  velocity  of  40  ft.  per  minute  will  sweep  along  coarse 
sand;  one  of  60  ft.,  fine  gravel;  one  of  120  ft.,  rounded 
pebbles ;  one  of  180  ft.  (a  little  more  than  two  m.  per 
hour),  angular  stones  the  size  of  an  egg.  For  the  rate 
of  its  progression,  and  a  general  description  of  the 
erosive  action  of  rivers,  see  Waterfalls.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  rivers  find  their  way  to  the  ocean, 
either  directly  or  by  means  of  semi-lacustrine  seas; 
but  others,  as  the  Volga,  Sir-Daria  (Jaxartes),  Amu- 
Daria  (Oxus),  and  Kur  (Araxes),  pour  their  waters  into 
inland  seas ;  while  many  in  the  interior  of  Asia  and 
Africa — as  the  Murghab  in  Turkestan,  and  the  Gir  in 
the  south  of  Morocco — *  lose  themselves  in  the  sands,' 
partly,  doubtless,  owing  to  the  porous  nature  of  their 
bed,  but  much  more  to  the  excessive  evaporation  in 
those  regions.  For  the  deep  canons  of  some  American 
rivers,  see  Colorado  Rio.  The  following  are  a  few  of 
of  the  chief  rivers  in  each  continent,  with  their  courses 
in  English  statute  m.,  and  their  drainage  areas  in  Eng- 
lish geographical  sq.  m. : 

Europe. 

Length.  Drainage 

area. 

Thames-     .    220  5,000 

Vistula.   698  57,000 

Loire    598  34,000 

Rhine     750  65,000 

Elbe   787  42,000 

Dwina   1,041  106,000 

Don   1,104  168,000 

Dnieper   1,243  170,000 

Danube..-   1,722  234,000 

Volga   2,762  397,000 

Asia. 

Euphrates   1,716  196,000 

Ganges   1,557  391,000* 

Indus   1,800  372,000 

Maykan  or  Mekhong    2,417  216,000t 

Thaluain  or  Salwin   2,152  \  001  n™ 

Irrawadi   2,532  J  **i.wo 

Hoang-ho.....   2,624  537,000 

Obi--.   ...  2,670  925,000 

Amur     2,739  583,000 

Lena  • .    2,762  594,000 

Yenesei..    3,322  785,000 

Yang-tze-kiang  .  .   3,314  548,000 

*  Excluding  Brahmaputra,  1,800  miles  long,  with  basin  of 
361,000  sq.  m  t  Including  basin  of  Menam. 


KIVEB. 

Africa. 

Zambesi   1,400  432,000 

Congo   2,900  1,300,000 

Nile.   3,300  520,000 

America. 

St.  Lawrence  • . . .  •   2,072  298,000 

Rio  Bravo  del  Norte   ..  2,138  180,000 

La  Plata    2,210  886,000 

Mackenzie   2,440  442,000 

Amazon   3,545  1,512,0*00 

Mississippi   3,716  982,000 


River  :  Rights  in  Law  (Riparian  Rights). — It  is  generally 
settled  in  all  of  the  states  that  rivers  in  which  the  tide 
does  not  ebb  and  flow,  though  declared  public  highways 
for  certain  purposes,  are  nevertheless  private  property, 
and  the  soil  to  the  middle  of  the  river  belongs  to  the 
riparian  or  adjoining  owner,  subject  only  to  the  right  of 
the  public  to  use  it.  But  in  navigable  rivers  where  the 
tide  does  ebb  and  flow,  the  soil  belongs  to  the  state,  up 
to  the  ordinary  high-water  mark :  the  riparian  owner, 
unless  he  has  a  special  grant,  owning  no  farther  than  to 
high-water  mark.  In  a  few  states  this  doctrine  has 
been  repudiated,  and  if  the  river  be  navigable  for  any 
useful  purpose,  whether  the  water  be  tidal  or  fresh 
water,  the  title  to  the  soil  or  bed  of  the  river  is  in  the 
state.  The  owner  in  either  case,  whether  the  river  be 
tidal  or  fresh  water,  may  exercise  his  proprietary  inter- 
est by  erections  on  the  soil  of  the  river,  provided  that 
such  erections  do  not  interfere  with  the  public  use  or 
navigation  of  the  waters  covering  the  soil.  Individuals 
may  acquire  and  hold  separate  rights,  sometimes  con- 
flicting and  sometimes  consistent  with  the  rights  of  the 
state.  A  riparian  owner  has  other  rights  than  those 
possessed  by  other  citizens  of  the  state :  such  rights  are 
incident  to  the  ownership  of  the  property  on  the  river- 
banks  :  among  these  riparian  rights  are — 

1.  The  right  to  navigate  up  and  down  and  across  the 
river  and  from  the  opposite  shore  to  his  own  land,  with 
the  privilege  of  embarking  himself  and  others  and  the 
produce  of  his  farm  and  other  goods  therefrom. 

2.  The  right  to  establish  a  ferry  to  the  opposite  shore 
and  to  control  the  terminus  of  a  ferry  from  the  opposite 
shore  to  his  own. 

3.  The  right  to  fish,  also  the  sole  right  of  fishing  with 
nets  or  seines  in  connection  with  his  own  land. 

4.  The  right  to  own,  as  his  individual  property, 
alluvial  additions. 

5.  The  right  to  put  the  water  that  washes  his  bank  to 
whatever  uses  his  pleasure  or  business  may  prompt, 
if  he  does  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  the  public. 

In  some  of  the  states,  if  the  river  be  non-tidal  and 
non-navigable,  these  rights  attach ;  but  if  the  tide  ebb 
and  flow  and  the  river  be  navigable,  the  riparian  owner 
has  none  of  these  peculiar  privileges,  except  that  of 
alluvion  and  accession :  his  rights  are  no  greater  than 


RIVER- CRAB— RIVET. 


those  of  other  citizens,  in  and  to  the  soil  between  high  and 
low-water  mark. — See  Watercourse,  in  Law. 

RIVER-CRAB  (Thelphma):  genus  of  crabs  inhabiting 
fresh  water,  and  having  the  carapace  quadrilateral,  the 
antennae  very  short.  One  species  (T.  depressa),  the 
Grancio  of  the  Italians,  is  very  common  in  s.  Europe, 
and  is  often  figured  on  ancient  Greek  medals.  It  in- 
habits muddy  lakes  and  slow  rivers ;  in  some  it  abso- 
lutely swarms.  It  can  be  kept  alive  in  a  damp  place  for  a 
long  time,  and  is  often  brought  to  market  tied  on  strings, 


far  enough  apart  to  prevent  fighting  and  mutilation. 
This  crab  spends  the  winter  deeply  imbedded  in  the 
mud. — Other  species  are  common  in  warm  countries. 
T.  cunicularis  is  abundant  on  the  Ghauts  of  the  Deccan, 
in  India,  burrowing  in  the  ground,  and  running  about 
among  the  long  grass.  It  '  runs  with  considerable 
swiftness,  even  when  encumbered  with  a  bundle  of 
food  as  big  as  itself ;  this  food  is  grass,  or  the  stalks  of 
rice ;  and  it  is  amusing  to  see  the  crabs  sitting,  as  it 
were,  upright,  to  cut  their  hay  with  their  sharp  pincers, 
and  then  waddling  off  with  their  sheaf  to  their  holes,  as 
quickly  as  their  sidelong  pace  will  carry  them.'  The 
name  River-Crab  is  sometimes  popularly  applied  to 
some  of  our  sea-crabs  which  ascend  rivers  to  the  limits 
of  brackish  water,  or  to  craw-fish. 

RIVET,  n.  rlv'et  [F.  river,  to  rivet  or  clinch ;  rivet,  the 
welt  of  a  shoe,  a  rivet  or  clinch :  Port,  rebitar,  to  double 
back  the  edge  or  point  of  a  thing,  to  clinch  a  nail :  Icel. 
rifa,  to  tack  together] :  metal  pin  inserted  into  a  hole 
pierced  through  two  plates  overlapping  each  other,  and 
hammered  broad  at  both  ends  in  order  to  fasten  the  plates 
firmly  together :  rivets  are  frequently  thus  inserted  and 
hammered  down  while  red-hot,  so  that  the  contraction 
of  the  rivet  in  cooling  may  draw  the  plates  into  closer 
contact:  V.  to  fasten  firmly;  to  clinch;  to  drive  and 
clinch  a  rivet ;  to  make  firm  or  immovable.  Riv'eting, 
imp.   Riv'eted,  pp. 


River-crab  {Thelphusa  depressa). 


RIVIERA — RIZZIO. 

RIVIERA,  re-ve-a'ra  [It.  sea-shore,  coast] :  term  ap- 
plied to  the  narrow  strip  of  coast-land  bordering  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa  from  Nice  to  Spezzia.  Between  Nice  and 
Genoa  it  is  called  the  Riviera  di  Ponente,  or  w.  coast, 
and  between  Genoa  and  Spezzia,  the  Riviera  di  Levante, 
or  e.  coast.  It  abounds  in  striking  scenery,  uniting 
beauty  with  grandeur.  The  modern  road  that  traverses 
it  was  a  work  of  formidable  difficulty;  it  was  begun 
under  French  rule,  and  finished  by  the  Sardinian  govt, 
after  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  The  old  road,  dangerous 
and  almost  impracticable,  was  known  as  the  Corniche 
road,  and  this  name  is  often  applied  to  the  modern  one. 
A  railroad  traverses  the  whole  length  of  the  Riviera. 

RIVOLI,  re'vo-le :  town  of  n.  Italy,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  Dora,  8  m.  w.  of  the  city  of  Turin.  Pop. 
5,600. — R.  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  village  of 
the  same  name  in  the  province  of  Verona,  the  scene 
1797  of  one  of  Napoleon's  most  decisive  victories  over 
the  Austrians. 

RIVOSE,  a.  rl'vos  [L.  rims,  a  small  stream] :  applied 
to  surfaces  marked  with  irregular  grooves  or  furrows. 

RIVULET,  n.  rw'u-let  [L.  rivvlus,  a  small  stream-^ 
from  rivus,  a  river] :  a  small  river  or  stream. 

RIX-DOLLAR,  n.  riks-dol'ler  [Dan.  rigsdaler ;  Ger. 
reichsthaler,  literally,  the  dollar  of  the  empire] :  a  silver 
coin  of  Denmark,  etc.,  varying  in  value  from  about  30 
cents  to  $1.10. 

RIXDORF,  riks'dorf:  village  of  Germany,  founded 
by  Bohemian  Moravian  Brethren  1737,  with  the  permis- 
sion, and  under  the  protection,  of  Frederick  William  I. 
It  is  s.e.  of  Berlin  and  connected  with  it  by  a  street 
railway,  and  is  virtually  a  suburb  of  that  city.  The 
German  R.,  now  a  part  of  Bohemian  R.,  is  much  older; 
and  in  1435  was  called  Riegenstorp,  and  1630  Richards- 
dorf.  The  inhabitants  of  R.  are  engaged  in  weaving, 
manufacture  of  india-rubber  goods,  and  in  such  other 
occupations  as  are  carried  on  at  Berlin  and  its  vicinitv. 
Pop.  (1880)  18,729;  (1890)  37,400;  (1900)  90,422. 

RIZAH,  re'za:  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  pashalic  of 
Trebizond,  on  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  40  m.  e.  from 
Trebizond;  with  considerable  trade,  and  manufactures 
of  fine  hempen  fabrics.    Pop.  30,000. 

RIZZIO,  rit'se-o  (or  Riccio,  ret'cho),  David  :  Italian  of 
considerable  ability  and  accomplishments,  who,  in  the 
reign  of  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots,  came  to  Edin- 
burgh in  the  train  of  the  ambassador  from  Savoy :  died 
1566,  Mar0  9.  His  first  employment  at  court  was  as  a 
musician ;  but  his  skill  and  fidelity  led  Mary  to  advance 
him  to  the  post  of  her  French  sec.  about  the  time  of  her 
marriage  with  Darnley ;  and  in  this  situation  he  was 
believed  to  possess  considerable  influence  over  the  queen 
His  advancement  was  distasteful  to  the  nobles  in 
general,  but  especially  to  the  party  of  the  Reformers, 
who  suspected  him  of  intriguing  with  the  papal  court. 


ROACH. 

He  became  obnoxious  on  other  grounds  to  Darnley  and 
his  father,  the  Earl  of  Lennox.  The  former,  who  had 
for  a  time  been  on  the  most  friendly  footing  with  him, 
was  easily  led  to  believe  not  merely  that  he  was  the 
real  obstacle  to  his  favorite  design  of  having  the  crown 
settled  on  him  and  his  heirs,  but  also  that  he  had  sup- 
planted him  in  the  affections  of  the  queen.  In  this 
belief,  he  entered  into  a  compact  with  the  leaders  of  the 
Prot.  party-— including  Murray,  Ruthven,  Morton — to 
assassinate  R.,  and  slay  even  in  the  queen's  palace  and 
presence  whoever  opposed  them.  Darnley  formally 
bound  himself  to  prevent  the  attainder  of  the  conspira- 
tors, and  procure  their  pardon,  and  to  support  and  ad- 
vance the  Prot.  faith,  while  the  conspirators  in  return 
obliged  themselves  to  procure  the  wished-for  settle- 
ment of  the  crown  in  his  favor.  Accordingly,  1566,  Mar. 
9,  when  Mary,  then  seven  months  with  child,  was  sit- 
ting at  supper  in  a  small  cabinet  adjoining  her  bedroom, 
at  Holyrood,  attended  by  the  Countess  of  Argyle,  the 
Commendator  of  Holyrood,  Beaton,  Master  of  the  House- 
hold, Arthur  Erskine,  Cap.  of  the  Guard,  and  R.,  the 
king  led  the  conspirators  up  a  secret  stair,  while  the 
Earl  of  Morton,  with  a  troop  of  soldiers,  seized  the  gates 
of  the  palace.  Led  by  the  king,  the  conspirators  burst 
into  the  cabinet,  overturned  the  table,  and  threw  them- 
selves on  R.,  who  sprang  for  protection  behind  the  queen. 
Ruthven  drew  his  dagger ;  Ker  of  Fawdonside,  it  is  said, 
held  a  pistol  to  the  queen's  breast ;  while  George  Doug- 
las, natural  son  to  the  Earl  of  Angus,  snatching  the 
king's  dagger,  stabbed  R.  over  the  queen's  shoulder,  and 
dragging  him  from  the  cabinet,  dispatched  him  in  a  pool 
of  blood,  in  the  adjoining  apartment,  with  fifty- six 
wounds.  This  murder  was  the  first  of  the  series  of 
tragic  events  in  which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  involved. 
John  Knox,  in  his  History  of  the  Reformation,  charac- 
terizes it  as  'a  just  act,  and  most  worthy  of  all  praise.' 

ROACH,  n.  rock :  the  curve  or  arch  at  the  foot  of  a 
square  sail. 

ROACH,  n.  roch ;  the  Cockroach  (q.v.). 


Roach  (Leuciscus  rutilus). 
ROACH,  n.  roch  [AS.  reohche ;  Ger.  roche],  (Leuciscus 
rutilus,    see  Leuciscus)  :  a  fish  of  the   carp  family 
(Cyprinidce)  plentiful  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  slow-running 


ROACH 

rivers  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  seldom  more 
than  a  pound  in  weight,  though  it  has  been  known  to 
reach  five  lbs.  The  upper  parts  are  dusky-green  with 
blue  reflections,  passing  into  silvery-white  on  the  belly, 
the  fins  more  or  less  red.  The  R.  is  gregarious,  and 
the  shoals  are  often  large.  It  is  partially  migratory, 
ascending  rivers  from  lakes  to  spawn.  It  is  not  greatly 
esteemed  for  the  table.  It  is  caught  usually  with  bait, 
but  sometimes  with  a  small  fly.  From  their  resem- 
blance to  the  Roach,  the  American  dace  are  called  some- 
times by  the  same  name,  as  is  also,  locally,  a  small  fresh- 
water sunfish. 

ROACH,  rdch,  John:  ironmaster  and  shipbuilder: 
1813,  Dec.  25—1887,  Jan  10 :  b.  Mitchellstown,  co.  Cork, 
Ireland.  Alone  of  all  his  family,  he  emigrated  to  America 
1829.  He  first  found  employment  in  N.  J.  as  water- 
boy  serving  a  gang  of  men  that  were  digging  a  canal ; 
but  disgusted  with  such  conditions  of  life,  he  returned 
to  New  York,  and  for  a  short  time  was  employed  in  a 
ten-pin  alley.  He  next  went  to  work  in  an  iron  foundry 
in  the  *  pines '  of  N.  J- ,  intending  to  return  to  Ireland  when 
he  should  have  money  to  pay  his  passage.  At  the  end 
of  2  yrs.  he  had  saved  $50,  and  that  he  paid  to  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  foundry  as  an  apprenticeship  fee.  He 
learned  the  trade  of  iron-molder,  and  later  that  of 
machinist.  At  the  age  of  21  he  had  saved  $1,500,  but 
lost  it  all.  Later,  with  a  capital  of  $100  he  joined  a  few 
other  mechanics  in  purchasing  the  iEtna  Iron  Works 
in  New  York:  subsequently  R.  became  sole  owner  of 
the  works.  The  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  brought 
to  R.  opportunities  which  he  was  not  slow  to  improve. 
He  constructed  for  the  govt,  marine  engines  and 
monitors,  After  the  war  he  became  a  builder  of 
iron  steamships,  for  river,  coasting,  and  sea-going 
commerce.  He  established  at  Chester,  Penn.,  1871 
a  great  shipyard  with  engine  works  in  which  were  con- 
structed vessels  for  the  navy  and  the  merchant  marine. 
One  of  the  last  vessels  built  by  R.  for  the  govt.,  the 
dispatch-boat  Dolphin,  the  sec.  of  the  navy  at  first  re- 
fused to  accept  on  the  ground  that  the  vessel  was 
' structurally  weak,'  but  afterward  the  Dolphin  was 
accepted.  The  rejection  of  the  -vessel  was  a  mortal 
wound  to  the  pride  of  the  *  father  of  iron  shipbuilding 
in  America.'  He  made  an  assignment,  closed  his  works, 
sickened,  lingered  a  few  months,  and  died.  R.  was  a 
man  of  remarkable  simplicity  and  modesty :  not  in  the 
least  degree  was  he  spoilt  by  prosperity.  He  owed 
absolutely  nothing  to  school-education,  but  nature 
had  gifted  him  with  rare  intellectual  power,  and  in  a 
life  of  unceasing  activity  he  had  contrived  to  master  the 
entire  field  of  his  vocation  in  all  its  aspects.  In  his 
shipyards  were  constructed  in  all  114  iron  vessels. 


ROAD — KG  ADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING. 

ROAD,  n.  rod  [AS.  rad;  Dut.  reede ;  Dan.  ridt,  a  rid- 
ing, a  road :  AS.  ridan,  to  ride :  F.  rude,  an  anchorage- 
ground  for  ships  (see  Ride)]  :  a  public  way  by  which 
passengers,  vehicles,  and  animals  may  pass  from  place 
to  place ;  a  highway  (see  Roads  and  Roadmaking)  :  in 
law  (see  Highway)  :  anchoring-ground  for  ships  :  in  OE.t 
inroad ;  incursion ;  a  journey.  Road-metal,  stones 
broken  small  for  covering  and  repairing  roads.  Road- 
stead, n.  rod'sted,  or  The  roads,  place  where  ships 
may  safely  ride  at  anchor,  at  some  distance  from  the 
shore.  Road'ster,  n.  -ster,  a  horse  fitted  for  travelling ; 
a  ship  at  anchor.  Road-surveyor,  an  officer  whose 
duty  it  is  to  see  public  roads  kept  in  a  good  state  of 
repair.  Road  vehicles  (see  Vehicles,  Road).  Road'- 
way,  n.  -wa,  the  part  of  a  road  travelled  by  vehicles. 
Roadside,  n.  the  side  of  a  road :  Adj.  by  the  side  of  a 
road,  as  a  roadside  inn.  On  the  road,  travelling.  To 
take  to  the  road,  to  engage  in  robbery  upon  the  high- 
ways. Law  of  the  road  (see  Rule  of  the  Road: 
Navigation  Laws). — Syn.  of  'road':  highway;  street; 
lane;  way;  path;  pathway;  route;  course;  passage. 

ROADS  and  ROAD-MAKING:  ways,  highways, 
streets ;  and  the  art  of  their  construction.  Roads  form 
a  primary  element  in  the  material  advancement  of  a 
nation,  being  essential  to  the  development  of  the  natural 
resources  of  the  country.  Railways  have  in  modern 
times  superseded  to  some  extent  the  common  highways ; 
still  these  retain  their  importance,  both  independently 
and  as  essential  auxiliaries. 

The  Romans  were  great  constructers  of  roads,  and 
regarded  them  as  of  vital  importance  for  conquest  and 
the  maintenance  of  their  empire.  They  are  said  to  have 
learned  the  art  from  the  Carthaginians.  Except  where 
some  natural  barrier  made  it  impossible,  the  Roman  roads 
were  almost  invariably  straight ;  probably  because  the 
chief  means  of  transport  then  in  use  were  beasts  of 
burden,  and  not  wheeled  vehicles,  which  made  preserva- 
tion of  the  level  of  less  consequence.  The  substantial 
character  of  the  Roman  roads  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
they  have  in  some  instances  borne  the  traffic  of  2,000 
years  without  material  injury.  The  plan  of  construction 
was  nearly  uniform  (for  its  description  see  Appian  Way). 
They  varied  in  breadth  from  15  to  8  ft.,  and  had  often 
raised  footpaths  at  the  sides,  and  blocks  of  stone  at 
intervals,  to  enable  travellers  to  mount  on  horseback. 

The  roads  made  by  the  Romans  in  Britain  gradually 
fell  into  decay,  and  the  attempts  now  and  then  made  to 
repair  them  were  insufficient  to  prevent  England  falling 
into  a  worse  state  with  respect  to  its  highways  than 
most  other  European  countries.  In  1285  one  of  the 
earliest  laws  on  the  subject  of  roads  was  passed.  It 
directed  that  all  trees  and  shrubs  be  cut  down  to  the 
distance  of  200  ft.  on  either  side  of  roads  between  market- 
towns,  to  prevent  concealment  of  robbers  in  them.  The 
first  toll  for  the  repair  of  roads  was  levied  by  the  au- 
thority of  Edward  III.  1346,  on  roads  which  now  form 


ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING, 
part  of  the  streets  of  London.  In  1555,  an  act  was  passed 
requiring  each  parish  to  keep  its  roads  in  repair ;  but 
loug  after  this,  the  roads  even  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London  were  wretchedly  bad,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
country  still  worse.  Mostly,  indeed,  they  were  mere 
horse-tracks;  the  chief  advantage  in  following  them 
being,  that  they  led  along  the  higher  grounds  and  so 
avoided  bogs.  These  trackways  were  usually  impas- 
sable in  winter ;  being  narrow,  and  in  many  places  so 
deep  and  miry  as  to  be  more  like  ditches  than  roads.  So 
late  as  1736,  the  roads  in  the  neighborhood  of  London 
were  so  bad  that  in  wet  weather  a  carriage  could  not  be 
driven  from  Kensington  to  St.  James's  Palace  in  less 
than  two  hours,  and  sometimes  stuck  in  the  mud 
altogether.  Much  curious  information  on  the  state  of 
the  roads  and  means  of  conveyance  in  England  during 
the  long  period  from  the  decay  of  the  Roman  roads  to 
the  middle  of  the  18th  c.  is  in  Smiles's  Lives  of  Engineers, 
vol.  I. 

In  the  Eng.  colonies  in  America,  roads  were  laid  out 
and  maintained  by  the  several  towns  or  by  the  several 
counties,  and  the  same  system  still  endures  in  the 
United  States.  In  most  states  the  care  of  the  roads  is 
incumbent  on  the  towns  or  townships  traversed  by  them. 
The  first  turnpikes  in  the  United  States  date  from  the 
end  of  the  18th  c. :  they  were  controlled  by  private  stock- 
holders or  companies,  though  often  towns  subscribed  to 
the  stock.  The  federal  govt,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  c.  made  appropriations  of  money  for  construction 
of  roads  for  military  purposes — *  national  roads,'  so 
called.  One  of  these  roads  extended  from  Baltimore  to 
St.  Louis :  there  was  also  a  national  road  from  Bangor, 
Me.,  to  Holton  in  the  same  state.  Many  of  the  turnpike 
roads  were  plank-roads :  the  national  roads  were  metalled 
with  broken  stone  or  with  gravel. 

A  project  was  recently  (1891)  broached  in  the  N.  Y. 
legislature,  of  declaring  certain  roads  state  highways, 
and  having  them  maintained  by  the  labor  of  convicts. — 
For  roads,  in  law,  see  Highway. 

In  laying  out  a  new  line  of  road,  the  skill  and  ingenuity 
of  the  engineer  are  taxed  to  make  the  gradients  easy, 
with  as  little  expense  as  possible  in  excavating  and  em- 
banking (see  Embankment),  and  to  do  this  without 
deviating  much  from  the  direct  course  between  the  fixed 
points  through  which  the  road  must  pass.  In  order  to 
do  this,  an  accurate  survey  of  the  tract,  including  the 
relative  levels  of  its  different  parts,  and  the  nature  of 
the  strata,  is  a  necessary  preliminary.  The  formation 
of  an  extended  line  of  road  often  involves  the  construc- 
tion of  extensive  bridges,  viaducts,  and  the  like,  which 
require  great  engineering  skill. 

The  importance  of  easy  gradients  or  inclinations  in 
roads  is  known  in  a  general  way ;  but  it  gives  a  more 
precise  idea  of  it  to  state  that,  while  the  force  requisite 
to  draw  a  wagon  weighing  6  tons  along  a  level  macadam- 
ized road  is  284  lbs,,  on  a  road  witb        ° scent  of  1  in 


ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING 
70  the  force  required  is  456  lbs.,  i.e.,  ^  part  of  6  tons 
over  and  above  264  lbs.  The  greatest  declivity  which 
can  be  given  to  a  road,  so  that  horses  may  move  down 
it  with  safety  in  a  fast  trot,  varies  according  to  its  na- 
ture ;  for  paved  roads,  1  in  63 — for  those  macadamized, 
1  in  35 — and  for  those  laid  with  gravel,  1  in  15,  have 
been  considered  the  limit. 

The  best  transverse  form  for  a  road  is  in  debate 
among  engineers.  All  agree  that  it  should  be  higher  in 
the  middle  than  at  the  sides,  but  some  would  make  it 
much  higher  than  others.  As  a  road  can  be  better  kept 
clear  of  water  by  a  slight  inclination  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  than  by  any  form  which  can  be  given  to  its 
cross-section,  it  should  not  be  highly  convex,  since  that 
would  prevent  its  availability  for  traffic  throughout  all 
parts  of  its  breadth,  inasmuch  as  it  is  almost  necessary 
to  keep  on  the  centre  of  a  highly  convex  road,  and  con- 
sequently to  wear  deep  furrows  there,  by  confining 
wheels  and  horses  to  nearly  the  same  track.   Fig.  1 


Fig  1.— Cross  Section  of  a  Road. 
A,  Foundation  of  rough  pavement  or  concrete;  B,  Broken 
stones. 

shows  a  transverse  section  of  a  road  of  a  form  approved 
by  some  engineers — the  slope  is  1  in  30,  with  a  few  ft. 
in  the  centre  on  a  flat  curve ;  but  in  most  cases  a  some- 
what higher  curve  would  probably  be  desirable.  Differ- 
ent opinions  are  held  also  as  to  whether  the  bed  upon 
which  the  road  is  to  be  formed  should  be  flat  or  rounded  : 
those  who  prefer  it  flat  considering  that  there  should  be 
a  greater  depth  of  material  at  the  centre  than  at  the 
sides,  while  others  think  that  the  depth  should  be  uni- 
form. 

In  construction  of  the  road  itself,  the  first  point  to 
consider  is  the  foundation.  The  majority  of  roads  have 
no  artificial  foundation :  in  such  cases,  the  surface  on 
which  the  road-material  is  to  be  laid,  is  generally  madt 
as  solid  as  possible  by  efficient  drainage,  and  by  rolling 
and  beating  where  embankments  are  formed.  It  is  the 
question  whether  or  not  a  road  should  have  a  foundation 
of  rough  pavement  below  the  broken  stone  covering, 
which  is  the  essential  point  of  difference  between  the 
two  great  rival  systems  of  Telford  and  Macadam.  Tel- 
ford (q.v.)  considered  it  of  great  importance  that  there 
should  be  such  a  foundation.  He  made  it  of  stones 
varying  in  depth  from  nine  inches  at  the  centre  to  three 
inches  at  the  sides  of  the  road,  these  being  set  with  their 
broadest  edge  downward,  and  no  stone  being  more  than 
four  inches  broad  on  the  upper  edge ;  upon  these  were 


KOAUS  AND  KOAD-MAKING. 
piacea  a  coating  of  broken  stones  not  exceeding  six 
inches  in  thickness.  Roads  on  this  plan  have  showed 
excellent  endurance ;  and  on  the  whole,  for  ordinary  use 
the  Telford  seems  unsurpassed.  For  Macadam's  m ethod 
see  Macadamizing.  He  preferred  a  yielding  and  soft 
foundation  to  one  rigid ;  so  that  even  on  boggy  ground, 
if  it  were  but  firm  enough  to  sustain  a  man  walking  over 
it,  he  considered  artificial  bottoming  quite  unnecessary. 
His  roads  were  entirely  of  angular  pieces  of  stone,  of 
such  a  size  as  to  pass  freely  through  a  ring  2J  inches  in 
diameter.  This  plan  has  now  fewer  advocates  than  Tel- 
ford's, or  than  the  one  subsequently  proposed  by  Thomas 
Hughes,  where  a  concrete  of  gravel  and  lime  is  employed 
for  the  foundation  of  the  road.  But  experience  has 
shown  Macadam's  plan  of  employing  angular  pieces  of 
stone  is  superior  to  every  otiher  as  a  mere  covering  for 
roads,  whether  they  have  artificial  foundation  or  not. 
Macadamized  streets  have  not  been  found  satisfactory 
in  populous  cities  with  heavy  traffic,  as  under  such  cir- 
cumstances they  are  in  winter  constantly  covered  with 
mud ;  and  in  summer,  profuse  watering  is  required  to 
keep  them  from  being  overwhelmed  with  dust.  How- 
ever, the  French  road-engineers  some  years  since  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  a  covering  of  broken  stone  alone 
is  sufficient  on  the  most  frequented  roads  and  under  all 
but  the  heaviest  traffic.  For  pavement  in  cities4(of  stone 
blocks,  now  mostly  *  Belgian  '),  also  of  wood,  and  of 
asphalt,  see  Pavement. 

For  covering  roads,  granite  and  the  different  kinds  of 
greenstone  and  basalt,  ordinarily  called  whinstones,  are 
the  only  kinds  of  stone  admissible.  Sandstone  is  too 
easily  crushed,  limestone  is  objectionable  from  its  slight 
solubility  in  water.  The  stone  employed  should  be 
tough  as  well  as  hard.  Flint  is  hard  enough,  but  it  is 
brittle,  and  easily  crushed  to  powder.  The  object  is  to 
get  it  to  bind  into  a  firm  mass,  and  not  to  roll  about, 
after  it  has  been  laid  down  for  some  time. 

Drainage  is  in  great  part  secured  by  the  plan  on  which 
a  road  is  made :  any  further  drainage  required  can  in 
many  situations  be  effected  by  ditches  on  either  side. 
Where  this  is  not  possible,  as  in  cuttings  more  or  less 
deep,  a  drain  is  either  made  down  the  centre,  with 
branch-drains  from  the  sides  running  into  it ;  or  drains 
are  formed  along  the  sides,  with  gratings  at  proper  in- 
tervals to  take  in  the  surface-water.  If  the  ground  be- 
neath the  road  is  of  clay  or  of  any  kind  of  wet  soil, 
under-drainage  must  be  resorted  to ;  and  wherever  there 
are  footpaths,  small  drains  require  to  be  placed  under 
them,  if  there  is  no  other  means  of  carrying  off  the  water 
from  the  channel  between  them  and  the  road. 


ROAM— ROAN-TREE. 

ROAM,  Vo  rom  [OF.  romier ;  It.  romeo,  a  pilgrim,  one 
who  makes  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome — from  Roma,  Rome : 
the  derivation  more  likely  in  the  following  direction — 
AS.  ryman,  to  make  room :  leel.  ryma  ;  Ger.  raumen ; 
Dut.  ruimen,  to  make  or  leave  room] :  to  range ;  to 
ramble;  to  wander  over;  to  move  about  from  place  to 
place  without  any  certain  purpose  :  N.  a  ramble.  Roam'- 
ing,  imp. :  N.  the  act  of  wandering ;  a  ramble.  Roamed, 
pp.  Roam'er,  n.  -er,  one  who  roams. — Syn.  of  *  roam, 
v.':  to  ramble;  stroll;  wander;  stray;  range;  rove. 

ROAN,  a.  ron  [OF.  rouen ;  F.  rouan ;  Sp.  ruano ;  It* 
roano,  roan :  origin  unknown] :  applied  to  a  horse  of  a 
bay  or  dark  color,  with  spots  of  gray  or  white  thickly 
interspersed ;  of  a  color  having  a  decided  shade  of  red : 
N.  grained  sheepskin  leather. 

ROANNE,  ro-ann' :  thriving  town  of  France,  dept.  of 
Loire ;  after  St.  Etienne,  most  important  town  in  the 
dept.  for  industry  and  commerce ;  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Loire,  here  navigable,  52  m.  by  railway  n.w.  of  Lyon. 
Its  streets  are  wide,  and  its  houses  handsome.  The 
chief  structures  are  the  bridge  over  the  Loire,  the  pub- 
lic library,  and  the  college  buildings.  There  are  impor- 
tant manufactures  of  muslins,  calicoes,  and  woolen  and 
other  fabrics,  and  ship-building  at  several  dockyards. 
R.  is  also  a  most  important  entrepot  for  commerce  be- 
tween n.  and  s.  France.  Around  and  within  the  town 
are  numerous  traces  of  the  ancient  Roman  rule  and  civ- 
ilization.—Fop.  (1881)  24,992;  (1901)  34,901. 

ROANOKE7:  river  of  Va.  and  N.  C,  formed  by  the 
union,  at  Clarkesville,  Va.,  of  the  Dan  and  Staunton  rivers, 
which  rise  in  the  Alleghanies.  It  flows  s.e.  through  the 
n.e.  portion  of  N.  C,  and  empties  into  Albemarle  Sound. 
It  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Weldon,  head  of  tide- 
water, 150  m. ;  its  length  is  260  m.  In  1861,  Albemarle 
Island,  at  its  mouth,  and  Plymouth,  were  taken  by  the 
Federal  gunboats. 

ROANOKE,  rd-a-ndk':  city,  in  Roanoke  co.,  Va.;  on 
the  Norfolk  and  Western  and  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
railroads;  53  m.  w.  of  Lynchburg,  90  m.  w.s.w.  of  Rich- 
mond. It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  iron  mining  region, 
and  has  large  machine  and  metal  works,  factories  of  all 
kinds,  including  important  tobacco  interests.  R.  is  the 
seat  of  V.  college  for  young  ladies,  of  the  National  Busi- 
ness College,  an  academy  of  music,  and  other  educational 
institutions.  It  has  national  and  state  banks,  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  etc.    Pop.  (1900)  21,495. 

ROAN-TREE,  or  Rowan-tbee,  n.  rd'an-tre  or  row'an- 
[Icel.  reynir,  the  rowan-tree  or  mountain-ash :  Sw. 
rtmn :  Dan.  ron  or  ronnetrce] :  a  tree  bearing  small  red 
berries  in  large  clusters ;  the  mountain-ash,  the  branches 
and  other  parts  of  which  are  famous  among  the  super- 
stitious as  spells  against  witches  and  warlocks;  the 
European  Pyrus  aucuparia,  ord.  Romcece.  The  Ameri- 
can species  are  P.  Americana,  and  the  eider-leaved  P. 
sambucifolia.  with  blunt  or  short-pointed  leaves. 


ROAR— ROAST. 
ROAR,  n.  ror  [AS.  rarian,  to  roar,  to  cry  out :  Dut. 
reeren,  to  roar:  an  imitative  word]:  the  deep  full  cry 
of  a  large  animal;  any  deep  loud  noise  of  some  con- 
tinuance; loudly  expressed  mirth;  the  howling  of  a 
tempest ;  the  sound  of  stormy  waves  of  the  sea :  V.  to 
utter  a  deep  loud  cry,  as  a  large  animal ;  to  give  forth  a 
loud  and  deep  continuous  noise ;  to  cry  aloud  ;  to  bawl. 
Roar'ing,  imp. :  Adj.  uttering  a  deep  loud  sound :  N.  a 
loud  deep  cry,  as  of  a  lion ;  a  loud  deep  cry  of  distress, 
Roar'er,  n.  -ert  one  who  roars ;  a  broken-winded  horse 
(see  Roaring,  below).  Roar'ingijY,  ad.  -II.  Roared, 
pp.  rord.  To  drive  a  roaring  trade,  familiarly,  to  do 
a  very  large  business. 

ROAR'ING :  disease  of  the  air-passages  of  the  horse, 
characterized  by  a  grating,  roaring  noise,  most  notice- 
able during  inspiration,  and  when  the  animal  is  galloped 
in  heavy  ground.  It  usually  depends  on  wasting  of  some 
of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx;  is  apt  to  result  from  fre- 
quent attacks  of  cold,  from  strangles,  inflammation  of 
the  neck-vein,  or  from  tight  reining.  It  constitutes  un- 
soundness, unfits  the  animal  for  satisfactory  performance 
of  fast  work,  is  apt  gradually  to  become  worse,  when  a 
sharper  whistling  noise  is  produced,  and  is  seldom  cur- 
able. In  recent  cases,  a  dose  of  physic  should  be  given, 
a  smart  blister  applied  to  the  throat,  or  a  seton  inserted. 
As  in  broken-winded  subjects,  the  breathing  is  much 
less  distressed  when  the  horse  is  fed  and  watered  several 
hours  before  being  required  to  exert  himself.  He  should 
have  a  liberal  supply  of  good  oats,  but  only  a  limited 
allowance  of  hay,  which  should  be  given  damped.  In 
bad  cases,  tracheotomy  may  be  performed,  and  a  pipe 
inserted  in  the  windpipe,  with  which  heavy  draught- 
horses  have  been  known  to  work  regularly  for  years. 

ROAST,  v.  rost  [OF.  roslir;  F.  rotir,  to  roast:  Ger.  ros- 
ten,  to  roast;  rost,  a  grate:  Gael,  rost,  to  roast]:  to  dress 
meat  for  the  table  by  exposing  it  to  the  direct  action  of 
heat,  as  on  a  spit,  in  an  oven,  etc.;  to  heat  to  excess; 
to  dry  and  parch  by  heat;  to  tease  or  banter;  *o  burn 
broken  ore  in  a  heap  to  free  it  from  some  foreign 
matters;  to  oxidize  by  heating  in  contact  with  air:  JST. 
that  which  is  prepared  by  heat,  as  meat:  Adj.  prepared 
by  heat.  Roasting,  imp.:  N.  act  of  one  who  roasts; 
the  process  by  which  anything  is  roasted  (see  below): 
a  bantering.  Roast  ed,  pp.  Roast  er,  n.  -er,  he  who 
or  that  which  roasts.  To  roast  one.  to  banter  and  poke 
fun  at  one  beyond  endurance.  To  rule  the  roast,  to 
govern;  to  manage;  probably  only  a  corruption  of  4  to 
rule  the  roost,'  in  allusion  to  the  cock  among  his  hena. 


BOASTING 

ROAST'ING.  All  the  apparently  numerous  forms  of 
cookery  may  be  reduced  to  two,  viz.,  Roasting  and  Boil- 
ing (q.v.).  In  this  general  sense,  roasting  may  be  held 
to  include  broiling,  baking,  and  all  other  processes  which 
consist  essentially  in  exposure  of  food  to  the  action  of 
heat  without  the  presence  of  any  fluid  excepting  its  own 
natural  juices.  Chemistry  and  experience  alike  teach 
that  the  first  application  of  heat  in  roasting  should  be 
powerful  and  rapid,  so  as  to  form  an  external  wall,  by 
hardening  the  skin,  and  coagulating  the  superficial 
albuminous  juices,  and  thus  retain  the  deep-seated  juices 
as  much  as  possible  within  the  meat.  This  external 
crust  is  usually  formed  in  about  15  minutes,  after  which 
the  meat  should  be  removed  to  a  greater  distance  from 
the  fire,  subjected  to  less  heat,  and  allowed  to  cook 
slowly.  The  evaporation  of  the  internal  juices  may  be 
further  restrained  by  the  free  and  early  application  of 
flour — a  process  known  as  dredging.  The  loss  of  weight 
in  roasting  is  greater  than  in  boiling;  but  it  is  due 
mainly  to  the  melting  out  of  fat  and  the  evaporation  of 
water,  while  the  nutritive  matter  remains  in  easily 
digestible  form  in  the  interior.  Rules  for  calculating 
the  time  requisite  for  roasting  a  joint  of  given  weight 
are  in  all  the  ordinary  cookery-books.  Unless  the  roast- 
ing is  continued  long  enough,  those  parts  nearest  the 
centre  do  not  become  hot  enough  to  allow  the  albumi- 
nous matters  to  coagulate,  hence  they  appear  red,  juicy, 
and  underdone,  as  it  is  commonly  called.  The  exact  na- 
ture of  the  chemical  changes  which  occasion  the  pecul- 
iarly agreeable  odor  of  roasted  meat  is  unknown. 

ROB,  v.  rob  [OF.  rober ;  Sp.  robar ;  It.  rubare  ;  Dut. 
rooven;  Dan.  rove,  to  take  by  violence,  to  plunder: 
OHG.  raup,  spoil:  mid.  L.  raubare,  to  rob  (see 
Robe)]  :  to  deprive  of  by  force,  or  by  secret  theft ;  to 
steal;  to  plunder;  to  take  from;  in  OE.,  to  deprive  of 
something  displeasing;  to  set  free.  Rob'bing,  imp. 
Robbed,  pp.  robd.  Rob  ber,  n.  -6er,  one  who  takes  the 
goods  of  another  by  force,  by  open  violence,  or  by  secret 
theft.  Rob'bery,  n.  4,  the  forcible  taking  away  of  the 
goods  or  money  of  another;  a  plundering;  theft  (see 
below). — Syn.  of  'robber':  thief;  depredator;  Drigand; 
pirate ;  freebooter ;  despoiler ;  plunderer ;  pillager ;  rifler ; 
— of  *  robbery':  spoliation;  freebooting;  piracy;  pil- 
lage ;  plunder ;  despoliation ;  theft ;  depredation. 

ROB,  n.  rob  [It.  robbo;  F.  and  Sp.  rob ;  Ar.  robb, 
rob]:  conserve  of  fruit;  extract  or  juice  of  ripe  fruit 
prepared  with  honey  or  sugar  and  boiled  to  the  consist- 
ence of  a  syrup  so  that  it  will  keep.  The  name  is  sup- 
posed to  be  from  the  similarity  of  this  syrup  to  the 
saccharine  pulp  of  locust-pods,  called  Al-garoba  by  the 
Moors.  The  juices  of  strawberries,  raspberries,  goose- 
berries, currants,  etc.,  are  boiled  with  sugar  until  they 
form  robs,  used  for  flavoring  drinks,  etc. 

ROB'BER  COUN'CIL  :  see  Ephesus,  Councils  of. 


ROBBERY — ROBERT  I. 

ROB'BERY,  in  Law :  felonious  and  forcible  taking  of 
the  property  of  another  from  his  person  or  in  his  pres- 
ence, against  his  will,  by  violence  or  by  putting  him  in 
fear.  It  is  distinguished  from  common  larceny  or  theft 
by  the  element  of  force  or  fear;  the  taking  must  be  by 
force  either  actual  or  constructive,  but  if  force  be  used, 
fear  is  not  an  essential  ingredient. 

In  most  of  the  states  it  is  R.  to  take  by  violence  or 
by  putting  the  owner  of  the  goods  taken  in  fear.  The 
degree  of  the  force  is  immaterial  if  it  is  sufficient  to  de- 
prive the  person  of  his  property  against  his  will.  The 
taking  or  carrying  away  is  another  essential  element. 
Immediate  restitution  of  the  property  to  the  owner  will 
not  relieve  the  wrongdoer  from  the  guilt  of  R.  Posses- 
sion is  sufficient  to  give  title  as  against  the  robber. 
Any  threat  made  with  the  intent  to  produce  fear  or  ter- 
ror of  an  injury  to  the  person,  property,  or  reputation  is 
sufficient :  the  fear  need  not  be  of  violence  to  the  person 
robbed ;  it  is  sufficient  if  the  person  against  whom  the 
violence  is  threatened  is  bound  by  ties  of  blood  or  affec- 
tion to  the  person  to  whom  the  threats  are  made.  Con- 
sent will  not  constitute  a  defense  if  obtained  through 
fear.  The  punishment  for  R.  in  all  of  the  states  is  im- 
prisonment for  a  long  term  of  years ;  the  term  being 
much  longer  when  the  robbery  is  committed  with  dan- 
gerous or  deadly  weapons. 

ROBBINS,  n.  plu.  rob'bmz  [a  corruption  of  rope-bands  : 
Ger.  raabanden,  rope-bands :  Icel.  ra,  a  sail-yard ;  band, 
a  tie]  :  small  ropes  on  board  a  ship  that  fasten  sails  to 
their  yards. 

ROBE,  n.  rob  [F.  robe,  a  gown  or  mantle :  It.  roba,  a 
long  upper  garment — from  mid.  L.  rauba,  the  spoil  of 
robbery,  clothes ;  raubare,  to  rob,  to  plunder :  Sp.  ropa, 
clothes]  :  a  long  loose  garment  worn  over  the  dress ;  a 
dress  of  dignity  or  state ;  an  elegant  dress :  V.  to  put 
on  a  robe ;  to  dress  with  magnificence  or  splendor ;  to 
array;  to  dress.  Robbing,  imp.  Robed,  pp.  robdo 
Robemaker,  one  who  makes  the  official  robes  or  gowns 
of  clergymen,  barristers,  aldermen,  etc.  Master  of 
the  robes,  an  officer  of  the  royal  household  who  orders 
the  sovereign's  robes.  Mistress  of  the  robes,  the 
lady  highest  in  rank  attending  on  the  queen,  and  who 
has  the  care  of  her  robes.  Robing-room,  the  apartment 
or  apartments  where  noblemen  and  lawyers  put  on  their 
official  robes.  Note. — Robe  is  literally  the  skin  with  its 
rough  hair  which  has  been  robbed  or  plundered  from  an 
animal  for  man's  use,  the  primary  sense  being  still 
retained  in  *  buffalo  robes  '  of  northwest  Amer. :  see 
Rob  1. 

ROB'ERT  I.,  King  of  Scotland:  see  Bruce,  Robert 
(King). 


.ROBERT  II — ROBERT. 
ROB'ERT  II.,  King  of  Scotland:  1316,  Mar.  2—1390, 
Apr.  19  (reigned  1371-90) ;  son  of  Walter  Stewart,,  and  of 
Marjory,  only  daughter  of  Robert  the  Bruce.  R.  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle,  David  II.,  and  became  founder  of  the 
Stewart  dynasty.  Partly  from  disposition,  and  partly 
from  the  infirmities  of  age,  R.  was  a  peaceable  and  ap- 
parently weak  ruler ;  though  the  period  of  his  reign  was 
one  of  frightful  misery  inflicted  on  both  sides  of  the 
borders  by  the  raids  of  the  powerful  and  intractable 
Scotch  barons,  and  the  reprisals  of  the  English  wardens. 
In  this  reign  there  were  invasions  of  Scotland  by  an 
English  military  and  naval  force  under  the  command  of 
the  Duke  of  Lancaster  (John  of  Gaunt)  1384,  and  again 
by  King  Richard  II.  himself  1385,  which  wasted  the  land 
as  far  as  Edinburgh  and  Fife ;  and  the  great  retaliatory 
expedition  of  the  S  otch  1388,  when  two  armies  invaded 
and  devastated  England,  by  way  of  Carlisle  and  of  Nor- 
thumberland. 

ROBERT  III.,  King  of  Scotland  :  about  1340-1405 
(reigned  1390-1405) ;  son  of  Robert  II.  His  baptismal 
name  was  John,  but  was  changed  on  his  accession.  Hia 
imbecility  as  a  ruler  virtually  placed  the  reins  of  govt, 
in  the  hands  of  his  ambitious  brother,  Robert  Earl  of 
Menteith  and  Fife,  whom,  1398,  he  created  Duke  of  Al- 
bany— during  whose  regime  the  Scottish  barons  began 
to  exercise  that  anarchic  and  disloyal  authority,  which, 
in  the  reigns  of  the  first  three  Jameses,  threatened  to  de- 
stroy the  power  of  the  sovereign  altogether.  Of  R.'s 
two  sons,  the  eldest  was  shockingly  licentious ;  and  the 
tragedy  of  his  death  in  Falkland  Castle  appears  in  its 
traditionary  version  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Fair  Maid  of 
Perth. 

ROBERT,  rob'ert, Christopher  Rhinelander  :  educa- 
tional benefactor :  1802,  Mar.  23—1878,  Oct.  28 ;  b.  Brook- 
haven,  N.  Y.,  son  of  a  physician.  In  1830,  he  was  chief  of 
the  firm  of  Robert  and  Williams,  New  York,  and  pres. 
of  a  coal  company ;  in  1862,  he  retired  from  business. 
He  founded  the  German  Presb.  Church,  Rivington  St.; 
gave  largely  to  it,  and  to  many  objects,  including  Ham- 
ilton Coll.  and  Auburn  Theol.  Seminary ;  and  established 
the  coll.  on  Lookout  Mt.,  Tenn.,  for  instruction  of  the 
colored  race.  His  chief  gifts  were  for  the  founding  of 
Robert  College  in  Constantinople  (named  for  him 
by  others),  amounting  to  $296,000  in  his  life-time,  be- 
sides a  legacy  of  $125,000.  It  was  organized  by  Cyrus 
Hamlin,  d.d.,  with  whom  R.  conferred  while  travelling 
in  the  East  1864 ;  is  on  a  Christian  basis  but  unsectarian ; 
and  is  wholly  under  control  of  5  trustees  in  New  York. 
There  is  a  board  of  20  instructors,  of  which  George 
Washburn,  d.d.,  is  pres.  The  coll.  has  the  usual  courses 
of  study  and  laboratories.  From  1868,  when  it  was 
opened,  to  1888,  the  graduates  numbered  209,  and  the 
number  of  different  students  1,389.  There  were  171 
students  in  all  depts.  1888 ;  and  of  the  90  in  coll.  classes, 
there  were  35  Bulgarian,  31  Armenian,  and  12  Greek. 
The  college  has  exerted  a  quiet  but  extensive  and  very 


ROBERT— ROBERTS, 
powerful  influence  for  good  throughout  the  Turkish 
empire. — Mr.  R.'s  wife,  Anna  Makia  R.,  b.  New  York 
1802,  Aug.  1  (d.  there  1888,  Apr.  9),  dau.  of  William  Shaw, 
organized  and  gave  generously  to  homes  for  orphans, 
aged  colored  women,  and  other  charities. 

ROB'ERT,  n.  rob'ert,  or  Herb-robert  [said  to  be  in 
allusion  to  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy]  :  a  plant  with 
pink  stem  and  pink-veined  corolla,  found  in  waste 
ground,  among  stones  and  debris  of  rocks,  of  an  offen- 
sive odor,  and  formerly  esteemed  as  a  medicine;  the 
herb  stinking  crane's-bill;  the  Geranium  Rober'tianum, 
ord.  Geranidcece. 

ROB'ERT  of  Gloucester,  glos'ter :  old  English  (met- 
rical) chronicler,  of  whom  absolutely  nothing  is  known, 
except  that  he  was  alive  about  the  time  of  the  great 
battle  of  Evesham  (1265).  Robert's  work  is  a  « history ' 
of  English  affairs  from  the  arrival  of  the  fabulous  Brutus 
to  the  end  of  Henry  III.'s  reign;  and  is  valuable  partly 
for  its  matter  (though  that  is  in  the  main  taken  from 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  William  of  Malmesbury),  but 
more  for  the  language,  there  seen  in  its  transition  from 
Anglo-Saxon  to  the  English  of  Chaucer  and  Wycliffe.  It 
is  written  in  verse,  contains  more  than  10,000  lines,  and 
—if  we  may  judge  from  the  numerous  copies  made  of 
it — was  very  popular  in  the  middle  ages.  The  principal 
extant  manuscripts  are  the  Bodleian,  the  Cottonian,  and 
the  Harleian.  The  Chronicle  was  printed  by  Hearne,  2 
vols.  1724 ;  reprint  1810. 

ROBERTS,  rbb'ertz,  Benjamin  Stone:  soldier:  1811— 
1875,  Jan.  29 ;  b.  Manchester,  Vt.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  1835,  and  was  assigned  to  the  1st  dragoons; 
served  on  the  frontier  till  1839,  when  he  resigned ;  and 
was  a  civil  engineer  1839-42.  He  studied  law,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  1843,  and  practiced  till  1846.  He  served  in 
the  Mexican  war,  and  was  brevetted  lieut.col.  He  was 
on  frontier  duty  1848-61 ;  was  brevetted  brig.gen.  vols. 
1861,  July  16,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  brevetted 
brig.gen.  U.  S.  A.  He  was  inventor  of  the  Roberts 
breech-loading  rifle.    He  died  at  Washington. 

ROBERTS,  David,  r.a.  :  eminent  painter :  1796,  Oct. 
24 — 186^,  Nov.  25;  b.  Edinburgh.  He  began  there  as 
apprentice  to  a  housepainter.  His  talent  for  art  becom- 
ing obvious,  he  was  set  to  study  at  the  Trustees'  Acad., 
and  1822  he  went  to  London,  where  he  found  employ- 
ment as  a  scene-painter  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre.  In 
1826,  a  picture  of  Rouen  Cathedral,  exhibited  by  R.  at 
the  Royal  Acad.,  drew  attention.  In  1827  appeared  his 
painting  St.  Germains  at  Amiens.  For  seven  years  he 
was  engaged  in  sketching  in  Spain,  Africa,  and  the  East; 
and  the  result  was  the  splendid  work  (4  vols.  1839) 
Sketches  in  the  Holy  Land,  Syria,  Idumcea,  Arabia,  Egypt, 
and  Nubia.  The  book  contains  246  subjects,  lithographed 
by  Louis  Hague,  and  illustrated  by  a  historical  commen- 
tary by  Dr.  Croly.  It  is  the  finest  and  most  elaborate 
thing  of  the  kind  perhaps  ever  produced,  and  of  itself  it 


ROBERTS— ROBERTSON. 


would  have  sufficed  for  a  great  reputation  to  the  artist. 
In  1839  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Acad.,  and 
1841  academician.  In  1854  he  was  selected  by  the  queen 
to  paint  the  Inauguration  of  the  Great  Exhibition 
in  1851. 

ROB'ERTS,  Ellis  Henry,  ll.d.:  printer,  editor,  and 
politician:  b.  Utica,  N.  Y.:  1827,  Sep.  30.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  1850;  and  1851  became  editor  and  proprietor  of 
the  Utica  Herald.  He  was  a  member  of  the  N.  Y.  assem- 
bly 1867;  delegate  to  the  republican  national  conven- 
tions of  1864,  68,  and  76;  member  of  congress  1871-75, 
and  asst.  treasurer  of  the  United  States  at  New  York 
1889-93;  treasurer  of  the  United  States  1897.  He  is 
author  of  Government  Revenue  (1884)  and  The  Planting 
and  Growth  of  the  Empire  State,  in  the  American  Com- 
monwealth series  (1887). 

ROB'ERTS,  Gen.  Sir  Frederick  Sleigh  (Lord  Rob- 
erts of  Candahar  and  Pretoria)  :  b.  Waterford,  Ireland, 
1832,  Sep.  30.  He  entered  the  Brit.  Indian  army  as  a 
lieut.  in  the  Bengal  artil.  1851.  His  bravery  in  the 
Sepoy  mutiny  1858  won  for  him  the  Victoria  cross.  He 
was  asst.  quartermaster-gen.  in  the  Abyssinian  cam- 
paign 1868  and  in  the  Looshai  expedition  1871-2,  and  in 
the  Afghan  campaign  he  was  at  various  periods  com- 
mander of  the  Kuran  field-force  and  commander-in-chief 
of  the  whole  army  in  Afghanistan.  After  the  massacre  of 
the  Brit,  embassy  in  Cabul,  he  reoccupied  the  city,  and 
held  it  (1879-80)  till  he  withdrew  with  a  picked  force 
of  9,000  men  to  relieve  General  Primrose's  garrison  at 
Candahar.  He  raised  the  siege  of  Candahar,  and  gave 
Ayoob  Khan  a  crushing  defeat.  In  1881,  Feb.,  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  troops  in  Natal  and  the 
Transvaal;  1881-85  commanded  the  Madras  presidency; 
1886  Oct.  commanded  the  Burmese  expedition;  and 
from  1885  to  '93  was  commander-in-chief  in  India. 
In  1895  he  was  appointed  field  marshal  and  commander 
of  the  forces  in  Ireland.  He  took  command  of  the  forces 
in  tlie  South  African  campaign  in  1899,  relieved  Kimber- 
ley,  and  by  other  brilliant  successes  changed  the  aspect 
of  affairs.  In  1900  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  army.  He  was  created  g.c.b.  and  a  baronet 
1880  for  the  relief  of  Candahar;  promoted  lieut.-gen. 
1883;  elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  R.  of  Candahar 
and  Waterford  1892,  Jan.  1;  created  an  earl  1901,  also 
receiving  the  Order  of  the  Garter. 

ROB'ERTSON,  Frederick  William,  m.a.:  brilliant 
preacher  in  the  Church  of  England:  1816,  Feb.  3—1853, 
Aug.  15;  b.  London;  son  of  a  capt.  in  the  Royal  Artil- 
lery. At  the  age  of  nine,  he  was  sent  to  the  grammar- 
school  of  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire,  afterward  accompany- 
ing his  parents  to  the  continent,  where  he  became  profi- 
cient in  French.   In  1832,  he  entered  the  rector's  class  at 


ROBERTSON. 

Edinburgh  Acad.;  and  1833  proeeded  to  the  Edinburgh 
Univ.  His  intended  profession  originally  was  the  bar, 
but  the  study  of  law  did  not  interest  him,  and  he  would 
gradly  have  become  a  soldier,  for  he  always  felt  (as  he 
afterward  confessed)  '  an  unutterable  admiration  of 
heroic  daring.'  His  name  was  placed  on  the  list  of  the 
3d  Dragoons,  then  in  India,  and  he  gave  two  years'  study 
to  preparing  himself  for  a  military  life;  but  certain 
difficulties  delayed  his  commission,  and  R.,  in  obedience 
to  the  wish  of  his  father,  matriculated  at  Brasenose  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  1836,  to  study  for  the  ministry,  two  weeks 
before  his  commission  reached  him.  His  life  had  all 
along  been  marked  by  singular  purity  and  depth  of 
religious  feeling;  hence  his  new  career  occasioned  him 
no  regret,  but  brought  rather  a  high  resolve  to  be  worthy 
of  his  calling.  At  Oxford,  he  committed  to  memory  the 
entire  New  Testament  both  in  English  and  in  Greek. 
His  views  then  were  moderately  Calvinistic:  the  Trae- 
tarian  movement  did  not  attract  him.  His  first  appoint- 
ment was  to  the  curacy  of  St.  Maurice  and  St.  Mary 
Calendar,  but  his  health  failed  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
partly  because  of  the  injurious  degree  to  which  he 
had  carried  devotional  asceticism;  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  visit  the  continent.  In  Switzerland  he  met 
and  married  a  daughter  of  Sir  George  William  Denys, 
Bart.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  was  for  a  time 
curate  to  the  incumbent  of  Christ  Church,  Chelten- 
ham; and  there,  having  become  aware  of  'disappoint- 
ment in  the  practical  results  of  the  strict  theological 
system  then  known  by  the  partizan  name  1  evangel- 
icalism'  (a  different  usage  from  the  present  of  that 
term ) ,  he  passed  through  a  mental  crisis  terrific  to  his 
sensitive  soul,  whose  result  was  an  '  entire  change  in  the 
basis  of  his  theological  science.'  Of  this  period  he  wrote — 
*  The  one  great  certainty  to  which  in  the  midst  of  the  dark- 
est doubt  I  never  ceased  to  cling  [was]  the  entire  symmetry 
and  loveliness  and  the  unequalled  nobleness  of  the  hu- 
manity of  the  Son  of  Man.'  From  this  fixed  point  he 
gradually  built  his  creed  again,  and  came  to  rest  in  a  sim- 
ple, strong,  and  charitable  Christian  faith.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  1847,  he  removed  to  St.  Ebbes,  Oxford,  and  was 
beginning  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  undergraduates  at 
Oxford,  when  after  two  months  he  accepted  the  charge  of 
Trinity  Chapel,  Brighton.  For  six  years  he  continued  to 
preach  sermons,  the  like  of  which,  for  blending  of  delicacy 
and  strength  of  thought,  poetic  beauty  and  homely  lucidity 
of  speech,  had  perhaps  never  been  heard  before  in  England. 
His  sermons  (of  which  four  series  have  been  published) 
have  attained  immense  popularity  and  a  very  large  circu- 
lation. The  first  series  was  published  1855  (repeated  edi- 
tions since).  R.'s  Expository  Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  appeared  1859.  His  Lectures  and  Ad- 
dresses on  Literary  and  Social  Topics  contain  passages  of 
faultless  beauty  and  refinement.  A  good  biography,  with 
letters,  was  published  1865  by  the  Rev.  Stopford  A.  Brooke 
{repeated  editions). 


ROBERTSON. 

ROB'ERTSON,  Joseph,  ll.d.  ;  most  accomplished 
Scottish  antiquary  of  the  19th  c. :  1810,  May  17—1866, 
Pec.  13 ;  b.  Aberdeen.  He  was  educated  at  the  Marischal 
College.  The  law  was  his  intended  profession,  but  he 
early  turned  to  literature,  especially  to  Scottish  history 
and  antiquities.  He  went  to  reside  in  Edinburgh,  and 
later  (1839)  in  Aberdeen  as  editor  of  the  Aberdeen  Con- 
stitutional newspaper ;  and  in  1843  went  to  Glasgow  as 
editor  of  the  Glasgow  Constitutional  newspaper.  In  1849 
he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  to  edit  the  Edinburgh  Evening 
Courant.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  to  the  office  now 
known  as  that  of  Curator  of  the  Historical  Dept.  of  the 
Register-house  at  Edinburgh  ;  and  projected  a  series  of 
works  connected  with  the  history  of  Scotland,  similar  to 
those  in  England  under  direction  of  the  master  of  the 
rolls :  of  this  series  several  vols,  have  appeared.  During 
his  years  of  editorial  labor  he  produced  numerous  com- 
pilations, and  original  works  of  great  importance  to 
Scottish  archeology:  among  these  are  histories  of 
various  shires ;  an  article  on  Scottish  Abbeys  and  Ca- 
thedrals (Quarterly  Review,  1849,  June) — a  text-book  on 
that  subject ;  numerous  articles  for  Chambers's  Encyclo- 
paedia ;  and  a  valuable  compilation,  with  preface,  giving 
information  on  many  of  the  controversies  connected 
with  the  life  and  reign  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  The 
last  and  most  important  of  R.'s  works  was  Concilia 
Scotice  (2  vols.  1866)  for  the  Bannatyne  Club,  which  has 
done  for  the  Scottish  Church  that  which  Archdeacon 
Wilkins  did  for  the  Church  of  England  in  Concilia  Magnm 
Britannia  et  Hibernice.  It  contains  the  statutes  of  all  the 
Scottish  councils,  provincial  or  diocesan,  from  the  earliest 
period  to  the  Reformation,  printed  carefully  from  the 
best  authorities ;  and  the  Preface,  which  occupies  the 
greater  part  of  the  first  vol.,  is  a  learned  and  authentic 
history  of  everything  bearing  on  the  subject.  No 
literary  man  of  his  time  was  held  in  higher  esteem. 

ROB'ERTSON,  William  :  historian:  1721,  Sep.  19— 
1793,  June  11 ;  b.  in  the  county  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
and  in  the  parish  of  Borthwick,  of  which  his  father  was 
minister.  He  went  to  school  at  Dalkeith,  a  few  miles 
from  his  home ;  but  1733,  his  father's  appointment  to  a 
charge  in  Edinburgh  gave  him  the  opportunity  of  attend- 
ing school  and  afterward  the  univ.  there.  He  was 
licensed  as  a  preacher  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  1741 ; 
and  1743  was  ordained  to  the  parish  of  Gladsmuir,  where 
the  battle  of  Preston  pans  was  to  be  fought  two  years 
afterward.  In  '  the  '45,'  he  showed  his  zeal  for  the  govt, 
cause  by  joining  a  body  of  volunteers  in  Edinburgh ;  and 
when  the  majority  of  his  comrades  saw  that  it  was 
useless  for  them  to  attempt  to  defend  the  town,  he, 
with  a  few  whom  he  had  infected  with  his  ardor,  went 
to  offer  their  services  to  Sir  John  Cope,  but  the  offer 
was  declined.  R.  afterward  became  a  leader  in  what 
was  called  *  the  Moderate '  side  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts ;  and  1758  was  promoted  to  one  of  the  Edinburgh 
charges,  where  he  had  increased  opportunities  of  in- 


ROBESPIERRE, 
fluenco.  In  1759,  he  published  his  famous  History  of 
Scotland.  He  avowedly  passed  over  the  earlier  periods, 
speaking  of  them  as  '  dark  and  fabulous,'  which  no  doubt 
they  were  in  the  hands  of  those  who  had  treated  them ; 
but  it  may  be  regretted  that  R.  did  not  bring  his  acute- 
ness  to  bear  on  the  materials  for  their  elucidation.  In 
1762,  he  was  made  principal  of  the  Univ.  of  Edinburgh. 
In  1769,  he  published  History  of  the  Reign  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  F.,  to  which  ho  prefixed  a  View  of  the  State  of 
Society  in  Europe  from  the  Subversion  of  the  Roman  Empire 
to  the  Beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  This  is  the  most 
valuable  of  his  works.  The  field  has  been  often  since 
traversed  by  authors  who  have  discovered  much  new 
material,  but  their  use  of  it  has  become  a  sort  of  tribute 
to  the  natural  sagacity  of  Robertson.  His  History  of 
America  was  published  1777.  These  works  are  admirable 
for  their  elegant  and  vigorous  style.  He  was  a  genial 
man,  with  a  large  circle  of  friends.  He  had  great  con- 
versational powers,  which  he  was  not  averse  to  dis- 
play. Interesting  notices  of  his  early  life  are  in  the 
autobiography  of  his  friend  Dr.  Carlyle;  and  a  sketch 
of  his  closing  years  is  in  Lord  Cockburn's  Memorials  of 
His  Life  and  Times. 

ROBESPIERRE,  ro'bes-per,  F.  ro~bes-pe-ar\  Maximi- 
lien  Marie  Isidore  de  :  1758,  May  6—1794,  July  28 ;  b. 
Arras,  where  his  father  was  an  unsuccessful  advocate. 
Having  distinguished  himself  at  the  college  of  his  native 
place,  he  was  sent,  through  the  influence  of  a  canon  of 
the  cathedral  of  Arras,  to  complete  his  education  in 
Paris,  at  the  College  of  Louis  le  Grand ;  where,  by  sin- 
gular chance,  he  was  fellow-student  with  Freron  and 
Camille  Desmoulins.  In  his  studies,  he  was  noted  for 
diligence,  regularity,  and  intelligence ;  and  on  completion 
of  his  course  at  college,  he  studied  jurisprudence,  and 
after  some  years  returned  to  Arras  to  follow  the  profes- 
sion of  his  father.  In  this  his  success  was  decided ;  and 
previous  to  the  commencement  of  his  more  public 
career,  he  had  gained  considerable  local  note.  While 
sedulously  attending  to  his  professional  duties,  he  cul- 
tivated literature,  not  wholly  without  distinction ;  and 
1783  became  a  member  of  the  Acad,  of  Arras.  Of  the 
verses  which  at  this  time  he  seems  to  have  been  fond  of 
writing,  some  curious  fragments  are  preserved.  Having, 
it  is  said,  in  discharge  of  his  duty  as  member  of  the 
criminal  court,  been  obliged  to  condemn  a  culprit  to 
death,  he  resigned  his  situation  on  a  point  of  con- 
scientious objection  to  the  barbarity  of  capital  punish- 
ment— an  incident  piquant  in  its  contrast  with  sub- 
sequent portions  of  his  history.  On  the  memorable 
convocation  of  the  states-general  1789,  he  had  local 
influence  sufficient  to  secure  his  election  as  one  of 
the  deputies  of  the  iiers-etat,  in  which  capacity  he  im- 
mediately repaired  to  Versailles.  In  the  assembly  he 
was  for  some  time  of  little  account;  but  gradually 
he  made  for  himself  a  position,  and  nice  observers  noted 
in  him  a  quality  of  fanatical  earnestness  and  conviction, 


ROBESPIERRE. 


In  virtue  of  which  they  surmised  for  him  a  great  career. 
'  This  man,'  said  Mirabeau  in  particular,  4 will  go  far, 
for  he  believes  every  word  he  says.'  (Cet  homme  ira  loin, 
car  it  croit  tout  ce  qu'il  dit.)  Though  in  the  constituent 
assembly  he  spoke  frequently,  and — despite  the  dis- 
advantages of  a  mean  person,  a  harsh,  shrill  voice,  and 
an  ungainly  manner — always  with  increasing  accept- 
ance, it  was  outside  as  a  popular  demagogue  and  leader 
in  the  famous  Jacobin  Club  that  his  chief  activity  was 
exerted ;  and  in  this  field  his  influence  speedily  became 
immense.  After  the  death  of  Mirabeau,  whose  giant 
figure,  while  he  lived,  seemed  to  dwarf  all  meaner  men, 
his  importance  became  more  and  more  recognized ;  and 
thenceforward  till  his  death,  his  biography  is  in  effect 
the  history  of  the  revolution.  1791,  May,  he  proposed 
and  carried  the  decree  by  which  members  of  the  assem- 
bly were  excluded  from  a  place  in  the  legislature  which 
followed ;  a  measure  obviously  disastrous,  as  lowering 
the  quality  of  the  assembly,  and  more  and  more  insur- 
ing its  subjection  to  the  Jacobins,  of  whom  R.  was  now 
the  favorite.  His  early  aversion  to  capital  punishment 
has  been  spoken  of;  and  it  is  curious  enough  to  be 
noted  that  now,  May  30,  he  delivered  an  oration  against 
it  in  the  Assembly,  denouncing  it  as  *  base  assassination.' 
On  the  dissolution  of  the  constituent  assembly  1791, 
Oct.,  R.,  now  famous,  revisited  his  native  town,  where 
he  was  received  with  enthusiasm;  an  escort  of  the 
national  guard  did  honor  to  his  entrance,  and  a  general 
illumination  of  the  place  testified  the  admiration  of  the 
citizens  for  their  deputy.  After  a  stay  of  seven  weeks, 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and  resumed  his  activity  as  a 
leader  of  the  Jacobin  Club.  In  the  emeute  of  August  10 
following,  by  which  the  king  was  dethroned,  he  took  no 
prominent  part ;  and  though  his  complicity  is  suspected 
in  the  September  massacres  which  ensued,  no  distinct 
share  in  the  infamy  has  ever  yet  been  proved  against 
him.  To  the  national  convention,  which  was  now 
formed,  he  was  returned  at  the  head  of  the  Paris  depu- 
ties; and  as  recognized  chief  of  the  extreme  party 
called  the  Mountain  (q.v.),  he  was  one  of  the  main 
agents  in  procuring  the  execution  of  the  king  1792,  Dec. 
In  the  following  year  occurred  his  final  struggle  with 
the  Girondists,  who,  recoiling  in  alarm  from  the  extreme 
to  which  they  saw  R.  tending,  had  twice  before  attacked 
him  with  a  view  to  compass  his  destruction,  and  the 
chief  men  among  whom  he  now  triumphantly  sent  to 
the  scaffold.  The  period  of  «  the  Terror '  followed : 
Marie  Antoinette  and  the  infamous  Duke  of  Orleans 
were  the  first  victims;  Petion,  Danton,  and  Camille 
Desmoulins  were  next  beheaded,  on  a  suspicion  of  favor- 
ing a  reactionary  policy ;  and  for  months,  under  the  so- 
called  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  Paris  became  the 
scene  of  an  indiscriminate  gwasi-judicial  slaughter,  in 
which  thousands  of  lives  were  sacrificed.  With  these 
enormous  atrocities,  the  name  of  R.,  with  those  of  his 
friends,  Couthon  and  St.  Just,  remains  peculiarly  asso- 


ROBESPIERRE. 

dated.  In  the  midst  of  the  horror,  took  place  1794, 
Jane  8,  that  strange  Fete  de  rfilre  Supreme,  in  which, 
in  the  name  of  the  Republic,  the  existence  of  a  Deity 
was  decreed — a  day  of  triumph  for  R.,  who,  conspicuous 
as  the  first  man  in  France,  presided  at  the  solemn  mum- 
mery. But  the  end  was  near ;  men  were  weary  of  4  the 
Terror/  and  the  general  sense  of  insecurity  that  it 
induced;  R.  had  many  enemies;  in  particular,  the 
numerous  friends  of  Danton  were  eager  to  avenge  his 
death ;  a  conspiracy  was  organized  against  4  the  tyrant/ 
as  he  was  now  called,  and  after  a  fierce  tumult  in  the 
convention,  his  arrest  was  accomplished.  A  rescue  by 
the  populace  followed,  but  he  lacked  the  courage  and 
promptitude  to  turn  his  opportunity  to  account ;  while 
he  hesitated,  his  enemies  acted,  and  1794,  July,  he  closed 
his  career  on  the  scaffold  to  which  he  had  sent  so  many 
others. 

Though  without  great  and  heroic  qualities,  R.  can 
scarcely  have  been  the  mean  and  contemptible  creature 
that  he  has  frequently  been  represented.  The  instant 
effect  of  his  oratory  we  know;  and  even  as  read,  his 
speeches  command  respect  for  his  mental  power.  The 
subtlest  practical  tact  and  judgment  he  must  plainly 
have  possessed ;  and  though  timid  in  his  own  person, 
he  was  dexterous  to  appropriate  the  results  obtained  by 
the  boldness  of  others.  In  principle,  he  was  severe  and 
consistent;  and  the  title  of  *  Incorruptible,'  which  he 
early  acquired,  seems  throughout  to  have  been  thoroughly 
deserved.  In  private  life,  he  was  amiable ;  and  though 
he  waded  to  his  public  ends  through  blood,  he  had  not 
the  savage  joy  in  the  shedding  of  it  which  it  has  been 
common  to  attribute  to  him.  He  was  callous,  not 
actively  cruel ;  and  during  the  time  of  'the  Terror/  it 
is  simply  the  truth,  that  he  was  rather  reluctantly 
acquiescent,  than  active  in  the  atrocities  for  which 
he  has  since  been  held  above  all  others  responsible. 
4  Death — always  death ! '  he  is  said  to  have  frequently 
exclaimed  in  private,  4  and  the  scoundrels  throw  it  all 
on  me !  What  a  memory  shall  I  leave  behind  me,  if  this 
lasts !  Life  is  a  burden  to  me/  For  a  candid  view  of 
his  character  on  this  and  its  other  sides,  see  the  work 
by  G.  H.  Lewes — Life  of  Maximilien  Robespierre,  with 
Extracts  from  his  Unpublished  Correspondence  (London, 
Chapman  and  Hall  1849).  See  also  Histories  of  Thiers, 
Mignet,  Carlyle,  Michelet,  Louis  Blanc;  and  Ernest 
Hamel's  Vie  de  Robespierre  (Par.  1865). 


ROBIN— ROBIN  GOODFELLOW. 

ROBIN,  n.  rob'm  [from  Robin,  the  familiar  corruption 
of  Robert]:  one  of  the  most  familiar  of  wild  birds,  called  in 
Britain  robin- redbreast  (see  Redbreast),  of  family  Erytha- 
ciim,  and  sometimes  given  asBlue  Robin  to  the  Bluebird(q.v.) 
in  America.  It  is  in  America  the  usual  name  also  of  a  species 
of  Thrush  (q.v.),  Turdus  migratorius,  of  family  Turdidce, 
widely  distributed  from  Mexico  to  lat.  60°  n.  The  Amer. 
R.  is  nearly  twice  the  size  of  the  redbreast,  olive  gray,  top 
and  sides  of  the  head  black,  chin  and  throat  white  with 
black  streaks,  under  parts  chestnut  brown.  It  remains 
during  winter  in  sheltered  places,  even  as  far  n.  as  New 
England,  but  is  generally  a  bird  of  passage.  Many  arrive 
in  New  England  before  the  snow  has  disappeared.  Large 
flocks  are  seen  in  the  southern  states  in  winter,  where  great 
numbers  are  killed  for  the  table,  the  markets  being  often 
glutted  with  them.  In  Mass.,  the  law  forbids  the  killing 
of  this  bird  at  any  season  of  the  year.  Its  nest  is  often 
"built,  near  houses.  Two  broods  are  produced  in  the  year. 
The  robin  is  a  lively  bird,  and  a  general  favorite  in  the 
northern  United  States.  It  is  often  kept  as  a  cage-bird,  is 
very  gentle  and  easily  tamed,  and  has  a  pleasing  song,  a 
cheery  whistling,  enlivening  in  the  early  morning  hours, 
but  less  varied  and  melodious  than  that  of  others  of  the 
thrush  family.  The  R.  is  sometimes  persecuted  for  its 
greedy  attacks  on  cherries  and  small  fruits,  but  its  musical 
and  insectivorous  services  may  well  be  repaid  by  planting 
more  fruit  for  its  benefit. 

ROBIN  GOODFELLOW,  rob'm  gud'fel-lo:  name  in  old 
English  superstition  of  a  domestic  spirit  or  fairy,  analogous 
to  the  Nisse  God-dreng  of  Scandinavia,  the  Knecht  Ruprecht, 
i.e.,  Robin,  of  Germany,  and  the  Brownie  of  Scotland. 
Roguery  and  sporriveness  were  the  characteristics  of  this 
spirit ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  his  existence  was  so 
generally  credited,  that  he  was  '  famozed  in  every  old 
wives  chronicle  for  his  mad  merrye  pranks.'   From  the 
popular  belief  in  this  spirit  Shakespeare's  Puck  was  derived. 
From  the  early  ballads  concerning  R. ,  we  learn  that  he  was 
the  oft* spring  of  a  '  proper  young  wench  by  a  hee-fairy,' 
who  was  no  less  a  person  than  Oberon,  king  of  Fairyland. 
In  his  youth,  R.  displayed  such  mischievous  tricks  that 
his  mother  found  it  necessary  to  promise  him  a  whipping. 
He  ran  away  from  home,  and  engaged  with  a  tailor,  from 
whom  also  he  eloped.    When  tired,  he  sat  down,  and  Ml 
asleep,  and  in  his  sleep  he  had  a  vision  of  fairies.  Oix 
awaking,  he  found  lying  beside  him  a  scroll,  evidently 
left  by  his  father,  which,  in  verses  written  in  letters  of 
gold,  informed  him  that  he  should  have  anything  he  wished 
for,  and  also  the  power  of  turning  himself  into  various 
shapes;  but  he  was  to  harm  none  but  knaves  and  queans, 
and  was  to  '  love  those  that  honest  be,  and  help  them  in 
necessity.' 

As  a  specimen  of  his  1  mad  prankes,'  R.  went  one  day  to 
a  wedding  as  a  fiddler,  and  was  a  welcome  guest;  but  in 
the  evening  '  then  hee  beganne  to  play  his  merry  trickesin 
this  manner.  First,  hee  put  out  the  candles,  and  then 
being  darke,  hee  strucke  the  men  good  boxes  on  the  eares; 


ROBIN  HOOD— ROBINIA. 

they,  thinking  it  bad  beene  those  that  did  sit  next  them, 
fell  a-figbting  one  with  the  other,  so  that  there  was  not  one 
of  them  but  had  either  a  broken  head  or  a  bloody  nose. 
At  this,  Robin  laughed  heartily.  The  women  did  not 
scape  him,  for  the  handsomest  he  kissed:  the  others  he 
pinched,  and  made  them  scratch  one  the  other,  as  if  they 
had  beene  cats.  Candles  being  lighted  againe,  they  all 
were  friends,  and  fell  againe  to  dancing,  and  after  to  supper. 
Supper  being  ended,  a  great  posset  was  brought  forth.  At 
this,  Robin's  teeth  did  water,  for  it  looked  so  lovely  that 
hee  could  not  kee*pe  from  it.  To  attaine  to  his  wish,  he 
did  turne  himself  into  a  beare:  both  men  and  women  see- 
ing a  beare  amongst  them,  ranne  away,  and  left  the  whole 
posset  to  Robin.  He  quickly  made  an  end  of  it,  and  went 
away  without  his  money,  for  the  sport  hee  had  was  better 
to  him  than  any  money  whatsoever.' 

Although  R.  was  a  sprite  particularly  fond  of  discon- 
certing and  disturbing  domestic  peace,  he  was  believed  to 
be  easily  propitiated.  If  a  bowl  of  milk,  or  curds  and 
cream,  were  duly  laid  out  for  him,  he  would  at  midnight 
perform  for  the  servants  many  household  duties.  If  this 
were  neglected,  R.  would  revenge  himself  by  pinching  and 
otherwise  annoying  the  inmates.  The  following  passage 
in  Shakespeare's  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  fully  describes 
R.'s  peculiarities: 

Either  I  mistake  your  shape  and  making  quite, 

Or  else  you  are  that  shrewd  and  knavish  sprite 

Caird  Robin  Goodfellow  :  are  you  not  he 

That  frights  the  maidens  of  the  villagery ; 

Skims  milk,  and  sometimes  labors  in  the  quern, 

And  bootless  makes  the  breathless  housewife  churn ; 

And  sometimes  makes  the  drink  to  bear  no  barm; 

Misleads  night-wanderers,  laughing  at  their  harm? 

Those  that  Hobgoblin  call  you,  and  sweet  Puck, 

You  do  their  work,  and  they  shall  have  good  luck. 

The  Mad  Pranks  and  Merry  Jests  of  Robin  Goodfellow 
were  reprinted  from  the  ed.  of  1628,  by  the  Percy  Soc, 
1841. 

ROBIN  HOOD,  see  Hood,  Robin. 

ROBINIA,  rb-bin'i-a;  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  nat. 
order  Leguminosce,  suborder  Papilionacece,  having  a  4- fid 
calyx,  with  the  upper  segment  divided  into  two;  stamens, 
nine  united,  and  one  free;  the  pod  long  and  many-seeded. 
The  species  are  widely  diffused  over  the  world.  The  most 
important  is  R.  pseudacacia,  a  N.  American  tree,  called 
sometimes  the  Locust  Tree  (q.v.),  known  also  as  the  False 
Acacia,  or  Thorn  Acacia,  often  simply  Acacia.  It  was 
raised  from  seed  in  France  by  John  Robin,  about  1600, 
and  gradually  spread  over  warmer  parts  of  Europe  and 
s.  Sibera.  Its  quick  growth,  its  spines,  and  its  property  of 
submitting  to  be  clipped  into  any  form,  make  it  suitable 
for  hedges.  In  s.  Europe,  it  thrives  as  a  timber  tree,  but 
in  more  northern  regions,  it  suffers  from  frost  in  severe 
winters.  The  wood  is  compact,  hard,  and  takes  a  fine 
polish;  for  many  pui poses,  it  is  scarcely  inferior  to  oak, 
which  it  rivals  in  toughness  and  strength.  It  does  not 
readily  rot  in  water,  and  is  used  for  ship-building;  in  many 
of  the  states  it  has  been  largely  employed  for  fence  posts, 


ROBINS. 

on  account  of  its  durability.  For  this  purpose,  as  well  as 
for  shade,  it  was  extensively  planted  on  the  prairies,  but 
was  temporarily  destroyed  and  has  been  continuously 
injured  by  the  locust-boring  beetle,  clytus  robinim,  which 
swept  westward  like  a  great  wave,  arriving  in  central  Iowa 
1867,  and  so  curiously  resembles  another  and  harmless 
species  that  the  two  are  hardly  distinguishable.  The  tree 
is  ornamental,  and  of  rapid  growth.  It  is  found  wild  in 
abundance  from  the  Alleghauies  to  the  western  plains,  but 
not  indigenous  n.  of  Penn.,  nor  near  the  coast.  Its  leaves 
are  pinnate,  with  9-13  thin  and  smooth  leaflets.  The 
flowers  are  fragrant  and  white,  in  large  pendulous  racemes, 
The  roots  throw  up  many  suckers;  and  are  very  sweet, 
affording  an  extract  resembling  licorice.  An  agreeable 
syrup  is  also  made  from  the  flowers. — B.  viscosa  is  a  smaller 
tree,  but  even  more  ornamental,  a  native  of  s.w.  parts  of 
the  Alleghany  Mountains:  it  has  scentless  flowers,  white 
tinged  with  pink,  and  is  planted  for  ornament,  with  the 
common  name  Clammy  Locust:  the  young  branches  are 
viscid. — The  Rose  Acacia  (B.  hispida)  is  a  native  of  the 
s.w.  ranges  of  the  Alleghanies,  a  highly  ornamental  shrub, 
with  hispid  branches,  and  large  rose-colored  scentless 
flowers.  Its  suckering  habit  is  avoided  by  grafting  it  on  the 
common  locust,  this  method  also  giving  height  and 
increased  beauty. — B.  Caragana,  native  of  s.e.  Europe,  is 
planted  for  hedges  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  it  spreads  like 
an  indigenous  plant. 

ROBINS,  rob%nzy  Benjamin:  English  mathematician 
and  artillerist:  1707-51,  July  29;  b.  Bath;  of  parents  who 
belonged  to  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  were  too  poor 
to  give  their  son  a  good  education.  R.,  however,  having 
obtained  a  little  instruction  in  mathematics,  prosecuted  this 
science  with  great  zest,  acquired  a  good  elementary  knowl- 
edge of  it,  and  established  himself  at  London  as  a  teacher 
of  mathematics,  still  pursuing  various  studies.  He  then 
began  the  series  of  experiments  on  the  resisting  force  of 
the  air  to  projectiles,  which  gained  him  celebrity,  varying 
his  labors  by  the  study  of  fortification,  in  which  pursuit 
he  visited  many  of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  this  class 
in  Flanders.  In  1734  he  demolished,  in  a  treatise  A  Dis- 
course concerning  the  Certainty  of  Sir  I.  Newton's  Method  oj 
Fluxions,  the  objections  brought  by  the  renowned  Berkeley, 
Bp.  of  Cloyne,  against  Newton's  principle  of  ultimate  ratios. 
He  published  several  other  mathematical  works.  His 
great  and  valuable  work,  the  New  Principles  of  Gunnery, 
to  whose  preparation  he  gave  enormous  labor,  appeared 
1742,  and  produced  a  revolution  in  gunnery.  Previous  to 
R.'s  time,  it  had  never  been  attempted  to  estimate  the 
velocity  of  balls  otherwise  than  by  the  ordinary  parabolic 
theory  of  Galileo  (see  Projectiles).  R.  suggested  two 
methods  for  obtaining  this  information — (1)  by  finding 
experimentally  the  initial  force  of  fired  gunpowder  confined 
to  a  certain  space,  and  the  law  of  the  decrease  of  this  force 
as  the  space  increased;  thence  calculating  the  velocity  which 
would  be  imparted  to  a  body  of  given  weight:  (2)  by  the 
Ballistic  Pendulum.    The  second  method  has  been  found 


ROBINSON". 


in  practice  preferable  for  accuracy.  R.,  in  the  course  of 
his  experiments,  also  discovered  and  explained  the  curvi- 
linear deflection  of  a  ball  from  a  vertical  plane.  Some  of 
his  opinions  having  been  questioned  in  Philosophical 
Transactions,  R.  ably  replied  and  wrote  several  disserta- 
tions on  the  experiments  made  by  order  of  the  Royal  Soc. 
1746-7,  for  which  he  received  their  annual  gold  medal. 
In  1749  he  was  appointed  'Engineer-in-general  to  the  E. 
Indian  Co.;'  but  after  the  completion  of  his  first  under- 
taking he  was  seized  with  a  fever  and  died. 

ROBINSON,  rob'm-son,  Beverly:  1723-92;  b.  Va.; 
son  of  John  R.  He  was  in  the  English  army  at  the 
assault  on  Quebec,  opposed  the  movement  of  the  colonies 
to  secure  independence,  removed  to  New  York,  raised  and 
became  col.  of  a  regt.  of  loyalists,  was  prominent  in  dip- 
lomatic efforts  to  uphold  the  royal  cause,  and  was  closely 
connected  with  the  treason  of  Benedict  Arnold.  After  the 
war  he  removed  to  New  Brunswick,  was  elected  to  the 
first  colonial  council,  but  declined  to  serve,  and  after- 
ward settled  in  England.  His  wife,  a  dau.  of  Frederick 
Phillipse,  of  N.  Y.,  was  very  wealthy;  but,  on  account  of 
her  husband's  adherence  to  the  royalists,  her  property 
was  confiscated  by  the  state.  This  loss  was  compensated 
by  a  gift  from  the  British  govt,  to  R.  of  about  $85,000. 
He  died  in  England. 

ROB'INSON,  Charles  Seymour,  d.d.,  ll.d.:  b.  Ben- 
nington, Vt.,  1829,  Mar.  31.  He  graduated  from  Wil- 
liams College  1849;  studied  theology  at  New  York  and 
Princeton;  became  pastor  of  a  Presb.  church  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  1855;  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the  First  Presb. 
Chh.,  Brooklyn,  18G0 ;  was  in  charge  of  the  American 
Chapel  in  Paris  1868-70;  and  pastor  of  the  Madison 
Ave.  Presb.  Church,  New  York,  1870-87.  In  1889  he 
established  in  New  York  a  weekly  religious  paper,  Every 
Thursday;  and  1891  became  pastor  of  the  Thirteenth 
Street  Presb.  Church  in  that  city.  He  published  Ser- 
mons, of  which  several  editions  were  called  for;  several 
hymn  and  tune  books  for  Church  and  Sunday-school  use. 
Among  his  hymn-books  are  Songs  for  the  Sanctuary 
(1865);  Spiritual  Songs  for  Social  Meetings  (1881); 
Laudes  Domini  (1884)  ;  and  among  his  other  works,  The 
Pharaohs  of  the  Bondage  and  the  Exodus  (1887);  and 
Simon  Peter,  his  Life  and  Times,  2  vols.  (1888).  Died, 
1899,  Feb.  1. 

ROB'INSON,  Edward,  d.d.,  ll.d.:  philologist  and  bib- 
lical scholar:  1794,  Apr.  10—1863,  Jan.  27;  b.  Southing- 
ton,  Conn.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton, 
N.  Y.,  1816,  where  he  was  engaged  as  tutor,  and  in  further 
studies  until  1821,  when  he  went  to  Andover,  Mass.,  to 
superintend  the  printing  of  an  ed.  of  the  first  six  books  of 
the  Iliad.  Previous  to  this  he  had  married,  and  become  a 
Vol.  32—11 


ROBINSON. 

widower.  He  studied  Hebrew  with  Prof.  Moses  Stuart  of 
Andover  Theol.  Seminary,  and  became  his  assistant  prof  es- 
sor.  In  1826  he  began  four  years'  travel  and  study  in  Eu- 
rope, where  he  married  Miss  Therese  A.  L.  von  Jakob 
daughter  of  a  prof,  at  Halle.  Returning  1830  to  Andover, 
he  was  appointed  extraordinary  prof,  of  sacred  literature, 
and  librarian  in  the  seminary.  He  resigned  1833,  removed 
to  Boston,  and  1837  was  appointed  prof,  of  Biblical  litera- 
ture in  the  Union  Theol.  Seminary,  New  York.  At  this 
period,  he  made,  in  company  with  the  Rev.  Eli  Smith,  an 
extensive  survey  of  Palestine,  of  which  he  gave  an  account 
in  his  admirable  work,  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  and 
Adjacent  Countries  (3  vols.  8vo,  Halle,  London,  and  Bos- 
ton, 1841) — which  will  always  remain  a  standard  work  on 
the  subject.  He  entered  on  the  active  duties  of  his  profes- 
sorship 1840;  and  1852  made  a  second  visit  to  Palestine,  of 
which  he  published  an  account  1856.  His  other  works  are 
a  translation  of  Buttman's  Greek  Grammar,  1832  and  50; 
Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament,  1836  and 
50;  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  in  Greek  1845,  and  in 
English  1846.  He  was  editor  of  the  Biblical  Repository, 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Calmet's  Bible  Dictionary,  a  translation 
of  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  etc;  and  was  an  active  mem- 
ber of  geographical,  oriental,  and  ethnological  societies. 

ROB'INSON,  Ezekiel  Gilman.  d.d.,ll.d.:  1815,  Mar. 
23 — 1894,  June  13:  educator;  b.  Attleborough , Mass. ;  grad- 
uated from  Brown  Univ.  1838;  studied  theology  at  Newton, 
Mass.;  was  pastor  of  a  Bapt.  church  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  1842-45, 
and  part  of  this  time  was  chaplain  of  the  Univ.  of  Virginia; 
preached  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  a  few  months;  and  1846 
was  called  to  a  professorship  in  the  Western  Theol.  Sem- 
inary (Bapt).  After  a  pastorate  in  Cincinnati  1850-53,  he 
became  prof,  in  the  Rochester  Theol.  Seminary  (Bapt  ), 
was  pres.  of  that  institution  1860-72,  and  pres.  of  Brown 
Univ.  1872-89.  He  edited  the  Christian  Review  for  several 
years,  has  published  sermons,  addresses,  and  articles  in 
magazines,  and  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching  (1883);  and 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Morality  (1888). 

ROB  INSON,  Henry  Ceabb;  1775,  May  13—1867,  Feb. 
5;  b.  England.  After  studying  law  in  London,  he  went  to 
the  German  universities,  where  he  spent  five  years  in  the 
study  of  literature  and  philosophy,  and  became  intimately 
acquainted  with  Schiller,  Goethe,  and  other  great  German 
poets  and  scholars.  In  the  peninsular  campaign  1808,  he 
was  in  Spain  as  correspondent  of  the  London  Times,  for 
which  paper  he  afterward  became  a  literary  critic  and  edi- 
torial writer.  He  practiced  law  1813-28  with  great  success, 
and  accumulated  a  fortune.  He  was  intimate  with  several 
prominent  literary  men,  including  Wordsworth,  Coleridge. 
Southey,  and  Lamb,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Flax- 
man  Gallery,  and  was  interested  in  various  literary  institu- 
tions. His  Diary  and  Correspondence,  pub.  a  few  months 
after  his  death,  had  wide  circulation.    He  died  at  London. 


ROBINSON. 

ROB  INSON,  James  Sidney,  soldier  :  b.  Ohio,  1827, 
Oct.  14.  He  became  a  printer,  1846  began  the  publication 
of  the  Kenton  Bepublican,  of  which  he  was  editor  for  many 
years,  and  was  prominent  in  the  early  history  of  the  re- 
publican party  in  Ohio.  He  entered  the  army  1861  as  a 
private,  but  was  soon  promoted  capt.,  was  in  the  Shenan- 
doah valley  with  Gen.  Fremont,  at  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Kun,  Cedar  Mountain,  Chancellorsville,  was  badly 
wounded  at  Gettysburg,  and  led  a  brigade  in  the  Atlanta 
campaign.  By  various  promotions  he  reached  the  rank  of 
brig. gen.,  he  was  bre vetted  ma j. gen.  ;  and  1865,  Aug.  31, 
was  mustered  out  of  the  service.  He  was  commissioner 
of  railroads  and  telegraphs  for  Ohio,  was  member  of  con- 
gress 1881-85,  and  sec.  of  state  of  Ohio  four  years  from 
1885.    He  d.  1892,  Jan.  14. 

ROB  INSON,  John:  English  pastor  of  the  Plymouth 
Pilgrims  before  their  emigration:  1575-1625,  Mar.  11;  b. 
probably  near  Scrooby,  Nottinghamshire;  entered  Corpus 
Christ  Coll.,  Cambridge  1592,  becoming  fellow  1599. 
Officiating  first  in  the  Established  Church  near  Yarmouth 
in  Norfolk,  he  became  minister  to  a  dissenting  church  at 
Norwich  1602.  Although  Protestantism  was  confirmed 
under  James  I,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  the  year  fol- 
lowing, yet  dissenters- from  the  Church  of  England  were 
oppressed;  and  the  Norwich  congregation,  after  arrest  and 
detention,  emigrated  to  Amsterdam  1608,  and  the  next 
year  moved  to  Ley  den,  where  they  remained  11  years, 
and,  by  accessions  from  exiles,  reached  the  number  of  800. 
Of  this  band  John  Robinson  continued  to  be  pastor,  highly 
regarded  for  piety  and  learning  by  the  Leyden  clergy  and 
univ.  professors,  having  with  one  of  the  latter,  Episcopius, 
a  learned  controversy  on  free-will.  Abp.  Laud  found  means 
through  the  Dutch  govt,  to  molest  the  pastor  and  flock, 
who  therefore  resolved  to  migrate  to  the  new  world,  and 
gained  a  covert  approval  therefor  from  King  James.  In 
1620,  at  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer,  and  a  sermon  from 
the  pastor  (his  text  I  Sam.  xxiii.  3-4),  it  was  resolved  that 
a  part  of  the  congregation  should  go.  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  rest,  Elder  Brewster  to  be  leader.  When  embark- 
ing at  Delftshaven,  June  21,  their  pastor  knelt  with  them 
on  the  deck,  commending  them  to  God.  On  reaching  Eng- 
land, one  of  the  vessels  in  which  they  sailed  from  South- 
ampton proved  unseaworthy,  and  both  vessels  put  into 
Dartmouth;  the  number  was  reduced  from  120  to  101,  who, 
after  being  obliged  to  put  into  Plymouth  for  repairs, 
voyaged  to  America  in  the  other  vessel,  the  Mayflower. 
John  Robinson  had  charged  them  to  be  faithful;  and  their 
subsequent  history  in  the  new  Plymouth  bore  fruits  of  his 
teaching  and  of  the  influence  of  his  singularly  pure  and 
noble  character.  He  expected  to  follow,  but  died  before 
consent  was  obtained  from  the  English  mercantile  com- 
pany who  were  patrons  of  the  enterprise.  His  sons,  John 
and  Isaac,  and  the  rest  of  the  church,  came  to  Plymouth 
subsequently.  Among  his  published  writings  were  Justi- 
fication of  Separation  from  the  Church  of  Kng'and  (1610); 
Oj  Beligious  Communion  ArQoh  via  Junta  et  Necexsaria 


ROBINSON. 

(1619 — transl.  1644);  Defense  of  the  Doctrine  Propou  nded  bp 
the  Synod  of  Dort  (1624);  Essays  or  Observations,  Divine 
and  Moral  (1628);  Treatise  of  the  Lawfulness  of  Learning  of 
the  Ministers  of  the  Church  of  England  (1634).  His  com- 
plete works,  with  memoir,  were  published  by  Robert  Ash- 
ton  1851,  London  and  Boston. 

ROB'INSON,  John  Cleveland:  soldier :  b.  Binghamton, 
N.  Y.,  1817,  Apr.  10.  He  took  a  partial  course  of  study  at 
West  Point,  studied  law,  became  2d  lieut.  of  infantry  1839, 
served  in  Texas  1845,  aud  won  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war.  He  was  engaged  in  the  Seminole  war,  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  Utah,  held  Fort  McHenry  near  Baltimore  for  the 
Union  1861;  and  after  serving  in  Mich,  and  O.  was  connected 
with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  prominent  in 
the  battles  of  Fredericksburg,  Gettysburg,  and  the  Wild- 
erness, and  while  leading  a  brilliant  charge  at  Spottsylvania 
Court-house  received  a  wound  which  resulted  in  the  loss 
of  one  of  his  legs  and  disabled  him  for  service  in  the  field, 
He  was  mustered  out  of  the  vol.  service  1866,  and  after- 
ward commanded  various  departments.  He  had  been  often 
brevetted  and  promoted;  and  1869  was  retired  with  the 
rank  of  maj  gen.  He  \\  as  elected  lieut. govt,  of  N.  Y,  1872, 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Repub- 
lic 1877-8,  and  1^87,  was  elected  pres.  of  the  Soc.  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.    Died  1897,  Apr.  10. 

ROBINSON,  Therese  Albertine  Louise  (Jakob): 
1797,  Jan.  26—1870;  b.  Halle,  Germany;  daughter  of  Prof, 
von  Jakob,  aud  wife  of  Edward  R.,  d.d.  She  was  known 
to  the  world  of  letters  as  '  Talvi,'  a  name  composed  of  her  ini- 
tials. In  1807  she  accompanied  her  father  to  Russia,  where 
he  had  an  appointment  as  prof,  in  the  Univ.  of  Kharkov. 
In  1810  they  removed  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  she  learnc  d 
modern  languages  and  history.  In  1816  they  returned  to 
Halle,  and  there  she  studied  Latin,  and  wrote  a  volume  of 
tales,  published  1825  under  the  title  Psyche;  and  under  the 
signature  of  'Ernest  Berthold,'  translations  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  Black  Dwarf  and  Old  Mortality,  and  also  two  vol- 
umes of  Servian  popular  songs—  Volkslieder  der  Serben. 
In  1828  she  was  married  to  Prof.  Robinson,  and  1830  ac- 
companied him  to  America,  where  she  studied  the  languages 
of  the  aborigines,  translated  Pickering's  Indian  Tongues 
into  German,  and  contributed  a  Historical  View  of  the  Lan- 
guages and  Literature  of  the  Slavic  Nations  to  the  Biblical 
Repository.  In  1837  she  accompanied  her  husband  back 
to  Germany,  and  published  An  Essay  on  the  Historical 
Characteristics  of  the  Popular  Songs  of  the  German  Nations, 
The  Poems  of  Ossian  not  Genuine,  a  History  of  Captain  John 
Smith,  in  German,  also  The  Colonization  of  New  England, 
translated  into  English  by  the  younger  Hazlitt.  Returning 
to  New  York,  she  wrote  in  English,  Heloise,  or  the  Unre- 
vealed  Secret;  Life's  Discipline,  a  Tale  of  the  Annals  of  Hun- 
gary; The  Exiles;  and  numerous  contributions  to  German 
and  American  periodicals.    She  died  at  Hamburg. 


ROBISON— ROB  ROY. 

ROBISON,  rob'i-son,  John:  Scotch  natural  philoso- 
pher: 1739-1805,  Jan.  28;  b.  Boghall,  parish  of  Balder- 
cock,  Stirlingshire.  He  took  his  degree  at  the  Univ.  of 
Glasgow  1756.  After  two  sea  voyages,  he  went  to  Glas- 
gow to  hegin  divinity  study.  But  his  strong  predilection 
for  physical  science  led  him  to  pursue  its  study  with  such 
success  that  when  Black  was  transferred  to  the  Univ. 
of  Edinburgh  1760,  R.  succeeded  him.  In  1770  his  old 
friend,  Admiral  Knowles,  having  been  appointed  by  the 
Czarina  Catharine  II.  to  reform  the  shipbuilding  and  naval 
administration  of  Russia  in  the  position  of  pres.  of  the 
Russian  board  of  admiralty,  chose  R.  to  accompany  him 
as  sqc.  After  several  years  in  Russia,  where  he  received 
from  the  govt,  much  honor  and  profit,  R.,  refusing  flatter- 
ing offers  to  remain,  accepted  1774  the  chair  of  nat. 
philos.  in  Edinburgh.  R.'s  talents  and  acquirements 
were  of  a  high  order;  but  his  diction  was  too  rapid,  and  he 
unfortunately  disapproved  of  experiments.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  of  that  time  were  the 
means  of  elevating  that  work  to  the  rank  of  a  trustworthy 
book  of  scientific  reference.  He  edited  and  published 
various  works  on  chemistry  and  mechanical  science. 

ROB  ROY,  popular  name  of  Robert  M'Gregor:  cele- 
brated Scottish  outlaw,  whose  adventures  entitle  him  to 
be  considered  the  Robin  Hood  of  Scotland:  b.  between 
1657  and  60,  d.  abt.  1738;  second  son  of  Donald  M'Gregor 
of  Glen  gyle,  by  a  daughter  of  Campbell  of  Glenlyon.  R.  R., 
in  consequence  of  the  outlawry  1660  of  the  clan  M'Gregor 
of  the  Scottish  parliament,  assumed  the  name  of  Campbell. 
In  Gaelic,  Boy  signifies  red,  and  was  applied  to  him  from 
his  ruddy  complexion  and  color  of  hair.  R.  R.  received  a 
fair  education,  and  in  youth  was  distinguished  for  skill 
in  use  of  the  broadsword,  in  which  the  uncommon  length 
of  his  arms  was  an  advantage.  It  was  said  that  he  could, 
without  stooping,  tie  the  garters  of  his  Highland  hose,  two 
inches  below  the  knee.  Like  many  Highland  proprietors 
of  the  period,  R.  R.  dealt  in  grazing  and  rearing  black-cat- 
tle for  the  English  market.  He  took  a  tract  of  land  for 
this  purpose  in  Balquhidder;  but  his  herds  were  so  often 
stolen  by  banditti  from  Inverness,  Ross,  and  Sutherland, 
that  ,  to  protect  himself,  he  maintained  a  party  of  armed 
men,  to  which  ma}^  be  attributed  his  later  war- like  habits. 
He  also  protected  his  neighbors'  flocks,  in  return  for  which 
he  levied  a  tax,  which  went  under  the  name  'black  mail.'  R. 
R.  married  a  daughter  of  the  laird  of  Glenfalloch,  shortly 
after  which  he  acquired  the  estates  of  Craig  Royston 
and  Inversnaid,  near  the  head  of  Loch  Lomond.  In  con- 
sequence of  losses  in  unsuccessful  speculations  in  cattle, 
for  which  he  had  borrowed  money  from  the  Duke  of  Mont- 
rose, R.  R.  lost  his  estates,  which  were  seized  by  the  duke 
for  debt.  R.  R.,  rendered  desperate  by  his  misfortunes, 
collected  about  20  followers,  and  made  open  war  on  the 
duke,  sweeping  away  all  the  cattle  of  a  district  and  in- 
tercepting the  rents  of  his  tenants.  That  this  could  hap- 
pen at  so  late  a  period,  and  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  garrisons  of  Stirling,  Dumbarton,  and  Glasgow,  ap- 


ROBUST-ROCAMBOLE. 

pears  almost  incredible;  but  R.  R.  bad  tbe  protection  of 
tbe  Duke  of  Argyle  aud  tbe  respect  of  tbe  country  people, 
wbo  gave  Mm  timely  information  of  tbe  designs  of  bis 
enemies.  Numberless  stories  are  still  current  in  tbe  neigb- 
borhood  of  Loeb  Lomond  and  Locb  Katrine  of  his  hair- 
breadtb  escapes  from  capture  by  tbe  troops.  At  one  time 
a  reward  of  £l,000  was  offered  for  bis  bead,  inconsequence 
of  which  be  was  obliged  to  take  shelter  in  a  cave  at  tbe 
base  of  Ben  Lomond,  on  the  banks  of  the  lake,  which  had 
in  former  times  afforded  secure  retreat  to  Robert  tbe  Bruce. 
Many  instances  have  been  recorded  of  his  kindness  to  tbe 
poor,  whose  want  be  often  supplied  at  the  expense  of  the 
rich.  R.  R.  was  not  the  commonplace  cateran  that  many 
people  think  him.  He  gave  his  sons  a  good  education,  and 
died  peaceably  in  bis  bed.  His  funeral  was  attended  by  all 
the  people  of  tbe  district,  except  the  partisans  of  his  enemy, 
tbe  Duke  of  Montrose.  R.  R.'s  exploits  have  been  immor- 
talized by  Sir  Waiter  Scott  in  his  novel  Rob  Roy,  1817.  In 
tbe  list  of  subscribers  to  Keith's  History  of  the  Affairs  oj 
Church  and  State  in  Scotland,  1734,  there  occurs  the  name 
'Robert  Macgregor,  alias  Rob  Roy/  See  Macleay's  Rob 
Roy  (1881);  Millar's  (1883). 

ROBUST,  a,  rd-biist'  [F.  robuste — from  L.  robustus,  hard, 
solid,  strong — from  robur,  a  very  hard  kind  of  oak,  strength: 
It.  robusto]:  strong;  hardy;  vigorous;  possessing  perfect 
strength  and  vigor.  Robust  ly,  ad.  41.  Robust  ness,  n. 
-nes,  strength;  vigor.— Syn.  of  'robust':  strong;  sturdy; 
hale;  stout;  hearty;  vigorous;  sound;  muscular;  sinewy; 
lusty;  coarse. 

ROBUSTI,  Jacopo:  see  Tintoretto. 

ROBUSTIOUS,  a.  rd-bust'yiis  [L.  robusteus  (see  Ro- 
bust)]: in  OE.,  and  now  familiarly,  strong;  vigorous; 
sinewy;  boisterous;  violent.  Robust'iously,  ad.  -h.  Ro- 
bust'iousness,  n.  -yas-nes,  quality  of  being  robustious. 

ROC,  or  Rock.  n.  rok,  or  Rukh,  ruk  [Ar.  rukli]:  fabled 
monstrous  bird  in  Arabian  mythology,  represented  as  '  able 
to  truss  an  elephant  '  in  its  talons.  It  is  enough  to  refer  to 
1  lie  Arabian  Nights  Entertainments,  as  to  the  size  and  power 
of  the  Roc.  A  belief  in  its  existence  prevailed  through- 
out the  middle  ages,  and  it  is  noticed  in  many  works  of 
that  period.  The  fables  concerning  the  R.  may  have 
originated  in  exaggerated  stories  of  some  of  the  great 
eagles,  or  of  tbe  Lammergeier. 

ROCAMBOLE,  n.  rhk!am-bbl  [F.  rocambole;  Ger.  rock- 
enbollen—irom  rocken,  rye;  bolle,  a  bulb].  (Allium  scorodo- 
prasum):  plant  of  tbe  same  genus  with  garlic,  onion,  leek, 
etc.,  and  nearly  allied  to  garlic,  wrhich  it  resembles  in  its 
habit,  though  larger  in  all  its  parts.  Tbe  upper  part  of  the 
stem  is  in  general  spirally  twisted  before  flowering  The 
root  forms  rounder  cloves  than  those  of  garlic,  and  of  much 
milder  flavor;  the  umbels  also  are  bulbiferous.  R.  has  long 
been  cultivated  in  kitchen-gardens,  though  not  very  com- 
mon. It  is  a  native  of  sandy  soils  in  Denmark  and  other 
co  mi  tries  near  the  Baltic. 


ROCCELLIC — ROCHDALE. 

ROCCELLIC,  a.  rbk-sel'llk  [It.  rocca,  a  rock,  because 
the  plant  grows  on  rocks  (see  Rock  1)]:  name  for  a  fatty  acid 
obtained  from  the  herb  Archil  (q.v.),  the  Roccel  la  tinctdrid, 
ord.  LlcMnes. 

ROCHAMBEAU,  ro-sMngM\  Jean  Baptiste  Dona- 
tien  de  Yimeur,  Oomte  de:  soldier  :  1725,  July  1 — 1807, 
May  10;  b.  Vendome,  France.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuit 
College  at  Blois,  intending  to  enter  the  priesthood,  but  on 
the  death  of  his  elder  brother  changed  his  plans,  and  1742 
entered  the  French  army.  He  served  in  Bavaria  and  Bo- 
hemia, was  rapidly  promoted,  and  became  famous  for  skill 
in  drilling  troops.  In  1749  he  became  gov.  of  Vendome, 
was  in  active  military  service  in  Minorca  1756,  and  in  Ger- 
many 1758-61,  reached  the  rank  of  lieut.gen.  1780,  and 
was  given  command  of  the  French  troops  which  aided  the 
American  colonies  in  securing  their  independence.  Con- 
gress thanked  him  for  his  efficient  services,  and  presented 
him  with  two  of  the  cannon  which  had  been  taken  from 
the  British,  and  Louis  XVI.  made  him  a  knight  of  the 
Saint  Esprit.  Returning  to  France,  he  was  gov.  of  Picardy 
and  Artois,  became  field-marshal  1791,  commanded  the 
Army  of  the  North,  but  became  unpopular  at  the  time  of 
the  revolution  and  barely  escaped  with  his  life.  In  1804 
he  received  the  grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  from 
Napoleon,  who  also  gave  him  a  pension.  His  Memoirs, 
which  he  dictated,  appeared  in  2  vols.  (1809),  and  were 
translated  and  pub.  in  London  (1838).  He  died  at  Thore, 
France. 

ROCHDALE,  rbch'dal:  thriving  manufacturing  town 
of  Lancashire,  England;  market-town  and  parliamentary 
and  municipal  borough,  in  the  valley  of  the  Roche,  and  on 
both  sides  of  that  stream,  11  m.  n.n.e.  of  Manchester,  200 
m.  n.w.  of  London  by  railway.  The  parish  church,  on  an 
eminence,  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps,  is  a  venerable 
edifice,  dating  from  the  12th  c,  partly  in  the  late  Norman, 
partly  in  Perpendicular.  The  other  public  buildings  com- 
prise churches,  chapels,  and  meeting- houses  for  the  various 
dissenting  sects.  The  new  Town  Hall,  completed  1867,  is 
a  fine  building  in  domestic  Gothic.  The  public  baths  are 
the  property  of  the  corporation.  Many  improvements 
architectural  and  sanitary  have  been  made  in  recent  years. 
Still  R.  is  beautiful  only  in  site,  and  derives  its  importance 
wholly  from  its  extensive  and  varied  manufactures.  The 
woolen  manufacture,  introduced  by  a  colony  of  Flemings 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  is  prosperous  and  increasing. 
Blankets,  baizes,  kerseys,  and  other  woolen  fabrics  are 
staple  manufactures.  Cotton  goods  also,  especially  cali- 
coes, are  largely  manufactured.  In  the  vicinity,  coal  is 
found,  and  flagstones,  freestones,  and  slates  are  abundantly 
quarried.  >  There  is  good  general  trade;  there  are  several 
hat-factories,  cotton-mills,  machine-shops,  iron  and  brass 
foundries,  etc.,  weekly  markets  for  woolen  goods  and 
grain,  and  fortnightly  fairs  for  cattle.  Commerce  is  facili- 
tated by  abundant  means  of  cnmrnnniVat.ion  Pon  ^1871) 
municipal  borough,  44,559 ;  (1891)  76,161;  ( 1901 ) '83.112. 


ROCHE— ROCHEFORT-SUR-MER. 

ROCHE,  a.  n.  rosh  [F.  roche,  a  rock  (see  Rock  1)]: 
used  in  compounds,  as  roche-alum,  often  called  rock-alum; 
alum  deprived  of  part  of  its  water  of  crystallization  by 
heat.  The  name  was  formerly  given  to  pure  alum  in  mass; 
but  is  now  applied  to  a  particular  variety  found  at  Civita 
Vecchia,  Italy.  It  is  a  kind  of  native  alum,  free  from 
iron,  but  having  a  reddish  color,  from  the  soil  in  which 
it  is  found.  It  is  called  also  Roman,  and  red  alum.  A 
factitious  kind  is  now  in  general  use,  made  of  common 
alum  reddened  with  Armenian  bole. 

ROCHEFORT-LUQAY,  roshfor'tes  d',  Victor  Henri, 
Comte  de:  journalist  and  communist:  b. Paris,  1830,  Jan.  30. 
He  studied  medicine;  secured  a  minor  office  under  the  govt, 
of  Paris;  and  composed  a  number  of  plays,  some  of  which 
became  quite  popular.  In  1861  he  became  a  journalist,  and 
for  several  years  was  connected  with  the  Figaro,  but  retired 
1865  to  prevent  the  prosecution  of  its-  proprietors  by  the 
govt.  He  founded  the  Lanterne,  in  which  his  attacks  on 
the  govt,  were  continued  so  violently  as  to  lead  to  its  sup- 
pression, but  R.  soon  re-established  it  at  Brussels.  On  his 
election  to  the  chamber  of  deputies  1869,  he  returned  to 
Paris  and  established  La  Marseillaise.  Its  attacks  on  the 
imperial  family  were  so  violent  that  R.  was  imprisoned; 
and  his  assistant,  Victor  Noir,  was  killed  by  Prince  Pierre 
Bonaparte.  He  was  released  when  the  republic  was  pro- 
claimed 1870,  Sep.  4  ;  and  became  a  govt,  officer;  favored 
concessions  to  the  Communists,  founded  1871  the  Mot 
d'Ordre,  in  which  he  came  out  strongly  in  favor  of  the  Com- 
mune, and  wras  elected  a  deputy  to  the  national  assembly. 
On  the  overthrow  of  the  Commune  he  was  sentenced  to 
life  imprisonment;  was  released  a  brief  period  to  be  mar- 
ried to  the  mother  of  his  children,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  legitimatized;  and  1873  was  sent  to  New  Caledonia,  but 
soon  escaped  to  San  Francisco,  whence  he  went  to  London, 
and  afterward  to  Geneva  where  he  remained  till  1880,  when 
he  was  allowed  to  return  to  Paris.  He  then  established 
L'  Intransigeani,  a  radical  paper,  in  which  he  attacked  the 
existing  government.  He  designed  to  take  part  in  the  labor 
troubles  in  Belgium  1886,  but  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
country.  He  was  prominent  in  the  political  schemes  of 
Gen.  Boulauger,  whom  he  accompanied  to  England  1889. 
In  the  latter  year  he  removed  to  Brussels,  but  returned 
to  Paris  under  amnesty  in  1895.  He  published  Les 
Aventures  de  ma  Vie  (1896). 

ROCHEFORT-SUR-MER,  rosh-for'sur-mdr:  important 
seaport  and  naval  arsenal  of  France,  dept.  of  Charente- 
Inferieure,  on  the  right  bank  of  theCharente,  fivem.  from 
its  mouth.  It  is  surrounded  by  ramparts,  and  protected 
by  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  river;  and  is  a  modern,  clean, 
well-built  town.  Few  French  towns  can  compare  with  R. 
for  the  number  and  importance  of  its  public  works.  The 
harbor,  one  of  the  three  largest  in  France,  is  deep  enough 
to  float  large  vessels  at  low  water.  R.  has  fine  wharfs, 
extensive  magazines,  dock-yards,  rope -walks,  cannon 
foundries,  and  other  establishments  for  manufacture  and 
preservation  of  naval  stores  and  marine  apparatus  of  every 


ROCHEFOUCAULD-  ROCHELLE. 

kind,  including  extensive  bread  .  d  biscuit  stores.  The 
most  celebrated  of  its  many  institutions  are  the  marine 
hospital,  founded  1787:  with  1,240  beds  for  seamen,  besides 
wards  for  invalided  officers;  tbe" artillery  and  naval  schools 
for  every  branch  of  the  profession,  and  tiie  general  civil 
college.  Its  great  convict-prison  has  been  disused  since 
1852.  In  addition  to  the  extensive  trade  arising  from  the 
special  character  of  the  place,  K.  is  the  centre  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  dept.,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  colonial 
trade,  in  manufacture  of  brandy,  and  in  building  men-of- 
war,  merchant-ships,  steamers,  and  coasting- vessels.  Pop. 
(1881)  26,022;  (1886)  30,285;  (1901)  36,458. 

ROCHEFOUCAULD  :  see  Larochefoucauld. 

ROCHELLE,  La.  Id  ro-shel :  fortified  seaport  of  France, 
cap.  of  the  dept.  of  Chareu te-In  f  erieure ;  on  an  inlet  of  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  formed  by  the  islands  Re  and  Olerom  300  m. 
s.w.  of  Paris  by  railway.  Its  little  harbor,  which  consists 
of  an  outer  tidal  basin,  and  an  inner  wet  dock,  is  sur- 
rounded by  fine  quays  and  commodious  docks,  close  to 
which  are  the  principal  streets  and  squares.  Many  streets  are 
regular  and  well  built, with  houses  adorned  with  porticoes 
and  balconies.  The  notable  public  buildings  are  the  arse- 
nal, palace,  town  hall,  exchange,  and  cathedral.  Besides 
the  fine  promenade  of  the  Place  du  Chateau,  there  are, 
outside  the  city  walls,  two  extensive  public  gardens,  La 
Promenade  du  Mail  and  the  Champs  de  Mars.  Ship- 
building is  carried  on,  especially  for  the  Newfoundland 
fishing  trade ;  there  is  manufacture  of  coal,  bricks,  and 
cotton  yarns,  and  there  are  numerous  glass-works,  sugar- 
re  fineries,  and  distilleries  for  preparation  of  brandy.  Pop. 
(1881)  20,028;  (1880)  21,591;  (1901)  31,559. 

R.,  known  til'  the  l^tn  c.  under  its  JUatin  name  icupeua, 
or  Little  Rock,  of  which  its  present  name  is  the  French 
translation,  originated  in  a  colony  of  serfs  of  Lower  Poitou, 
who,  fleeing  from  the  persecution  of  their  lord,  settled  on  the 
rocky  promontory  between  the  ocean  and  the  neighboring 
marshes,  previously  occupied  by  fishermen  only,  but  which 
rapidly  increased  in  importance  under  the  new  settlers. 
On  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  with  Henry  II. 
of  England,  R.,  as  a  part  of  her  dowry,  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  English  kings,  by  whom  it  was  retained 
till  1224,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  troops  of  the  French 
king,  Louis  VIII. ;  and  though  it  was  ceded  to  England  at 
the  treaty  of  Bretigny  1360,  in  the  subsequent  wars  it  was 
retaken  by  France,  under  whose  sway  it  has  remained  since 
1372.  As  a  stronghold  of  the  Huguenot  party,  it  under- 
went various  attacks  and  sieges  during  the  religious  wars  of 
the  Henries,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  c;  and  on  its 
final  and  unconditional  surrender  to  the  royal  troops  in  the 
time  of  Louis  XIII.,  its  old  fortifications  were  destroyed, 
and  new  lines  of  defenses  subsequently  erected  by  the 
great  Vauban. 


ROCHELLE  SALT— ROCHESTER. 

ROCHELLE  SALT,  ro-sheV  sawlt:  popular  name  of 
sodio-potassic  tartrate,  C^H^KNaOs — 4H20,  known  also 
as  tartrate  of  soda  and  potash.  It  was  discovered,  1672, 
by  a  Rochelle  apothecary  named  Seignette.  It  occurs, 
when  pure,  in  colorless  transparent  prisms,  generally 
eight-sided;  in  taste  it  is  mildly  saline.  It  is  prepared 
by  neutralizing  cream  of  tartar  (KHC406)^  with  sodium 
carbonate  N2C03 — 10H2O.  After  a  neutral  solution  has 
been  obtained,  it  must  be  boiled  and  filtered,  and  the 
resulting  fluid  must  be  concentrated  till  a  pellicle  forms 
on  the  surface,  when  it  must  be  set  aside  to  crystallize. 

This  salt  is  a  mild  and  efficient  laxative,  and  less  dis- 
agreeable to  the  taste  than  most  of  the  saline  purga- 
tives. A  heaping  teaspoonlul,  or  more  if  found  requi- 
site, dissolved  in  eight  or  ten  parts  of  water,  may  be  a 
dose.  A  drachm  of  R.  S.  added  to  one  of  the  ingredients 
of  an  effervescing  draught  (bicarbonate  of  soda  or  tar- 
taric acid,  e.g.),  forms  one  of  the  varieties  of  Seidlitz 
powders. 

ROCHE  MOUTONNEE,  n.  rosh  mo-ton' na  [F.  roche, 
rock;  mountonnee,  frizzled,  woolly — from  mouton,  a 
sheep] :  the  name  given  by  French  geologists  to  the  pro- 
jecting eminences  of  Alpine  rocks,  and  of  all  glaciated 
districts  (like  those  retaining  features  of  the  Glacial 
Period),  that  have  been  rounded  and  smoothed  by  glacier 
action,  so  called  from  their  resemblance  to  sheep  at  rest. 

ROCHESTER,  roch'es-ter:  city,  cap.  of  Olmsted  co., 
Minn. ;  on  both  sides  of  the  s.  fork  of  the  Zumbro  river, 
and  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroads;  50  m. 
w.  of  the  Mississippi  river,  90  m.  s.e.  of  St.  Paul.  The 
city  is  bisected  by  the  river,  which  affords  valuable 
water-power ;  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  grain  region ;  has  an 
imposing  co.  court-house,  public  library,  high  school, 
several  grammar  schools,  and  churches;  does  a  large 
trade  in  butter,  cheese,  eggs,  and  grain;  and  manufac- 
tures flour,  machinery,  ironware,  pumps,  and  wagons. 
There  are  also  large  grain  elevators  and  stockyards. 
Pop.  (1900)  6,843. 

ROCHESTER:  city,  Strafford  co.,  N.  H.;  on  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine,  and  the  Portsmouth  Great  Falls  and  Con- 
way r.rs.;  the  terminus  of  the  Nashua  and  Rochester, 
and  the  Portland  and  Rochester  r.rs. ;  near  the  Cocheco 
river,  at  Salmon  Falls,  10  m.  n.w.  of  Dover  and  78  m.  n. 
of  Boston.  It  is  a  busy  industrial  centre  with  shoe  fac- 
tories which  have  1,000  employees;  woolen  mills  400  em- 
ployees, brick  works,  box  factories,  and  other  establish- 
ments having  fully  500  employees.  It  also  has  a  busy 
agricultural  trade.  The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  Gaffney  Home  for  the  Aged,  churches,  high,  public, 
and  parish  schools,  private  commercial  schools,  a  public 
library,  and  the  banks.    Pop.  (1900)  8,466. 


ROCHESTER. 

ROCHESTER :  city,  cap.  of  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y.;  on 
both  sides  of  the  Genesee  river,  and  on  the  Buffalo  Roch- 
ester and  Pittsburgh,  the  Erie,  the  New  York  Central 
and  Hudson  River,  the  Rochester  and  Lake  Ontario,  the 
Rome  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg,  the  Rochester  and 
Glen  Haven,  the  Western  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  West  Shore  railroads;  7  m.  s.  of  Lake  Ontario, 
76  m.  e.  of  Suspension  Bridge,  81  m.  w.  by  n.  of  Syra- 
cuse, 229  m.  w.  of  Albany;  17 V2  sq.  m. ;  popularly  known 
as  the  '  Flour  City.'  The  city  is  263  ft.  above  Lake  On- 
tario; and  the  Genesee  river,  which  bisects  it  nearly 
equally,  has  three  remarkable  falls  in  the  city  limits  and 
within  a  flow  of  2  m.,  the  Upper  of  96  ft.,  the  Middle  of 
25  ft.,  and  the  Lower  of  84  ft.  The  river  and  falls  fur- 
nish motive  power  of  great  magnitude,  and  constitute 
the  chief  element  of  the  city's  industrial  growth  and 
general  prosperity.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  the  Erie 
canal  on  an  imposing  stone  aqueduct  848  ft.  long,  sup- 
ported by  7  arches.  R.  is  naturally  picturesque  and  is 
laid  out  quite  regularly.  The  streets  in  the  main  are 
broad  and  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity.  In  the  busi- 
ness portion  the  buildings  are  large  and  of  striking 
architectural  appearance,  and  in  the  residence  portion 
they  are  set  back  from  the  streets  and  have  attractive 
surroundings  of  parterre  and  lawn.  The  city  is  supplied 
with  water  from  two  sources,  the  combined  works  cost- 
ing about  $3,750,000.  The  system  for  fire  hydrants  and 
light  mechanical  purposes  is  provided  by  the  Holly  plan, 
which  takes  water  from  the  river  and  distributes  it 
through  12  m.  of  mains.  The  system  for  general  pur- 
poses comprises  an  intake  at  Hemlock  Lake,  29  m.  s.  and 
400  ft.  above  the  city,  and  a  distribution  through  150  m. 
of  mains.  The  main  receiving  reservoir  has  a  capacity 
of  85,000,000  gallons,  and  the  distributing  reservoir 
45,000,000.  Both  systems  can  be  quickly  connected  in 
case  an  extraordinary  amount  of  water  should  be 
wanted  suddenly.  The  city  is  divided  into  16  wards,  and 
the  net  public  debt  is  about  $8,889,000,  assessed  valua- 
tion of  all  taxable  property  $115,924,265,  and  tax  rate 
$1.73  on  100. 

Public  Buildings. — There  are  four  well  equipped  hos- 
pitals— the  City,  Saint  Mary's,  the  Homoeopathic,  and 
the  Hahnemann — besides  a  municipal  hospital  for  con- 
tagious diseases  and  the  insane  asylum,  or  State  Hos- 
pital. Of  legitimate  theatres  there  are  four,  the  Lyceum 
and  the  Cook  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  the  National 
and  the  Baker  on  the  west.  Of  the  social  clubs  the  prin- 
cipal are  the  Genesee  Valley,  the  Rochester,  the  Eureka, 
the  Rochester  Whist,  and  the  Columbia  Rifle;  of  literary 
clubs  the  leading  ones  are  the  Pundit,  the  Fortnightly, 
and  the  Wednesday  Morning. 

Manufactures. — Rochester  was  built  up  by  the  milling 
industry;  the  quality  and  amount  of  wheat  grown  in  the 


ROCHESTER. 


Valley  during  the  early  days  made  a  demand  for  flour- 
ing-mills,  which  was  strengthened  by  the  presencc^of  the 
high  falls,  so  that  those  structures  sprang  up  rapidly 
on  both  banks  of  the  river  and  became  so  numerous  that 
the  place  was  long  known  as  '  the  Hour  city '  and  its 
pre-eminence  in  this  respect  was  recognized  throughout 
the  country.  The  development  of  the  enormous  wheat- 
fields  of  the  West  caused  a  decline  in  this  business,  so 
that  its  relative  position  was  taken  by  the  nursery  in- 
dustry; this  was  started  here  in  1838,  after  which  it 
increased  so  that  in  1906  there  were  more  than  30  firms 
engaged  in  the  business;  besides  the  nurseries  there  are 
several  large  seed-houses,  Rochester  being  the  foremost 
city  in  the  world  in  this  regard.  Rochester  is  the  home 
of  the  camera,  and  practically  all  of  the  film  cameras 
that  are  made  in  the  world  are  manufactured  here,  as 
well  as  the  great  majority  of  plate  cameras;  in  other 
photographic  apparatus,  in  optical  instruments,  and  in 
fruit  canning  it  also  leads  all  other  places  on  the  globe. 
Although  Rochester  is  only  the  24th  city  in  the  United 
States  in  point  of  population,  it  is  the  first  in  many 
things;  it  ranks  third  as  to  clothing,  with  an  annual 
output  of  $10,000,000,  and  fourth  as  to  boots  and  shoes, 
with  a  production  of  $7,000,000;  its  total  manufacture 
exceeds  $70,000,000  annually,  with  over  $50,000,000  in- 
vested in  that  and  the  wholesale  trades.  The  receipts 
at  the  postoffice  for  1903  were  $619,785.95;  640,000  tons 
of  bituminous  coal  and  over  360,000  tons  of  anthracite 
are  consumed  and  shipped  from  here  annually. 

Banking  and  Commerce. — In  the  promotion  of  trade 
and  in  the  inducement  of  outside  manufacturers  to 
locate  in  Rochester  an  important  factor  is  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  organized  in  June  1888,  which  now  has  a 
membership  of  389.  For  providing  the  money  necessary 
to  carry  on  the  business  above  indicated  there  are  eight 
banks  and  five  trust  companies,  with  a  combined  capital 
of  $3,025,000,  besides  four  savings  banks,  the  total  re- 
sources of  all  these  institutions  being  $103,124,410.73; 
the  amount  passing  through  the  clearing  house  in  1903 
was  $133,773,705.89. 

Education. — The  Rochester  Athenceum  and  Mechanics' 
Institute — generally  known  by  the  latter  part  of  its 
title — was  founded  in  1885  as  a  free  drawing-school,  and 
has  so  expanded  that  it  now  gives  instruction  in  prac- 
tical arts  and  sciences  to  about  4,000  pupils.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Rochester,  founded  in  1850  and  located  in 
beautiful  grounds  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  has  a 
faculty  of  23  instructors,  with  264  students,  and  a 
library  of  41,000  volumes.  There  are  also  the  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary,  of  the  Baptist  denomination; 
Saint  Bernard's  (Roman  Catholic)  Theological  Semin- 
ary, occupying  capacious  grounds  north  of  the  city,  and 


ROCHESTER. 

the  Wagner  Memorial  Lutheran  College.  The  public 
school  system,  tinder  the  control  of  a  board  of  education 
of  five  members,  is  among  the  best  in  the  country;  it 
maintains  34  buildings,  with  as  many  principals;  the 
East  Side  high  school  was  lately  completed  at  a  total 
cost  of  $322,000.  There  are  also  18  parochial  schools 
and  many  private  ones,  including  three  academies — two 
of  them  for  girls,  one  for  boys — and  one  large  institution 
for  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes.  The  only  free  public 
library  is  the  Reynolds,  with  52,000  volumes. 

Churches  and  Charities. — There  are  over  100  churches 
in  Rochester.  The  first  congregation  (Presbyterian) 
was  formed  in  1815;  the  Roman  Catholic  diocese  of 
Rochester  was  created  in  1868.  Of  the  seven  cemeteries 
the  oldest  is  Mount  Hope,  opened  in  1838.  There  are 
five  orphan  asylums,  three  of  which  are  under  Catholic 
control,  one  under  Jewish.  In  1822  the  Female  Charita- 
ble Society  was  organized,  from  which  have  risen  the 
kindred  institutions  of  to-day,  including,  besides  the 
hospitals  and  asylums,  the  Industrial  School — not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  State  Industrial  School,  a 
large  establishment  for  the  reformation  of  young  crim- 
inals— the  Home  for  the  Friendless,  the  Humane  Society, 
the  Children's  Aid  Society,  the  Society  for  the  Organiza- 
tion of  Charity,  and  a  host  of  other  associations  for 
relieving  distress. 

The  first  mill  at  R.  was  erected  by  '  Indian '  Allan 
1789;  the  Cayuga  bridge  over  the  Genesee  was  completed 
1800;  a  bridge  at  the  falls  was  finished  1812;  and  Col. 
Nathaniel  Rochester  (q.v.),  who  bought  the  Allan  mill 
site  1802,  made  a  permanent  settlement  there  1818,  when 
the  place  was  named  in  his  honor.  In  1823  Brighton 
was  added  to  the  village  and  in  1834  R.  was  incorpor- 
ated as  a  city.  Rochester  has  always  been  free  from 
overwhelming  calamities.  The  worst  two  disasters, 
financially,  in  its  history,  in  neither  of  which  was  a  sin- 
gle life  lost,  were  the  great  flood  of  1865,  March  17, 
when  much  of  the  city  was  under  water  for  two  days, 
doing  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  damage,  and  the  fire  of 
1904,  Feb.  26,  which  devastated  a  large  portion  of  the 
dry  goods  district  and  inflicted  a  loss  of  $3,000,000. 
Pop.  (1900)  162,608. 

ROCH'ESTER:  episcopal  city,  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough,  and  river-port  of  Kent,  England; 
between  Chatham  (q.v.)  on  the  e.,  and  Strood  on  the 
n.w.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway,  36  m.  e.s.e.  of 
London,  by  the  London,  Chatham,  and  Dover  railway. 
The  city  is  surrounded  on  two  sides  by  the  river ;  and  its 
ancient  castle  and  cathedral,  and  the  numerous  martello 
towers  along  its  shores,  render  its  appearance  very  strik- 
ing. The  bishopric  of  R.  was  founded  604 ;  but  the  early 
Saxon  cathedral  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the  Danes, 
and  was  in  a  completely  ruined  condition  at  the  Norman 
Conquest.  Gundulf,  consecrated  Bishop  of  R.  1077,  began 
to  rebuild  the  cathedral  and  the  priory  connected  with  it ; 
the  dormitory,  chapter-house,  and  refectory  were  added 


ROCHESTER, 

under  the  succeeding  bishop;  and  the  new  cathedici  was 
dedicated  1130,  in  presence  of  the  king  and  a  great  com- 
pany of  bishops.  The  cathedral,  whose  nave  and  crypt 
are  Norman,  and  the  choir  and  transepts  Early  English,  is 
310  ft.  long,  and  the  w.  transept  is  123  ft.,  and  the  nave 
and  choir  68  ft.  broad.  Of  the  ancient  Norinan  priory, 
only  a  small  fragment  remains.  The  castle,  crowning  an 
eminence,  and  overlooking  the  cathedral,  is  a  Norman 
keep,  of  wonderfully  strong  and  solid  masonry.  R.  im- 
ports coal  and  exports  hops,  and  has  manufacturing  in- 
terests and  oyster  fisheries.  R.  is  introduced  by  Dickens 
into  Pickwick,  Edwin  Drood,  and  other  novels.  Pop. 
30,650. 

R.,  surmised  to  have  existed  prior  to  the  Roman  inva- 
sion, was  called  by  the  Romans  Durobrivcp,  and,  according 
to  Bede,  derives  its  present  name  {Hrofs-ceaster \  H rot's 
Castle)  from  Hrof,  a  Saxon  chieftain. 

ROCHESTER,  roch'h  ter,  John  Wilmot,  second  Earl 
of:  1647,  Apr.  10—1680,  July  26;  b.  Ditchley,  Oxford- 
shire: writer  and  courtier  who  has  left  a  name  notorious 
for  wit  and  profligacy.  He  was  entered  of  Wadham  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  when  only  12  years  of  age;  and  after  travel- 
ling in  France  and  Italy,  attached  himself  to  the  court, 
and  rose  high  in  favor  with  Charles  II.  In  1665  he  went 
to  sea  in  the  fleet  commanded  by  the  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
and  behaved  at  Bergen  with  great  intrepidity.  R.  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  the  king  and  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  for  the  forcible  abduction  of  a  celebrated  beauty 
and  heiress,  Miss  Mallet t,  who  was  rescued  by  her  friends, 
but  whom  he  subsequently  married  before  he  was  20  years 
old.  His  wit  and  love  of  pleasure  made  him  the  favorite 
of  a  dissolute  court.  His  genius  and  activity  of  mind  led  him 
to  literary  pursuits  and  poetry;  and  Anthony  Wood  speaks 
of  him  as  the  greatest  scholar  among  the  nobility  of  his 
day.  As  he  passed  out  of  youth,  he  gave  less  time  to 
study,  and  more  to  vicious  company,  and  indulgence  in 
wine;  and  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  34.  Bp.  Burnet  has 
left  an  interesting  account  of  his  death  under  the  title  Some 
Passages  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  John  Earl  of  Rochester, 
from  which  it  appears  that  he  sincerely  repented  his  im- 
moral and  dissolute  courses  and  became  a  Christian  con- 
vert, He  wrote  some  love-songs,  an  elegant  Imitation  of 
Horace  on  Lucilins,  a  Satire  against  Man,  in  which  he  is 
much  indebted  to  Boileau,  and  an  Essay  on  Nothing. 

ROCH  ESTER,  Nathaniel:  1752,  Feb.  21-1831,  May 
17;  b.  Westmoreland  co.,  Va.  Most  of  his  boyhood  was 
spent  in  N.  C.  In  the  revolution  he  was  paymaster  of  the 
N.  C.  troops;  he  was  a  member  of  the  legislature,  en- 
gaged largely  in  mercantile  operations,  and  1783  com- 
menced various  manufactures  at  Hagerstowu,  Md.  He 
purchased  large  tracts  of  land  in  N.  Y.,  to  which  state  he 
removed  1810,  and  1818  he  settled  at  Rochester,  which  had 
been  named  in  his  honor.  He  was  influential  in  securing 
the  formation  of  Monroe  co.,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
clerk  and  the  first  representative  in  the  state  legislature, 
He  died  at  Rochester. 


ROCHESTER— ROCHET. 

ROCHESTER,  University  of:  college  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  under  Baptist  auspices.  In  1847  effort  was  made 
to  remove  Madison  Univ.  (college,  with  a  theol.  dept.), 
founded  1820,  from  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  to  Rochester.  This 
failing,  a  charter  for  the  Univ.  of  Rochester  was  obtained 
from  the  Board  of  Regents  of  N.  Y.  1850,  made  effective 
by  provision  for  buildings  and  a  fund  of  $100,000.  The 
charter  does  not  vest  control  in  any  religious  denomination; 
it  created  a  self -perpetuating  board  of  24  trustees,  who,  as 
fact,  represent  different  denominations,  but  with  a  major- 
ity of  Baptists  thus  far.  There  is  no  preaching  service 
maintained  by  the  institution;  no  organic  connection  with 
the  kindred  and  neighboring  theol.  seminary;  no  schools 
of  law,  medicine,  or  applied  science;  no  preparatory  dept., 
and  no  dormitories.  The  number  of  students  in  the  last 
catalogue  included  32  women,  and  the  late  Lewis  H. 
Morgan,  ll.d.,  left  his  estate  to  the  univ.  to  provide  facili- 
ties for  co-education.  The  campus,  in  the  e.  part  of  the 
city,  is  of  24  acres,  and  the  brown-stone  buildings  (visible 
from  the  N.  Y.  Central  railroad),  are  Anderson  Hall,  for 
chapel  and  lecture-rooms;  Sibley  Hall,  for  library  and 
cabinets;  Reynolds  Chem.  Laboratory;  and  an  observatory 
and  president's  house.  The  museums  are  superior;  the 
library  has  38,000  vols.,  with  a  fund  of  $50,000.  The 
courses  of  study  are  indicated  in  the  1900-01  summary  of 
students:  resident  graduates,  4;  classical  students  221; 
total  210.  There  are  18  professors;  the  pres.  was  Rhush 
Reed,  d.d.,  ll.d.  In  1901  the  productive  funds  had  a 
value  of  $723,779;  the  total  income  was  $53,842;  tha 
value  of  grounds  and  buildings  was  $430,000.  The  geo« 
logical  museum  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  110  scholarships,  besides  the  special  Dean  fund 
of  $50,000  for  sons  of  Baptist  ministers. 

ROCHET,  n.  rbch'et  [F.  rochet,  a  smock-frock,  a  rochet 
— from  mid.  L.  roccus,  an  under  garment:  OHG0  hroch,  a 
frock:  It.  rocchetto,  a  garment  of  plaited  lawn  worn  by 
bishops:  Ger.  rock,  a  coat]:  a  portion  of  the  church 
costume  of  bishops,  abbots,  prelates,  canons  of  certain 
privileged  chapters,  and  some  other  dignitaries;  usually  of 
lawn  or  lace,  and  of  the  form  of 
a  surplice,  but  with  close-fitting 
sleeves.  In  the  Latin  Church,  its 
use  is  very  ancient,  though  its  form 
has  varied.  In  the  first  Prayer- 
book  of  Edward  VI.,  which  pre- 
served a  considerable  part  of  the 
Roman  episcopal  costume,  the  R. 
was  ordered  to  be  worn  by  bishops 
in  the  communion  service.  The 
R.,  however,  must  not  be  con- 
founded, as  is  often  done  by  writers 
Rochet.  on  clerical  costume,  with  the  Dal- 

matic and  Tunic,  tight  and  close- 
fitting  vestments  of  colored  silk,  worn  by  bishops  under  tb/; 
Planeta  (q.V,)^ 


ROCK. 


ROCK,  n.  rok  [F,  roc  or  roche;  It.  rocca;  Sp.  roca,  a 
rock,  a  crag:  prov.  F.  rocque,  a  lump  of  earth:  Ir.  and 
Gael,  roc,  a  rock]:  large  mass  of  stone  bedded  in  the  earth's 
crust,  or  resting  on  its  surface  (hut  see  Rocks):  kind  of 
solid  sweetmeat  or  candy  (see  below):  figuratively,  defense; 
protection;  immovability:  Adj.  hard  like  rock;  resembling 
or  composed  of  rocks.  Rocks,  n.  plu.  rdks,  mgeol.,  the 
substances,  less  or  more  solid,  which  compose  the  crust  of 
the  earth.  Though  popularly  restricted  to  masses  of  in- 
durated inorganic"matter,  this  term  is  extended  by  geologists 
to  all  substances  wThich  make  up  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
whether  loose  or  friable  like  soil  or  sand,  or  compact  and 
indurated  like  limestone  and  granite.  For  description  of 
the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust,  see  Aqueous:  Igneous: 
Met  amorphic  Rocks:  etc.:  also  the  classification  given 
at  Geology.  Rocky,  a.  rok%  full  of  rocks;  very  hard; 
stony.  Rock'iness,  n.  -nes,  state  of  being  rocky.  Rock'< 
less,  a.  -les,  without  rocks  Rock  ery,  n.  -er-i,  hillock 
formed  of  stones  and  earth,  etc.,  for  plants.  Rock- alum, 
roche-alum  (see  under  Roche).  Rock-bound,  hemmed  in 
or  rimmed  by  rocks.  Rock-basins,  curious  basin-shaped 
cavities  occurring  in  granites  of  high  and  exposed  regions, 
from  one  to  many  ft.  in  diameter.  Rock-butter,  mineral 
substance,  soft  yellowish  admixture  of  Alum  (q.v.),  alu- 
mina, and  oxide  of  iron,  oozing  out  of  rocks  containing 
alum — product  cf  decomposition;  it  is  always  greasy  to  the 
touch,  yet  often  hard  enough  to  show  a  straight  foliated 
fracture.  Rock-cork,  variety  of  asbestos  whose  fine  fibres 
are  so  interlaced  and  matted  as  to  give  it  the  texture  and 
lightness  of  cork.  Rock-crystal  (see  below).  Rock- 
leather,  same  as  Rock-cork,  which  see.  Rock-meal, 
n.,  in  mineral.,  white  cotton-like  variety  of  carbonate  of 
lime  occurring  as  an  efflorescence,  falling  into  a  powder 
wThen  touched.  Rock-oil,  familiar  as  well  as  commercial 
term  for  petroleum  or  mineral  oil  (see  Naphtha:  Petro- 
leum). Rock-pigeon,  the  wild  pigeon,  building  its  nest 
in  rocky  hollows— original  of  the  domestic  pigeon.  Rock- 
rose,  foreign  wild  trailing  plant  having  limp  yellow  petals; 
the  Helianth  emum  vulgdre,  ord.  Cistdcm  (see  Cistus),  and 
American  plants  of  the  same  order.  Rock-ruby,  the  red 
garnet,  having  a  cast  of  blue.  Rock-salt,  familiar  as  well 
as  scientific  term  for  common  salt,  when  it  occurs  in  the 
earth's  crust  as  a  solid  rock-mass  (see  below).  Rock-soap 
(see  below).  Rock-shells,  certain  univalves  of  the  genus 
Murex.  Rock-wood,  variety  of  asbestos,  of  brown  color, 
occurring  in  long  compacted  fibres,  which  give  it  the  aspect 
and  texture  of  wood.  Rock- work,  in  gardening,  rough 
blocks  of  stone  and  earth  built  up  in  imitation  of  the 
asperities  of  rocks,  among  which  plants  adapted  for  the 
situation  may  grow;  a  rockery,  which,  simple  as  it  seems, 
is  very  difficult  of  construction  in  a  tasteful  manner. 

ROCK,  n.  rok  [Icel.  rokkr;  Sw.  rock;  Dan.  rok:  OHG. 
roccho;  It.  rocca,  a  distaff]:  the  staff  or  frame  about  which 
flax  or  wool  is  arranged,  and  from  which  the  thread  is 
drawn  in  spinning, 


ROCK. 

ROCK,  v.  rbk  [Dan.  rokke;  Norw.  rugga,  to  rock,  to 
shake:  OF.  rocquer,  to  rock,  as  a  child:  Ger.  ruck,  a  shake 
or  toss]:  to  move  backward  and  forward,  as  in  a  cradle,  a 
chair,  etc. ;  hence,  to  lull;  to  quiet;  to  be  moved  backward 
and  forward.  Rock' away,  n.  a  four-wheeled  two-seated 
carriage,  with  full  standing  top.  Rocking,  imp.:  N.  ac- 
tion of  one  who  rocks;  state  of  being  rocked.  Rocked,  pp. 
rbkt.  Rock  er,  n.  -er,  he  who  or  that  which  rocks;  the 
curved  support  of  a  cradle,  etc.  Rocking  chair,  a  chair 
mounted  on  rockers,  so  as  to  be  easily  moved  backward 
and  forward.  Rocking-horse,  a  wooden  horse  mounted 
on  a  frame,  on  which  children  may  play  at  riding. 

ROCK,  n.  rbk:  a  huge  bird:  see  Roc. 

ROCK:  kind  of  sweetmeat,  made  of  sugar,  sometimes 
mixed  with  almonds  and  various  flavoring  materials.  The 
sugar  is  first  boiled,  and  then  poured  out  upon  a  cold 
marble  slab,  and  worked  up  into  a  rough  hard  mass. — The 
term  is  applied  also  to  a  form  of  sweetmeat,  in  which  the 
sugar,  while  hot  and  soft,  is  pulled  repeatedly  over  a 
smooth  iron  hook,  until  it  becomes  white  and  porous. 
This  also  is  flavored  with  essences. 


Cock  of  the  Rock  (Rupicola  aurantia). 


ROCK,  Cock  of  the  {Rupicola  aurantia):  bird  of  ordet 
Insessores;  tribe  Dentirostres;  family  Pipridce  (Manakins, 
etc.);  regarded  by  many  as  a  sub-family  of  Ampelidce. 
The  Pipridce,  or  Manakins,  are  a  large  group  of .  birds, 
many  of  them  of  very  curious  and  beautiful  plumage,  most 
of  them  inhabitants  of  tropical  America.  They  have  the 
bill  broad  at  the  base,  the  nostrils  at  the  side  nearly  hidden 
by  feathers;  the  wings  rather  short,  but  pointed;  the  tail 
very  short  and  even;  the  legs  (tarsi)  long  and  slender.  In 
the  genus  Rupicola,  the  bill  is  strong;  and  the  species 
sometimes  called  Rock-manakins  are  comparatively  large 
birds,  having  a  double  vertical  crest  on  the  head,  with  the 


ROCK— ROCK  CRYSTAL. 

feathers  disposed  fan-like.  The  Cock  of  the  R.  is  a  native 
of  Guiana  and  other  n.e.  parts  of  S.  America.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  bright  orange-colored  plumage— the  quill- 
feathers  of  the  wings,  however,  being  black,  and  the  tail 
tipped  with  yellow— its  large  crest  overhanging  the  bill. 
Its  habits  are  wary.  It  is  a  solitary  bird,  inhabiting  rocky 
places,  retiring  into  a  hiding-place  during  the  day,  and 
coming  fort  h  to  feed  at  sunrise  and  sunset.  The  tips  of 
the  crest-feathers  are  tinged  with  brown  and  yellow.  The 
wing-coverts  and  upper  tail-coverts  are  loose  flowing 
plumes,  giving  a  resemblance  to  gallinaceous  birds.  The 
size  is  about  that  of  a  common  pigeon.— The  Peruvian 
Cock  of  i he  U.  [R.  Peruviana)  is  less  brilliant  in  plumage 
than  the  Guiana  species. 

ROCK  River:  stream  rising  in  s  e.  Wis.,  and  running 
s.w.  into  111  ,  thence  still  s.w.  to  the  Mississippi  3  m.  below 
Rock  Island.  Its  course  of  200  m.  is  through  a  pleasant 
region,  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  the  world— the  'Rock 
River  Country. '  Its  frequent  falls  give  abundant  water- 
power,  and  it  is  crossed  by  several  railroads. 

ROCK  ALL,  rbk  awl:  islet  rock  on  a  sandbank  in  the  n. 
Atlantic  Ocean;  this  bank  is  nearly  100  m.  in  length,  and 
40  in  breadth.  Tne  rock  itself  is  in  57°  35'  n.  lat.,  13° 
40'  w.  long.,  about  300  m.  w.  of  N".  Uist,  in  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  and  is  of  rounded  form,  rising  18  or  20  ft.  above 
the  sea.  It  is  surrounded  by  breakers,  and  inhabited  only 
by  large  floeks  of  sea-birds.  It  was  found  some  years  ago 
to  be  surrounded  by  considerable  shoals  of  large  fish, 
chiefly  Gadidce  and  Pluroneetidm.  A  company  was  formed 
1861  to  carry  on  fishery  at  the  place;  but  the  supply  was 
less  than  was  anticipated,  and  the  distance  from  markets 
too  great,  and  the  speculation  proved  very  unprofitable. 

ROCK  CRYS  TAL:  popular,  partly  also  scientific,  name 
for  the  finest  and  purest  Quartz  (q.v.),  seldom  applied, 
however,  to  small  implanted  crystals  which  are  mere  six- 
sided  pyramids,  but  generally  to  those  in  which  the  six- 
sided  prism  is  well  developed.  The  name  is  sometimes 
limited  to  colorless  and  perfectly  transparent  quartz,  but 
is  also  rarely  extended  to  the  violet  or  amethystine  {Ame- 
thyst, q.v.),  red  (Bohemian  Ruby  or  Silesian  Ruby),  wine- 
yellow  (Citrin  or  Gold  Topaz),  brown  or  smoky  (Smoke 
Quartz,  Cairngorm  Stone),  etc.  The  beauty  of  specimens 
of  R.  C.  is  sometimes  very  great.  The  crystals  are  some- 
times slender,  crossing  and  penetrating  each  other  in  ex- 
quisite groups.  They  sometimes  inclose  other  substances 
which  are  beautifully  seen  through  the  transparent  R.  C, 
as  slender  hair-like  or  needle-like  crystals  of  hornblende, 
asbestos,  oxide  of  iron,  rutile  or  oxide  of  titanium,  oxide 
of  manganese,  etc  ,  and  such  specimens  are  known  by 
various  fanciful  names,  as  Thetis 's  Hair-stone,  Venus' & 
Hair-stone,  Venus 's  Pencils,  Cupid's  Net,  Cupid's  Arrows, 
etc.;  and  sometimes  the  inclosed  substances  are  small 
spangles  of  iron-glance,  or  crystals  of  iron  pyrites,  or  na- 
tive silver  in  fern-like  leaves,  or  spangles  of  gold.  R.  C. 
in  loose  complete  crystals,  as  limpid  as  water,  abound  in 


ROCKEFELLER — ROCKET, 
cavities  of  the  caleiferous  sand  rock  in  the  region  of  the 
Mohawk  river,  varying  in  size  from  minuteness  to  several 
inches  in  diameter.  Very  large  crystals  of  perfectly  pure 
R.  C.  are  sometimes  found.  One  found  in  the  Alps,  and 
which  was  among  the  treasures  carried  from  Italy  by  the 
French  1797,  is  8  ft.  in  diameter,  and  weighs  8  cwt.  K.  C. 
was  prized  by  the  ancients,  and  was  used  by  them,  as  it 
still  is,  for  vases,  cups,  seals,  etc.  Large  spheres  of  pure 
and  flawless  R  C.  are  worked  out  and  polished  by  the 
Japanese.  An  important  modern  use  of  it  is  for  lenses  of 
spectacles,  etc.  ('  pebble  lenses  '),  its  hardness  rendering  it 
much  less  liable  to  be  scratched  than  glass. 

ROCKEFELLER,  John  Davison;  1839,  July  8;  b. 
Richford,  N.  Y.  :  financier.  In  1853  the  family  removed 
to  Cleveland,  O.,  where  R.  graduated  at  the  high  school 
at  16  years  of  age.  While  not  yet  19  years  of  age  he  be- 
came partner  in  the  firm  of  Clark  &  Rockefeller,  and  in 
1865  in  the  oil-refining  firm  of  Rockefeller  &  Andrews. 
In  1870  the  Standard  Oil  Co.,  of  Ohio,  was  organized, 
capital  $1,000,0)0;  John  D.  Rockefeller,  pres.  In  1882, 
the  Standard  Oil  Trust  was  formed  with  capital  $75,- 
000,000,  afterward  increased  to  $95,000,000.  In  1892  the 
Supreme  Court  decided  the  trust  to  be  illegal  ;  it  was  ac- 
cordingly dissolved,  and  the  business  conducted  by  the 
separate  firms  or  companies,  in  each  of  which  John  D. 
Rockefeller  is  a  shareholder.  The  associated  companies 
own  a  vast  extent  of  oil-producing  territory  and  pipe- 
lines, oil-refineries,  steamships,  etc.,  with  distributing 
stations  and  connections  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Mr. 
R.'s  benefactions  are  numerous  and  large,  the  most  exten- 
sive being  to  Chicago  Univ.  (q.v.). 

ROCKET,  n.  rok'U  [F.  roquette—fxom  It.  ruchetta,  the 
rocket;  rucay  garden-rocket — from  L.  eruca,  a  kind  of 
cole-wort:  Ger.  rauke,  the  rocket]:  name  given  to  a  num. 
ber  of  plants  of  nat.  order  Cruciferce,  and  belonging  to 
the  genera  Brassica,  S  t,mbrium,  Erysimum,  Barbarea, 
Hesperis,  etc.—  Garden  R.  (Brassica,  Eruca,  or  Eruc<r 
saliva)  is  an  annual,  native  of  Austria,  with  stem  2  ft.  high, 
upright  and  branching;  leaves  smooth,  succulent,  cut  and 
toothed.  When  in  flower,  it  has  a  strong,  peculiar,  and 
disagreeable  smell;  but  when  it  is  very  young,  this  smell 
is  almost  imperceptible,  and  the  leaves  are  used  as  a  salad, 
for  which  it  is  frequently  sown  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
• — The  name  Garden  R.  is  given  also  to  Hesperis  matro- 
nalis,  called  also  Dame's  Violet  (q.v.),  a  favorite  ornament 
of  flower-borders. — The  Yellow  R.  of  flower- borders  is  a 
double-flowered  variety  of  Barbarea  vulgaris  (see  Cress). — 
The  Wild  R.  (Sisymbrium  officinale,  or  Erysimum  offici- 
nale), is  sometimes  sown  and  used  as  a  spring  pot-herb. 


ROCKET— -ROCK-FISH. 


ROCKET,  n.  rdk'et  [It.  rocca,  a  rock  or  distaff;  rocchelto, 
a  rocket  or  bobbin  to  wind  silk  on,  any  kind  of  rocket  or 
squib  of  wildfire:  Ger.  rakele,  a  rocket]:  firework  con- 
sisting of  a  cylindrical  case  of  pasteboard  filled  with  a 
composition,  whose  combustion  produces  recoil  so  great 
as  to  cause  it  to  ascend  into  the  air,  its  flight  being  guided 
by  a  rod  attached.  R.  is  also  a  weapon  of  war  invented 
by  Sir  William  Congreve;  consisting  of  a  tubular  case  of 
pasteboard,  or  thin  metal,  charged  to  the  muzzle  with  a 
composition  consisting  of  saltpetre  68  parts,  sulphur  12 
parts,  charcoal,  or  mealed  powder,  32  parts.  This  composi- 
tion is  rammed  hard  into  the  case,  the  centre 
being  left  void.  To  the  R.  is  attached  a  long 
stick,  which  serves  (like  the  tail  of  a  kite)  to 
straighten  its  course:  see  Pyrotechny.  When 
lighted  at  the  end,  the  stream  of  gases  propels  the 
mass  on  the  principle  explained  under  Barker's 
Mill.  As  a  mere  firework,  rockets  are  made  of  a 
few  ounces  in  weight:  as  intended  to  throw  light 
upon  a  town  or  a  hostile  work,  they  average  from  \ 
lb.  to  2  lbs.  These  light-rockets  were  improved  by 
Sir  William  Congreve  (1772-1828,  b.  Staffordshire; 
lieut  gen.  in  the  Brit,  army),  who  so  contrived 
them,  that,  when  over  the  necessary  point,  the  R. 
discharged  a  number  of  light  balls  which  burned 
in  the  air  for  several  minutes  with  great  brilliancy, 
while  others  at  the  same  point  released  small 
parachutes  which  sustained  a  bright  light  for  a 
still  longer  time.  But  Sir  William  Congreve  did 
more:  he  converted  the  R.  into  a  terrible  weapon 
of  war,  with  ranges  which  no  ordnance  of  that 
day  could  attain.  Discarding  the  small  sizes,  he 
made  12  lb.,  18-lb.,  and  32-lb.,  rockets,  which  he 
charged  with  canister-shot,  bullets,  and  other  mis- 
siles. The  stick  for  a  32-lb.  R.  is  18  ft.  in  length, 
and  the  maximum  range  3,500 yards.  This  range 
can  be  increased  by  discharging  the  R.  from  a 
cannon,  with  a  time  fuse  to  ignite  it  at  the  can- 
non's utmost  range,  when  the  R.  commences  its 
own  course  As  missiles,  these  rockets  are  found 
to  annoy  most  seriously  the  defenders  in  a  forti- 
fied woik;  and,  in  a  bombardment,  they  speedily 
set  houses  and  buildings  on  fire.  One  great  ad- 
vantage in  a  R.  is,  that  it  has  no  recoil  against 
Congreve  the  stand  from  which  it  is  fired;  the  largest  R. 
Rocket.  may  therefore  be  discharged  without  danger  from 
the  smallest  boat.  For  use  of  rockets  in  shipwrecks,  see 
Life  Mortar  and  Rocket. 

ROCK  ETER,  n.  :  a  term  applied  to  a  bird,  as  a  pheas- 
ant, which,  when  flushed,  rises  rapidly  straight  up  in  the 
air. 

ROCK'-FISII,  see  Wrasse. 


ROCKFORD — ROCKINGHAM. 

ROCKFORD,  rok'ferd:  city,  cap.  of  Winnebago  co., 
TIL;  on  both  sides  of  Rock  river,  and  on  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  the  Chicago  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  the 
Burlington  and  Quincy,  and  the  Illinois  Central  mil- 
roads;  92  m.  w.  of  Chicago.  The  two  parts  of  the  city 
are  connected  by  bridges  across  the  river,  for  railroad, 
and  for  wagon,  street-car,  and  foot  traffic;  and  local 
rapid  transit  is  further  facilitated  by  an  electric  street 
railroad  more  than  10  m.  long.  The  city  is  regularly 
laid  out  and  handsomely  ornamented  with  choice  trees; 
is  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity;  obtains  its  water 
from  artesian  wells  by  means  of  the  Holly  system  of 
pumping  and  distributing;  and  has  an  improved  sewer- 
age system.  In  1844  a  dam  800  ft.  long  was  built  across 
the  Rock  river,  and  from  the  superior  water-power  thus 
obtained  R.  has  become  an  important  manufacturing  city. 
The  industries  comprise  agricultural  implement  works, 
iron  foundries,  furniture  factories,  hosiery  mills,  car- 
riage factories,  boot  and  shoe  factories,  pump  factories, 
cotton-mill,  woolen-mill,  paper-mills,  flour-mills,  watch 
and  watch-case  factories,  cutlery  factory,  stove  foundry, 
and  manufactories  of  wire  goods,  electrical  apparatus, 
burial  caskets,  churns,  soap,  artificial  stone,  steam-heat- 
ing apparatus,  malleable  iron,  gloves  and  mittens,  silver- 
plated  goods,  and  minor  articles.  Among  notable  public 
buildings  are  the  Memorial  Hall  for  Soldiers,  the  city 
hall,  the  court  house,  two  hospitals  and  the  public 
library;  the  library  contains  over  20,000  volumes.  The 
public  school  system  is  of  the  best,  and  includes  a  high 
school,  organized  in  1857;  there  is  also  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic parish  school ;  and  the  city  is  the  seat  of  Rockford 
College  (for  women)  and  of  Brown's  Rockford  Business 
College.  R.  was  settled  1836  and  incorporated  1852. 
Pop.  (1900)  31,051. 

ROCKHAMPTON,  roh-Jiamp'ton :  important  town  of 
Queensland,  on  the  Fitzroy  river,  35  m.  from  its  mouth, 
420  m.  n.w.  of  Brisbane,  nearly  on  the  tropic  of  Capri- 
corn. R.,  which  owes  its  rise  to  the  rush  to  the  gold- 
fields  1858,  is  the  port  for  Central  Queensland,  has  large 
shipping  trade,  and  is  the  starting-point  of  the  Central 
railway  westward.  The  land  westward  is  the  finest  pas- 
toral district  in  Queensland.    Pop.  (1901)  19,691. 

ROCKHILL:  town  in  York  co.,  S.  C. ;  on  the  Southern 
and  the  south  Carolina  &  G.  E.  r.r.'s;  about  25  miles 
s.s.-w.  of  Charlotte,  N.  C.  It  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural 
region  in  which  cotton  is  one  of  the  principal  products. 
The  principal  industries  are  connected  with  cotton  and 
farm  products  and  lumber.  It  is  the  commercial  and 
industrial  centre  of  a  large  part  of  York  co.  The  banks 
have  a  combined  capital  of  $150,000.   Pop.  (1900)  5,485. 


ROCKING  STONES. 


ROCKING  STONES,  or  Loggans,  tig'gam^  large 
massesof  rock  so  finely  poisedasto  move  forward  and  back- 
ward  with  the  slightest  impulse.  They  occur  in  nearh 
every  country.  In  N.  America  they  are  for  the  most  pari 
obviously  but  bowlders  left  by  glaciers  of  the  Glacial 
Period,  or,  in  some  cases,  a  mass  of  fallen  or  of  denuded 
rock.  Some  seem  to  have  been  formed  by  cutting  away  a 
mass  of  rock  round  the  centre-point  of  its  base,  The  for 
mer  are  chiefly  granitic  rocks,  in  which  felspar  and  por 
phyry  are  abundant;  and  these  ingredients  becoming 
rapidly  decomposed,  and  the  dust  and  sand  washed  away 
by  rains,  what  was  formerly  a  solid  rock  assumes  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  group  of  irregularly-shaped  pillars,  having  a 
rhomboidal  horizontal  section,  and  separated  into  portions 
by  horizontal  and  vertical  fissures.  As  decay  proceeds, 
the  edges  of  the  blocks  forming  the  pillar  are  first  at- 
tacked and  disappear,  as  is  also  the  case  with  greenstone 
and  basalt,  and  the  pillar  now  becomes  a  pile  of  two  or 
more  spheroidal  rocks,  resting  one  upon  the  other  (see  fig., 
where  A,  B,  and  C  exhibit  three  successive  stages  in  the 
process  of  decomposition,  as  observed  by  De  Luc  in  the 
mountains  of  Silesia).  Should  a  mass  of  rock  be  so  situ- 
ated as  to  preserve  its  equlibrium  in  spite  of  the  gradual 
diminution  of  its  base  or  point  of  support,  a  rockiug-stone 
or  loggan  is  the  result.  For  an  exposition  of  the  principle 
regulating  the  stability  of  equilibrium  of  R.-S.  see  Stabil- 
ity. Various  explanations  have  been  given  of  the  uses 
of  these  singular  objects.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been 
used  in  very  early  times  for  purposes  of  divination,  the 
number  of  vibrations  determining  the  oracle;  hence  it 
came  to  be  believed  that  sanctity  was  acquired  by  walking 
round  them. 


Some  R.  S.  occur  near  to  remains  of  ancient  fortifications, 
which  seems  to  corroborate  a  statenu  nt  in  one  of  the 
poems  of  Ossian,  that  the  bards  walked  round  the  stone 
singing,  and  made  it  move  as  an  oracle  of  the  fate  of  bat- 
tle. In  Greece,  rocking-stones  occur  as  funeral  monu- 
ments, and  are  generallv 'found  on  conspicuous  places  near 
the  sea.  One  near  Land's  End,  Cornwall,  England,  has 
been  computed  to  weigh  no  less  than  90  tons. 


Rocking  -stone. 


ROCK  ISLAND— ROCKLAND. 

ROCK  ISL'AND:  city,  cap.  of  Rock  Island  CO.,  111.;  on 
the  Mississippi  river  at  the  foot  of  the  upper  rapids,  and 
on  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the  Rock  Island 
and  Peoria,  the  Chicago  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  and  the 
Chicago  Burlington  and  Quincy  railroads ;  opposite  Dav- 
enport, la.,  180  m.  \v.  of  Chicago.  It  is  beautifully  built 
on  a  sloping  plain  that  makes  a  picturesque  break  in  the 
111.  bluffs  of  the  river;  is  lighted  with  electricity ;  has  5 
miles  of  street  railroad;  and  is  supplied  with  water  from 
the  river  by  the  Holly  system,  which  distributes  through 
17  m.  of  mains  in  the  city.  The  city  is  connected  with 
the  island  and  thence  with  Davenport  by  a  wrought-iron 
railroad  and  highway  bridge  built  by  the  U.  S.  govt,  at 
a  cost  of  $1,300,000.  Another  bridge  connects  Moline 
with  the  island,  thus  making  4  The  Triplets  *  one  in 
many  matters  commercial  and  industrial.  The  naviga- 
ble part  of  the  river  is  on  the  w.  of  the  island;  the  e. 
channel  was  closed  by  a  stone  dam  built  by  the  U.  S. 
govt.,  which  gave  the  city  and  the  island  an  immense 
water-power  that  is  utilized  in  both  places.  This  dam 
was  washed  away  1888,  and  has  since  been  replaced  by  a 
stronger  one.  R.  I.  is  named  from  the  beautiful  island 
in  the  river,  which  is  3  m.  long,  comprises  960  acres, 
was  the  site  of  Fort  Armstrong  in  the  Black  Hawk 
(q.v.)  war  and  a  prison  for  captured  Confederates  in 
the  civil  war,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  important  U. 
S.  milit.  reservations  in  the  country,  containing  the  cen- 
tral armory  and  arsenal,  built  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000. 
The  various  manufacturing  establishments  produce 
plows,  stoves,  lumber,  beer,  oil  cloth,  soap,  etc.  R.  I. 
is  the  seat  of  the  Augustana  College  and  Theol.  Sem- 
inary of  the  Swedish  Evang.  ch.,  and  of  other  schools 
and  libraries,  of  St.  Anthony's  Hospital,  and  has  many 
fine  church  and  business  buildings.    Pop.  (1900)  19,493. 

ROCKLAND,  rdk'land:  city,  cap.  of  Knox  co.,  Me.;  on 
Penobscot  Bay  and  the  Knox  and  Lincoln  railroad;  10 
m.  n.w.  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  40  m.  e.s.e.  of  Augusta, 
49  m.  e.n.e.  of  Bath.  It  has  a  water-front  of  4y2  m.; 
an  excellent  harbor  protected  by  a  granite  breakwater; 
fire,  water,  gas,  and  electric  light  services;  churches, 
schools,  public  library;  federal  building  (erected  1874-5 
at  a  cost  of  $175,000)  ;  co.  court-house  (cost  $80,000)  ; 
manufactures  of  machinery  and  stone-working  tools, 
granite-quarrying,  ship-building  and  other  industrial  in- 
terests. Its  principal  exports  are  lime  (about  1,000,000 
casks  annually),  and  granite.  The  custom-house  at  St. 
Louis,  and  the  postoffices  at  New  York  and  Cincinnati 
were  built  with  granite  from  the  R.  quarries.  Boston  and 
Bangor  steamboats  stop  at  R.  The  city  incorporated 
1848  and  chartered  1854.    Pop.  (1900)  8,150. 

ROCK'LAND:  town  in  Plymouth  co.,  Mass.;  on  the 
Old  Colony  railroad;  19  m.  s.e.  of  Boston.  It  is  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  boots,  shoes,  and  tacks ;  and  also 
has  box-board  works,  shoe-box  works.    Pop.  (1900)  5,321. 


ROCKLAND— ROCK-SALT. 

ROCK  LAN  D  Lake:  beautiful  sheet  of  water  in  Rockland 
co.,  N.  V.,  3U  m.  n.  of  New  York,  1  m.  from  the  Hudson, 
160  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  is  notable  as  furnishing  euor- 
nious  quantities  of  pure  ice  for  supply  of  New  York,  and 
for  export. 

ROCK  LING  (Motella):  genus  of  fishes  of  the  Cod  and 
Haddock  family  (Gadidce),  having  an  elongated  body,  com- 
pressed toward  the  tail;  the  first  dorsal  tin  very  slightly 
elevated,  and  very  delicate;  the  second  dorsal  and  the  anal 
fins  long,  continued  almost  to  the  tail  fin.  The  species 
vary  much  in  size.   None  are  much  regarded  by  fishermen; 


Three-bearded  Rockling  or  Sea  Loach  (Motella  tricirrata). 
one  reason  being  that  decomposition  takes  place  very 
rapidly  after  they  are  taken  out  of  the  water,  though,  when 
quite  fresh,  they  are  good  for  the  table. 

ROCKPORT,  rvk'pdrt:  village  and  seaport  of  Essex  co.» 
Mass. ;  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroad ;  32  m.  n.e.  of  Boston.  It  has  churches,  public  library, 
cotton  mill,  organ  factory,  isinglass  manufactories, 
widely  noted  granite  quarries,  large  fishing  and  farming 
interests,  national  and  savings  banks,  public  schools, 
and  electric  street  railroads.  The  n.e.  part  right  on  the 
ocean  at  the  extremity  of  Cape  Ann  known  as  Pigeon 
Cove,  is  picturesquely  situated,  has  become  a  popular  sum- 
mer resort  for  its  charming  marine  views  and  its  salubrious 
air,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  granite  interests.  Its  quarries  sup- 
plied the  stone  for  the  new  post-office  in  Boston.  Pop.  of 
R.  (1880)  3,912;  (1890)  4,087;  (1900)  4,592. 

ROCK-SALT:  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  occur- 
in  g  as  a  mineral  and  solid.  It  is  always  mixed  with  various 
impurities.  It  is  found  massive  or  crystallized,  its  crystals 
generally  cubes,  its  masses  very  often  either  granular  or 
fibrous.  It  is  white,  gray,  or,  owing  to  impurities,  more 
rarely  red,  violet,  blue,  or  striped.  For  its  chemical  and 
other  qualities,  see  Salt.  It  is  very  extensively  diffused, 
and  in  some  places  forms  great  rock  and  even  mountain 
masses.  Islands  of  it  in  the  marshes  of  Petite  Anse,  n. 
of  Vermilion  Bay,  La.,  were  discovered  about  30  years 
since,  and  are  now  worked  extensively.  Recent  wide 
borings  indicate  vast  beds  in  western  N.  Y.,  reached  at 
intervals.  In  at  least  23  states,  there  are  wells  and  springs 
tbat  give  evidence  of  salt  deposits.   A  hill  of  R.-S.  near 


ROCK-SOAP— ROCKVILLE. 


Montserrat,  Spain,  is  500  ft.  high.  The  island  of  Ormuz, 
in  the  Persian  Gulf,  is  formed  of  R.-S.  The  Indus,  in 
its  upper  course,  forces  its  way  through  hills  of  R.-S. 
that  rise  in  cliffs  100  ft.  above  the  river.  In  many  parts 
of  the  world  R.-S.  is  found  in  beds  under  the  soil  or 
other  rocks.  Those  of  Cheshire  in  England  yield  almost 
all  the  salt  used  in  Britain,  great  part  of  which  is 
pumped  from  them  in  the  form  of  brine.  The  mines  of 
Wieliczka,  in  Poland,  are  of  great  extent:  the  workings 
are  at  depths  from  200  to  740  ft.,  and  the  salt  at  the 
deepest  working  is  the  purest.  Some  chambers  in  the 
mines  are  said  to  be  300  ft.  high.  The  mines  give  em- 
ployment to  1,200  or  1,400  workmen;  and  they  have 
been  wrought  for  centuries.  Vast  quantities  of  R.-S. 
occur  in  many  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  In 
Caramania  and  Arabia  it  is  used  sometimes  for  building 
houses,  the  dryness  of  the  climate  rendering  its  solubil- 
ity unimportant. — The  salt  which  crystallizes  on  the 
margins  and  bottoms  of  salt  lakes  may  be  regarded  as 
a  variety  of  rock-salt. — Concerning  the  salt  of  the  ocean, 
the  salt  found  in  many  desert  regions  as  an  efflorescence 
on  the  ground  or  on  rocks,  the  salt  with  which  sand- 
stone and  other  rocks  are  impregnated,  etc.,  see  Salt. 

ROCK'-SOAP:  mineral  consisting  of  silica,  alumina, 
peroxide  of  iron,  and  water,  the  silica  nearly  one-half, 
the  alumina  and  the  water  sometimes  nearly  each  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole.  It  is  earthy,  easily  broken,  black 
or  nearly  so,  very  soft,  and  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  is 
greasy  to  the  touch,  and  adheres  strongly  to  the  tongue. 
It  is  valued  by  painters  for  crayons.  It  is  found  in  a 
number  of  places  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  occurs 
in  trap  rocks  in  the  Isle  of  Skye.  It  is  found  only 
massive. 

ROCKVILLE,  roh'vil:  city  in  Tolland  co.,  Conn.;  on 
the  Hockanum  river,  and  on  the  New  York  and  New 
England  railroad;  15  m.  e.n.e.  of  Hartford.  The  river 
drains  Snipsic  Lake,  and  at  R.  has  a  number  of  falls 
(aggregating  280  ft.  in  total  fall)  which  furnish  excep- 
tional motive  power  for  the  milling  interests  that  have 
made  R.  noted  since  1821.  There  are  about  20  manufac- 
turing establishments  of  importance,  chief  of  which  are 
envelope  factories,  considered  among  the  largest  in  the 
world,  and  others  producing  silks,  woolens,  gingham, 
satinet,  stockinet,  warps,  and  sewing  silk.  The  princi- 
pal public  buildings  are  the  churches,  a  high  school, 
public  and  parish  schools,  and  a  free  libra rv  (cost 
$100,000).  The  city  was  settled  in  1716  by  a  colony 
from  East  Windsor:  was  set  off  from  the  old  town  of 
Vernon  and  chartered  as  a  city  by  the  legislature  1888-0, 
and  held  its  first  municipal  election  1889,  Dec.  2.  Pop. 
(1900)  7,287. 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS:  the  North  American  part  of 
the  great  mountain  system  extending  along  the  w.  side  of 
the  American  hemisphere,  from  Patagonia  in  the  s.  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean  in  the  n.  The  R.  M.  part  of  the  system 
stands  opposite  the  deep  north  Pacific  Ocean  up  and  down 
the  whole  length  of  tiie  w.  side  of  the  continent.  It  may 
be  primarily  distinguished  as  in  two  parts,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Coast  ranges  directly  fronting  the  ocean,  and 
the  main  Rocky  chain  which  forms  the  great  water  divide 
of  the  continent.  The  apex  of  the  continent  is  found  in  the 
region,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  in  the 
world,  which  has  been  made  by  the  U.  S.  govt,  the  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park.  It  lies  in  the  n.w.  corner  of 
Wyoming,  hemmed  in  on  every  side  by  mountains  of  vol- 
canic origin,  the  waters  of  which  flow  on  the  n.  and  w.  to 
the  Missouri  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico; *on  the  s.w.  and  s.  to 
the  Columbia  and  the  Pacific  Ocean;  and  on  the  s.  by 
Green  river  to  the  Colorado  and  the  Gulf  of  California. 
The  vast  mountain  region  w.  of  long.  105°  shows  geograph- 
ical unity,  with  a  breadth  between  the  36th  and  41st  par- 
allels of  lat.  of  800  to  1,000  m.  An  important  subdivi- 
sion is  made  by  noting  the  portion  of  the  whole  system 
which  shows  a  n.  and  s.  trend  of  the  chief  ranges,  forming 
a  southern  division,  and  that  in  which  the  chief  ranges 
show  a  n.w.  and  s.e.  trend,  and  form  a  northern  division. 
Between  the  two,  crosswise  from  e.  to  w.,  a  marked  oro- 
graphic break  occurs,  in  the  form  of  a  high  plateau  region, 
over  which  the  line  of  the  Union  Pacific  r.r.  passes  at  an 
elevation  of  over  8,000  ft.  The  profile  of  the  road  shows  an 
elevation  of  1,060  ft.  at  Omaha;  6,075  ft.  at  Cheyenne,  an 
ascent  of  nearly  10  ft.  in  a  mile  for  516  m.,  but  appearing 
to  follow  a  level  plain,  most  of  the  wa}'  along  the  valley  of 
the  Platte;  and  from  Cheyenne  to  Sherman,  the  summit — 
a  distance  of  33  m. — a  rise  of  66  ft.  in  a  m. ,  to  an  elevation 
of  8,271  ft.  The  Kansas  Pacific  line  rises  from  764  ft.  at 
Kansas  City  to  5,197  ft.  at  Denver,  or  nearly  7  ft.  per  m. 
for  639  m.,  but  seemingly  over  a  level,  treeless  plain.  The 
division  n.  of  the  plateau  shows  in  general  a  lower  and 
less  impressive  mountain  scene  than  the  southern,  a  more 
uniform  height  of  the  ranges  and  absence  of  dominating 
monarch  peaks,  and  greater  monotony  of  details;  with, 
however,  the  remarkable  exception  of  the  Wind  River 
Mountains,  wrhich  form  the  culminating  region  of  the  con- 
tinent, with  Fremont  13,570  ft.  high,  and  the  source  of 
waters  which  become  the  Missouri,  the  Columbia,  and  the 
Colorado  rivers;  also  showing  immediately  n.  the  Yellow- 
stone geyser  region.  The  ascent  to  the  Wind  River  range 
from  the  great  plateau  is  by  the  Sweetwater,  a  lower  range; 
and  e.  of  the  Wind  River  lies  the  Big  Horn  range,  showing 
Cloud  Peak  7,300  ft.  high.  Farther  e.  still,  and  quite  iso- 
lated in  the  plain  (which  has  an  elevation  of  2,500  to  3,000 
ft.),  are  the  Black  Hills,  between  the  two  forks  of  the  Chey- 
enne river.  They  cover  an  area  about  100  m.  in  length 
and  60  in  breadth,  and  are  clothed  with  dense  growth  of 
piue.  The  peaks  rise  6,000  to  7,000  ft,  above  the  plain.  The 
Northern  Pacific  r.r.  strikes  across  the  plains  from  the  w» 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


end  of  Lake  Superior  to  the  Missouri  at  Bismarck,  and 
crossing,  runs  almost  straight  to  the  Yellowstone,  thence 
along  that  river  340  m.,  and  crosses  back  to  the  Mo.  at 
Gallatin,  and  follows  it  100  m.  to  Helena,  and  there  makes, 
by  way  of  Mullan's  Pass,  the  ascent  of  the  main  divide  of 
the  R.  M.,  passing  under  the  summit  by  a  tunnel  3,850  ft. 
long,  at  an  elevation  of  5,548  ft.  In  their  n.w.  portion 
the  R.  M.  include  the  important  Bitter  Root  range,  a  part 
of  which  forms  the  main  divide  between  the  Missouri  and 
the  Columbia;  the  Lapwai  and  Coeur  d'Alene  ranges  w. 
and  n.w.  of  the  Bitter  Root;  the  Crazy  Mountains  lying 
isolated  n.  of  the  Yellowstone  river,  with  numerous  peaks 
about  11,000  ft.  high;  and  the  Judith  Mountains,  also  iso- 
lated, further  northeast. 

Much  nearer  the  Pacific  than  these  n.e.  parts  of  the  R.  M. 
system  is  found  the  long  Cascade  range,  which  becomes 
further  s.  the  grand  Sierra  Nevada  range,  along  the  e. 
side  of  California.  The  Cascade  range  extends  fully  500 
m.  through  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  beyond  the  n. 
boundary  of  the  U.  S.  The  principal  continuous  ridge  is 
comparatively  low,  but  from  it  rise  at  irregular  intervals 
great  volcanic  cones,  and  other  remarkable  peaks,  appar- 
ently volcanic,  but  not  conical.  At  75  m.  n.  of  Shasta,  the 
last  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  peaks  toward  the  n.,  Mount 
Pitt,  rises  9,718  ft.  iu  conical  form.  Similar  to  it  is  Mount 
Jefferson  150  m.  farther  n.,  and  between  them  are  various 
peaks,  notably  a  group  of  five,  three  of  which,  seen  in  the 
distance,  are  known  as  the  Three  Sisters.  Somewhat  less 
than  100  m.  n.  of  Jefferson  there  occurs  the  great  cut  of 
Columbia  river  through  the  volcanic  mass  which  all  along 
here  constitutes  the  range.  The  cut  goes  down  to  within 
about  100  ft.  above  sea-level.  Here  rise  three  of  the  best 
defined  volcanic  cones  of  the  range,  Mount  Hood  on  the 
s.  of  the  river,  and  Mounts  Adams  and  St.  Helens  on  the  n., 
the  first  rising  11,225  ft.  and  the  other  two  about  10,500. 
Mount  Rainier,  75  m.  n.  of  the  Columbia,  reaches  an  eleva- 
tion of  14,444  ft.,  and  still  further  u.  is  Mount  Baker,  which 
is  known  to  have  been  active  as  a  volcano  in  1848,  54,  58, 
and  70.  To  the  n.  of  the  usual  limit  of  the  R.  M.  in  that 
direction,  the  mountains  extend  without  any  permanent 
interruption  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  Mount  St.  Elias,  in 
Alaska,  is  a  volcanic  peak  17,500  ft.  high. 

Going  back  to  the  s.  end  of  the  Cascade  range,  the  mount- 
ain chain  becomes  the  grandest  of  the  whole  system  within 
the  U.  S.,  under  the  name  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which 
begins  with  Mount  Shasta,  14,442  ft.  high,  and  extends  s. 
more  than  450  m.,  with  the  highest  peaks  of  the  R.  M., 
though  not  such  a  vast  number  of  high  peaks  as  in  the 
Colorado  group,  and  with  scenery  of  surpassing  beauty  and 
grandeur.  Some  of  the  principal  Sierra  peaks  are  Mt. 
Tyndall  14,386  ft.,  Mt.  Kaweah  14,000  ft.,  Mt.  Brewer 
18,886  ft.,  Red  Slate  Peak  13,400  ft.,  Mt.  Dana  13,277,  and 
Mt.  Whitney  14,887  ft.  The  Sierra  range  forms  the  w. 
border  of  the  continental  plateau  of  which  the  main  Rocky 
chain  forms  the  e.  border,  The  w.  side  of  the  Sierra  falls 
nearly  to  the  level  of  the  sea  within  about  100  m. ,  and  thus 


ROCOA. 

forms  a  grandly  conspicuous  scene.  Evidences  of  volcanic 
action  are  seen  everywhere,  as  in  the  Cascade  range;  and 
even  now  numerous  hot  springs  and  geysers  appear,  and 
earthquake  shocks  are  frequent.  Snow  falls  to  the  depth 
of  40  or  50  ft.,  and  much  of  it  remains  through  the  year. 
Enormous  glaciers  occur  on  the  n.  side  of  the  mountains, 
about  65  in  number;  and  moraines  and  glacial  lakes, 
indicating  ancient  glacial  action,  are  found  in  great  num- 
bers. The  Yosemite  Valley,  which  bas  been  set  apart  by 
the  U.  S.  as  a  national  pleasure  ground,  is  remarkable  for 
rugged  scenery  marvellously  impressive  and  beautiful.  W. 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges  are  the  Coast 
ranges  of  California  and  Oregon,  greatly  inferior  in  impor- 
tance, but  a  part  of  the  system. 

The  division  of  the  R.  M.  is  about  600  m.  long  from  n. 
to  s.,  and  800  in  breadth.  Its  e.  edge  shows  a  double 
range,  inclosing  a  system  of  high  plateau-like  valleys,  or 
inter-mountain  parks  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  to  10,000  ft., 
and  around  which  the  mountains  rise  3,000  to  4,000  ft. 
higher.  The  chief  of  these  inclosed  spaces  are  the  North, 
Middle,  and  South  Parks,  drained  by  the  head-waters  of  the 
Platte,  Colorado,  and  Arkansas;  and  the  San  Luis  Park, 
in  which  lies  the  upper  course  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The 
Front  or  Colorado  range  proper  is  a  broad  lofty  mass  run- 
ning s.  from  near  the  Union  Pacific  plateau,  in  40°  n.  lat. 
to  Pike's  Peak  (14,147  ft.  high),  with  Long's  Peak,  also, 
and  Gray's  Peak  (respectively  14,271  ft.  and  14,341  ft.  high). 
Tt  forms  the  continental  divide  from  its  n.  end  as  far  as 
Gray's  Peak,  where  the  divide  turns  w.  for  20  m.,  crossing 
to  the  Sawatch  range,  which  it  follows  for  75  m.  The 
Sawatch  is  one  of  the  highest  chains  of  the  R.  M.  Its 
chief  peaks  are  Holy  Cross  (14,176  ft  ),  and  Mount  Harvard 
(14,375  ft,),  Mount  Yale  (14,150  ft.),  Mount  Princeton 
(14,199  ft.),  and  many  others  nearly  as  high.  The  conti- 
nental divide  passes  from  the  s.  end  of  Sawatch  s.w.  about 
75  m.  over  a  high  region  showing  no  range,  to  the  San 
Juan  range,  the  crest  of  which  it  follows  in  a  s.e.  direc- 
tion, with  many  points  above  13,000  ft.  high,  and  the  cul- 
minating one,  Uncompahgre  Peak  14,235  ft.  To  the  w. 
of  the  Sawatch  range  are  the  Elk  Mountains,  a  volcanic 
mass  of  sharp  pinnacles,  among  which  Castle  Peak  rises  to 
14r000  ft.  The  Sangre  de  Cristo  range  is  almost  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Sawatch:  it  has  Blanca  Peak  14.463  ft. 
high.  W.  from  the  San  Juan  range  the  plateau  region  of 
sedimentary  rocks,  marvellously  cut  by  canons  or  ravines, 
extends  to  the  Colorado  river.  The  Uintah  range  is  re- 
markable as  having  an  e.  and  w.  trend.  It  starts  from  the 
Wahsatch  range  and  runs  e.  150  m.,  with  these  chief  points, 
Gilbert's  Peak  (13,687  ft.),  Tokewanna  (13,485).  and  Wil- 
son's Peak  (13,235  ft.).  The  Wahsatch  range,  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  of  the  R.  JVI.  system,  forms  the  w.  limit 
of  thes.  division.  It  has  a  n.  and  s.  trend,  and  rises  nearly 
12,000  ft.  in  that  point  just  e.  of  Salt  Lake  City. 

ROCOA,  n.  ro/w-a  [F.  roucou:  Brazilian,  urucu\.  the 
vegetable  pulp  which  yields  arnotto,  which  see;  also  spelled 
Rocou  or  Roucou. 


ROCOCO— ROCROL 
ROCOCO,  a.  rd-Mkd  [F.  ~coco,  antiquated,  old-fash- 
ioned]: having  a  general  t3ndency  to  be  bizarre  in  archi- 
tecture, decoration,  or  furniture,  after  the  French  style  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  XV. ;  the  name  was  applied  first  to  the 
very  debased  style  of  architecture  and  decoration  which 
succeeded  the  first  revival  of  Italian  architecture.  It  is 
ornamental  design  run  mad,  without  principle  or  taste. 
A  similar  style  prevailed  in  Germany  and  Belgium  during 


Rococo  Ornament. ' 


the  18th  c,  and  in  France  during  the  time  of  Henry  IV. 
The  fig.  is  an  example  from  an  altar  in  the  Church  of  St. 
James's,  Antwerp. 

ROCROI,  ro-krwd':  small  town  of  France,  dept.  of 
Ardennes,  15  m.  n.w.  of  Mezi6res,  a  fortress  of  the  fourth 
class,  in  a  fine,  extensive  plain,  bounded  on  all  sides  by  the 
forest  of  Ardennes.  Pop.  about  2,200.  It  is  memorable 
for  the  victory  gained  by  the  Great  Conde  (then  Duke  of 
Enghien)  over  the  Spaniards,  1643,  May  19.  The  Spanish 
army  was  composed  of  veteran  bands  of  Walloons, 
Spaniards,  and  Italians;  and  their  general,  Don  Francisco 
de  Mellos,  gov.  of  the  Low  Countries,  was  a  commander 
worthy  of  his  army.  The  French  (22,000)  were  also  good 
troops;  but  their  general,  Conde,  was  a  young  and  inex- 
perienced officer.  At  first,  the  battle  was  unfavorable  to 
the  French,  but  at  last  the  Spaniards  were  thrown  into 
irretrievable  rout.  The  Count  of  Fuentes,  the  commander 
of  the  redoubtable  infantry,  and  10,000  of  his  men,  were 
among  the  slain;  and  5,000  men,  with  all  the  cannon,  many 
standards,  and  the  baton  of  the  Count  de  Mellos,  were  cap- 
tured. But,  far  beyond  all  material  losses,  the  renown  of 
invincibility,  acquired  by  the  Spanish  infantry  first  on  the 
field  of  Pavia  (1525),  and  confirmed  at  St0  Quentin,  Grave- 
lines,  and  Prague,  was  destroyed. 


ROD— RODENTIA. 

ROD,  n.  rod  [Dut.  roede;  Ger.  ruthe,  a  rod:  Wal.  rudar, 
the  pole  of  a  carriage]:  staff  or  wand  as  a  badge  of  author- 
ity; a  shoot  or  long  twig;  instrument  of  punishment  or  cor- 
rection; measure  of  length  containing  five  yards  and  a  half, 
or  16^  ft. — more  frequently  termed  a  pole  or  perch  (for  the 
'square  rod,'  used  in  estimating  mason  work,  see  Rood): 
in  Scrip.,  a  sprout,  hence  race  or  family.  Roddy,  a. 
roddi,  full  of  rods  and  twigs.  Rod-iron,  long  slender 
bars  of  iron  for  making  nails. 

RODE,  v.  rod:  past  tense  of  Ride,  which  see. 

RODENTIA,  n.  ro  den's7ii-q[L.  rodens  or  roden'tem, 
gnawing — from  rodere,  to  gnaw] :  extensive  class  of  animals, 
so  called  from  their  habit  of  gnawing  or  nibbling  their 
food,  as  the  rat,  hare,  rabbit,  beaver,  etc.  Rodent,  a. 
ro'dent,  gnawing:  N.  one  of  the  gnawers,  as  the  rat,  the 
squirrel,  etc. — The  Rodentia  in  the  system  of  Cuvier,  are  an 
order  of  mammalia,  almost  exactly  corresponding  with  the 
Olires  of  Linnaeus.  The  order  is  a  truly  natural  one,  and 
therefore  universally  recognized  by  naturalists.  The  R. 
are  small  quadrupeds;  the  largest  of  them — the  Capybara— 
not  beiug  equal  in  size  to  a  hog,  while  to  this  order  belong 
also  the  smallest  of  mammalia.  They  are  very  numerous, 
and  widely  distributed  over  the  globe,  particularly  abun- 
dant in  S.  America,  and  rarest  in  Australia.  They  all  are 
remarkably  characterized  by  their  front  teeth,  variously 
regarded  as  incisors  and  canines — the  true  incisors  or 
canines  being  absent — which  are  large  and  of  peculiar  struct- 
ure, two  in  each  jaw,  and  separated  by  a  considerable 
vacant  interval  from  the  molars.  The  front  teeth  have  a 
plate  of  hard  enamel  in  front,  which  wears  more  slowly 
than  the  substance  of  the  rest  of  the  tooth,  so  that  being 
employed  on  hard  substances,  they  acquire  a  chisel-like 
form,  and  unlike  the  teeth  of  mammals  in  general,  they  are 
always  growing  from  a  fresh  pulp  at  the  base,  so  that  com- 
pensation is  made  for  the  wearing  away  at  the  tips;  but 
when  a  tooth  is  accidently  destroyed,  the  opposite  tooth, 
continuing  to  grow,  sometimes  acquires  a  monstrous  shape 
and  size,  from  which  cause  rats  and  other  rodents  have  been 
known  to  die,  the  enormous  tooth  preventing  the  eating  of 
food,  or  even  recurving  and  piercing  the  skull.  The  ordi- 
nary food  of  most  rodents  consists  of  vegetable  substances, 
generally  hard,  and  their  front  teeth  are  adapted  for  com- 
minuting it  by  gnawing,  and  are  used  also  for  gnawing 
wood,  the  shells  of  nuts,  etc.,  to  obtain  access  to  food.  The 
molar  teeth  have  flat  crowns,  having  ridges  of  euamel,  which 
make  them  more  or  less  tuberculous;  and  these  are  in  the 
line  of  the  jaw,  while  the  only  horizontal  motion  of  which 
the  lower  jaw  is  capable  is  forward  and  backward,  thus 
making  the  ridges  of  the  molar  teeth  powerful  instruments 
for  the  reduction  of  hard  substances;  the  jaws  also  being  in 
general  very  strong.  In  the  rodents  which  eat  only  vege- 
table food,  the  molar  teeth  have  rounded  tubercles;  whi!e 
in  the  omnivorous  kind — as  rats— the  tubercles  becorre 
sharp  points.  The  stomach  is  simple;  the  intestines  are 
very  long;  the  caecum  is  often  large,  sometimes  larger  thai? 
the  stomach  itself.    The  brain  is  not  large,  aDd  is  neany 


RODERICK. 

smooth,  and  without  convolutions;  the  rodents  are  not 
generally  distinguished  for  sagacity,  though  some  of  them — 


Skull  of  the  Beaver,  showing  the  Dentition, 
as  the  beaver— show  remarkable  instincts.  Most  of  them 
may  be  easily  tamed,  but  few  of  them  seem  capable 
of  learning  anything,  and  in  general  they  merely  acquire 
a  familiarity  with  man,  of  which  the  rabbit  is  a  perfect 
example,  though  the  rat  manifests  a  far  higher  intelli- 
gence. The  eyes  are  directed  laterally.  The  rodents 
very  generally  have  the  hinder  limbs  larger  than  the  fore, 
and  their  motion  is  partly  a  kind  of  leaping.  In  some, 
this  is  as  completely  the  case  as  in  kangaroos.  Some,  as 
squirrels,  have  an  admirable  power  of  climbing  trees;  and 
a  few,  as  beavers  and  water-voles,  are  aquatic.  Most,  if 
not  all,  have  the  habit  of  sitting  on  their  haunches, 
and  holding  their  food  to  their  mouth  by  their  fore- 
paws;  using  both  paws  together,  however,  as  the  fore  feet 
have  not  at  all  the  character  of  a  hand.  The  thumb 
is  never  opposable  to  the  other  toes;  sometimes  it  is  rudi- 
mentary or  wanting.  The  bones  of  the  fore-leg  are  gener- 
ally separate,  but  have  not  so  much  freedom  of  motion  as 
in  the  Carnivora.  The  toes  are  terminated  by  claws.  The 
presence  or  absence  of  clavicles  (collar-bones)  divides  the 
order  into  two  sections,  to  the  hrst  of  which,  having  clavi- 
cles, belong  squirrels,  mice,  rats,  voles,  the  beaver,  etc.; 
and  to  the  second,  without  clavicles,  belong  porcupines, 
cavies,  chinchillas,  hares,  rabbits,  etc.  The  rodents  are 
very  numerous,  about  400  species  being  known. 

RODERICK,  rod'er-ik:  last  king  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain;  whose  tragic  downfall,  coincident  with  that  of  the 
Visigothic  monarchy,  has  inspired  poets  and  romancers 
(including  historians)  to  throw  round  him  a  halo  of  glory: 
he  began  to  reign  709;  d.  711,  July.  The  Spanish  and 
Arab  historians  contradict  each  other  in  almost  every 
particular  of  R.'s  life — the  Arab  being,  on  the  whole,  appar- 
ently the  more  trustworthy.  According  to  them,  R.  was 
of  humble  birth,  but  rose,  through  his  talent  and  bravery, 
to  the  command  of  the  cavalry.  A  conspiracy  having  been 
formed  against  Witiza,  the  reigniug  monarch,  by  the 
clergy  and  the  nobles  of  Roman  blood,  R.  was  elevated  to 
the  throne  709,  and  by  his  energy  and  talent  soon  quelled 
all  opposition.  The  sons  of  Witiza,  however,  joined  with 
some  malcontent  Visigothic  nobles— among  whom  was 
Count  Julian — and  agreed  to  summon  to  their  assistance 
the  Arab  chief,  Muza  ibn  Nozeir,  who  had  just  finished  the 


RODEZ—RODGERS. 

Conquest  of  Mauritania.  The  Spanish  writers,  on  the 
other  hand,  assert  that  ihe  country  groaned  under  the  tyran- 
nical government  of  R.,  that  his  licentious  behavior  had 
disgusted  many  of  his  nobles,  and  that  the  people  were 
ripe  for  a  revolution  when  the  Moslem  invasion  took  place. 
Both  are  agreed  as  to  the  time  and  mode  of  the  invasion; 
but  the  Arab  historians  brand  Count  Julian  with  the  most 
atrocious  treachery,  as  not  only  voluntarily  surrendering 
Ceuta,  the  key  of  the  country,  but  actually  guiding  the 
13,000  Berbers  and  Arabs  under  Tarik  into  Spain.  A 
landing  was  effected  at  Algesiras,  711,  Apr.  28;  and  in 
spite  of  vigorous  opposition  from  the  gov.  of  Andalusia, 
Tarik  marched  on,  routing  ii.'s  chosen  cavalry,  which  had 
been  sent  to  oppose  him.  R.,  who  had  been  employed  in 
another  quarter,  now  hastened  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
which  is  variously  estimated  at  50,000  to  100,000  men,  to 
oppose  the  daring  invaders,  who  by  this  time  had  been  so 
reinforced  from  Africa  and  by  rebels  that  their  numbers  (as 
reported)  amounted  to  25,000.  The  t  wo  armies  met  on  the 
banks  of  the  Guadalete,  near  Xeresdela  Frontera,  and  July 
17  the  battle  commenced.  R,  directed  the  centre  of  his 
army  in  person,  appointing  the  sons  of  Witiza  to  command 
the  wings,  and  the  battle  raged  furiously  for  three  clays;  a 
single  combat  then  took  place  between  R.  and  Tarik — a 
kind  of  statement  extremely  frequent  in  eastern  histories — 
in  which  the  former  was  slain,  and  his  head  cut  off,  to  be 
embalmed  and  sent  to  Muza.  The  Christians,  enraged  at 
the  loss  of  their  chief,  fought  furiously  six  days  longer, 
but  all  in  vain,  for  victory  declared  itself  decisively  in 
favor  of  the  Moslems,  to  whom  the  sons  of  Witiza  had 
deserted  soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  contest,  and 
the  rout  of  R.'s  army  was  complete.  The  most  ancient 
Spanish  chroniclers  agree  in  asserting  that  R.  either  died 
on  the  field  or  sank  in  the  Guadalete,  while  attempting  to 
save  himself  by  swimming  his  horse  across;  and  the  vari- 
ous stories  of  his  escape  and  subsequent  adventures  are  of 
much  later  date.  This  decisive  victory  laid  all  central 
and  s.  Spain  at  the  feet  of  the  Arabs.  R.  has  been  made 
the  hero  of  an  epic  poem  b}^  Southey. 

RODEZ,  ro-dci' :  small  town  of  France,  cap.  of  the 
dept.  of  Aveyron;  on  the  crest  and  slope  of  a  hill,  on  the 
n.  bank  of  the  Aveyron.  Its  streets  are  steep,  narrow, 
winding,  and  dirty;  but  the  promenades  around  the  town 
are  pleasant.  The  cathedral,  with  a  clock-tower  of  great 
height,  is  a  Gothic  structure  of  the  15th  c.  A  variety  of 
woolen  cloths  are  manufactured,  and  cUeese  of  highly 
esteemed  quality.    Pop.  16,100. 

RODGERS,  roj'erz,  CmusTorHEii  Raymond  Perky: 
naval  officer:  born  New  York,  1819,  Nov.  14.  He  became 
a  midshipman  1833,  served  in  the  war  with  the  Seminoles, 
in  the  blockading  force  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was 
afterward  engaged  in  the  coast  survey.  In  the  civil  war 
he  rendered  invaluable  service  at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal, 
at  Fort  Pulaski,  Charleston;  and  in  the  blockading  force 
in  the  s.  Atlantic;  afterward  commanded  in  foreign  waters; 
was  in  charge  of  the  bureau  of  docks  and  yards  1871-74; 


RODGERS. 

and,  with  the  exception  of  two  years,  in  wiiich  he  was  in 
commau d  of  the  Pacific  naval  force,  was  supt.  of  the  Naval 
Acad  1874-81.  He  was  promoted  capt.  1866,  commander 
1870,  rear-admiral  1874,  and  was  retired  1881.  He  was 
pres.  of  the  international  conference  for  selecting  a  prime 
meridian  1885  ;  d.  1892,  Jan.  8. 

RODGERS,  John:  naval  officer:  1771,  July  11—1838, 
Aug.  1;  b.  Harford  co.,  Md.  After  serving  five  years  in  the 
merchant  marine,  he  became  capt.  1789,  entered  the  U.  S. 
navy  with  the  rank  of  lieut.  1798,  and  was  executive 
officer  of  the  Constellation  when  she  captured  the  French 
frigate  L'  Insurgente  1799,  for  which  service  he  received  a 
medal  and  was  soon  afterward  promoted.  He  was  active 
in  quelling  an  insurrection  in  Santo  Domingo;  sailed  to 
France  with  govt,  dispatches  1801;  went  to  Tripoli  1802, 
and  the  following  year  captured  the  Meshonda,  a  Moorish 
ship,  and  with  the  aid  of  another  vessel  destroyed  a  Tri- 
politan  corsair.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  1803, 
Dec,  but  the  following  July  sailed  to  rejoin  the  squadron 
acting  against  Tripoli,  to  the  command  of  which  he  suc- 
ceeded, with  the  rank  of  commodore,  1805,  May  22.  He 
secured  the  abolition  of  tribute  which  Tripoli  had  exacted 
from  Europeans,  and  an  edict  forbidding  the  enslaving  of 
captives  taken  from  Christian  nations,  and  obtained  similar 
concessions  from  the  bey  of  Tunis.  He  was  stationed  at 
New  York  1805-09,  and  was  in  command  of  the  naval 
force  on  the  Atlantic  coast  1809-12  to  check  the  operations 
of  the  British  who  were  impressing  Americans  into  their 
naval  service;  and  was  in  command  of  the  President  in  the 
famous  attack  on  the  British  war-ship  Little  Belt  1811, 
May  16,  an  action  which  incrensed  the  ill-feeling  between 
the  two  nations,  but  in  which  R.  was  sustained  by  a  court 
of  inquiry.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  captured  23  prizes, 
and  rendered  valuable  service  in  the  defense  of  Baltimore. 
He  was  president  of  the  board  of  naval  commissioners 
1815-24,  was  in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  squadron 
1824-27,  and  again  pres.  of  the  naval  board  1827-37.  He 
died  at  Philadelphia. 

RODG'ERS,  John:  naval  officer:  1812,  Aug.  8-1882, 
May  5;  b.  Harford  Co.,  Md.;  son  of  Commander  John  R. 
He  became  a  midshipman  in  the  navy  1828,  and  after  serv- 
ing in  the  Mediterranean  squadron  spent  2  years  at  the 
Norfolk  Naval  School  and  studied  A  year  at  the  Univ.  of 
Virginia.  He  was  afterward  at  the  Brazil  station,  served 
in  the  Seminole  war,  made  valuable  charts  and  sailing  di- 
rections for  the  Florida  coast,  1852-55  was  with  the  govt, 
exploring  expedition  in  the  n.  Pacific  ocean,  and  was  in 
command  of  the  Vincennes  in  explorations  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  1855.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  civil  war, 
was  a  volunteer  in  the  Port  Royal  expedition,  led  the 
James  River  expedition  1862,  in  which  he  commanded  the 
Galena  and  made  the  famous  attack  on  Fort  Darling; 
when  in  command  of  the  Weehawken  1863  he  captured 
the  Atlanta,  a  formidable  iron -clad,  in  Warsaw  Sound, 
Ga  ;  and  in  the  Monadnock  he  sailed  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
Vol.  32  —  12 


RODIGER— RODNEY. 

and  came  to  port  in  San  Francisco.  He  was  in  command 
of  the  Boston  navy -yard  1866-69;  of  the  Asiatic  fleet 
1870-72;  of  the  Mare  Island,  Cal.,  navy-yard  1873-77;  in 
the  latter  year  became  supt.  of  the  Washington  naval  ob- 
servatory, which  office  he  held  at  the  time  of  his  death; 
and  1878  became  chairman  of  the  light-house  board.  He 
reached  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  1869,  Dec.  31.  He  died 
at  Washington. 

RODIGER,  ro'de-gher,  Emil:  orientalist:  1801,  Oct.  13— 
1874,  June  15;  b.  Sangerhausen,  Thuringia.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  theology  at  Halle,  and  also  made  a  study  of 
Oriental  languages,  of  which  he  became  prof,  there  1835. 
From  1860  till  his  death  he  resided  at  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished Syrisclie  ChrestomatMe  (1838);  Himjaritische  Schrift- 
monumente  (1841);  completed  the  Thesaurus  Linguce  Heb- 
raicce  of  Gesenius  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  and  edited 
several  editions  of  his  Hebrew  grammar,  which  in  transla- 
tion have  had  wide  use  as  text-books  in  this  country. 

RODIYAS,  rbd'i-yaz:  degraded  race  in  Ceylon,  who  are 
excluded  from  society,  and  live  in  a  condition  more  abject 
than  that  of  the  Pariahs  of  India.  By  some  they  are 
thought  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Veddahs  (q.v.).  Under 
British  rule,  which  does  not  recognize  caste,  the  R.  have 
improved  socially,  and  are  no  longer  disqualified  for 
labor.  For  many  interesting  particulars  respecting  this 
unfortunate  race,  see  Ceylon,  by  Sir  J.  E,  Tennent, 
II.  191. 

RODMAN,  rod  man,  Thomas  Jefferson:  soldier:  1815, 
July  30 — 1871,  June  7;  b.  Salem,  Ind.  He  graduated  from 
West  Point  1841,  and  for  some  years  was  engaged  in  test- 
ing gun-metal  and  superintending  the  making  of  heavy 
guns.  He  devised  the  method  of  casting  cannon  and  shells 
on  a  hollow  core  which  is  kept  cold  by  a  stream  of  water; 
Invented  a  gauge  for  determining  the  pressure  on  different 
parts  of  the  gun  when  a  charge  is  fired,  an  improved  form 
for  the  ordinary  cannon,  and  a  form  of  Columbiad  known 
as  the  Rodman  gun.  During  the  civil  war  he  was  in  charge 
of  the  Watertown  arsenal,  but  also  had  supervision  of  the 
making  and  testing  of  large  guns.  From  1865  till  his 
death  he  was  stationed  at  Rock  Island,  111.  In  1865  he 
reached  the  rank  of  brevet  brig. gen.,  and  he  was  promoted 
lieut.col.  1867. 

RODNEY,  rbd'nl,  Cesar:  patriot:  1728,  Oct.  7—1784, 
June  29;  b.  Dover,  Del.;  grandson  of  William  R.  (1652- 
1708).  He  was  appointed  high-sheriff  of  Kent  co.  1755, 
during  the  next  few  years  held  numerous  offices,  was  pro- 
nounced in  his  opposition  to  the  tyranny  of  the  Brit.  govt. , 
was  elected  to  the  first  continental  congress,  and  was  a 
member  of  its  general  committee,  was  re-elected  to  con- 
gress and  appointed  brig.gen.  of  the  militia,  labored  earn- 
estly to  stimulate  the  patriotism  of  the  people  in  the  s.  part 
of  the  province,  was  appointed  supreme  court  judge  but 
declined  to  serve,  became  judge  of  the  admirality  1777,  and 
ma j. gen.  of  militia  in  the  same  year.  He  was  pres.  of  Del. 
1778-82,  declined  re-election, and  was  returned  to  congress. 
He  died  at  Dover. 


RODNEY, 

RODISTEY,  George  Brydges  Rodney,  Lord:  English 
admiral:  1718,  Feb.  19—1792,  May  24;  b.  at  Walton-on- 
Thames;  was  second  son  of  Capt.  Henry  R.  of  the  royal 
marines.  He  was  taken  from  Harrow  School  at  the  early 
age  of  12,  and  sent  to  sea.  He  became  Heat,  in  1739;  post- 
capt  1742;  and  commander  of  the  Newfoundland  station 
1748,  with  rank  of  commodore.  In  1752  he  returned 
home,  and  was  elected  M. P.  for  Saltash.  He  afterward  com- 
manded the  men-of-war  Fougueux,  the  Prince  George,  and 
the  Dublin.  In  1759,  after  28  years'  active  service,  he  was 
made  rear-ad aiiral;  and  in  July  he  bombarded  Havre  for 
two  or  three  days,  destroying  the  town  and  fortifications  so 
effectually,  that  it  has  never  recovered  its  former  impor- 
tance as  an  arsenal  for  ships-of-war.  In  1761  he  took  Mar- 
tinique, Grenada,  and  Santa  Lucia.  In  1762  he  became 
vice-admiral,  and  in  1764  was  made  a  baronet.  In  1779 
Spain  joined  France  in  the  war  against  England,  and  their 
united  fleets  appeared  in  the  Channel  in  overwhelming 
force.  The  siege  of  Gibraltar  was  undertaken  by  the  Span- 
iards; and  R.,  who  was  sent  out  with  22  sail  of  the  line  and 
8  frigates  to  the  W.  Indian  station,  was  ordered  to  relieve 
Gibraltar  en  route.  After  capturing  seven  Spanish  ships  of 
wars,  he  fell  in,  1780,  Jan,  16,  with  Admiral  Langara,  off 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  which  a  British  writer  speaks  of  as  '  that 
promontory  which  has  witnessed  more  of  our  battles  and 
triumphs  than  any  other  headland  in  the  world.'  Of  the 
Spanish  fleet,  five  were  captured  and  two  destroyed.  Hav- 
ing accomplished  the  relief  of  Gibraltar  and  Minocra,  he 
quitted  the  Mediterranean,  and  crossed  the  Atlantic  to  the 
station  of  his  command.  Apr.  17  he  defeated,  near  Mar- 
tinique, the  French  fleet,  under  Count  de  Guichen.  Being 
ill-supported  by  his  captains  on  this  occasion,  he  com- 
plained to  the  admiralty.  The  naval  administration  of  the 
day  was,  however,  so  corrupt  that  the  admiralty  suppressed 
the  criminatory  passages  of  his  dispatches,  and  only  one  of 
the  accused  was  brought  to  trial,  the  others  being  allowed 
to  escape  from  the  difficulty  of  finding  a  sufficient  number 
of  non-delinquent  officers  to  try  them.  R.  took  Eustatia 
from  the  Dutch,  with  250  ships  and  other  booty,  estimated 
at  three  millions  sterling.  Demerara  and  Essequibo  next 
surrendered.  1782,  Apr.  12,  R.,  in  conjunction  with  Hood 
and  Drake,  encountered  the  French  fleet  under  De  Grasse 
off  Dominica.  Each  fleet  comprised  more  than  30  ships  of 
the  line.  The  battle  was  more  obstinately  contested  than 
any  other  engagement  that  ever  took  place  between  the  two 
nations,  being  without  intermission  for  nearly  12  hours. 
De  Grasse  was  totally  defeated,  andR.  lost  seven  ships  of  the 
line  and  two  frigates.  Owing  to  the  French  vessels  being 
crowded  with  troops,  they  are  said  to  have  lost  3,000  killed 
and  6,000  wounded;  while  the  English  loss  did  not  exceed 
600.  On  board  the  Ville  de  Paris  were  36  chests  of  money, 
to  pay  the  soldiers;  and  the  whole  train  of  artillery  was  on 
board  the  other  captured  snips.  Count  de  Grasse  was  him- 
self taken  prisoner.  His  flag-ship,  the  Ville  de  Paris,  113 
guns,  was  the  only  first-rate  man-of-war  that,  till  that  date, 
had  ever  been  captured  and  carried  into  port;  and  De 


RODOMEL — ROE. 

Grasse,  when  he  landed  at  Portsmouth,  was  stated  to  be  the 
first  comrmnder-in-chief  of  a  French  fleet  or  army  who 
had  been  prisoner  in  England  since  the  capture  of  Marshal 
Tallard  in  Queen  Anne's  wars.  In  this  action  R.  success- 
fully executed  the  nautical  manoeuvre  of  breaking  the 
French  line,  and  placing  the  enemy  between  two  fires, 
which  had  fallen  into  disuse  since  the  commonwealth. 
R/s  victory  saved  Jamaica,  ruined  the  naval  power  of 
France  and  Spain,  and  gave  the  finishing  blow  to  the  war. 
The  news  arrived  in  England  just  after  an  order  had  been 
dispatched  for  the  recall  of  R.,  whose  politics  differed  from 
those  of  the  new  ministry.  He  was  then  elevated  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Rodney,  and  received  a  pension  of  £2,000 
per  annum  for  himself  and  his  successors.  He  lived  in  re- 
tirement the  rest  of  his  life.  Among  English  naval  heroes 
he  ranks  next  to  Lord  Nelson. 

RODOMEL,  n.  rod'o-mel  [Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose;  meli, 
honey] :  the  juice  of  roses  mixed  with  honey. 

RODOMONTADE,  n.  rod  d-mbn-tdd'  [F.  rodomontade; 
It.  rodomontada,  bluster — from  Bodomonte,  a  brave  but 
proud  and  insolent  character  in  Ariosto's  '  Orlando  Furioso 
It.  rodomonte,  a  vaporing  fellow]:  empty  noisy  bluster; 
empty  vaunting  or  ranting:  V.  to  boast  or  bluster.  Rod- 
omonta'ding,  imp.  Rod'omonta'ded,  pp.  Rod'omon- 
ta'dist,  n.  -dist,  or  Rod'omonta'dor,  n.  -der,  one  who 
indulges  in  boasting  and  bluster— also  erroneously  spelt 

RHODOMONT  ADE . 

RODOSTO,  ro-dbs'to:  town  of  European  Turkey,  on  the 
n.  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  77  m.  w.  of  Constanti- 
nople. It  contains  many  mosques,  and  sends  large  quan- 
tities of  fruits  and  vegetables  to  the  capital  of  the  empire. 
Pop.  18,000. 

RODRI'GO  (or  Ruy)  DI  AZ  de  Bivar':  see  Cid 
Campeador. 

RODRIGUEZ,  ro-dreg\  Sp.  ro-thre' gath:  rugged  and  hilly 
island,  330  m.  e.  by  n.  of  Mauritius,  of  which  it  is  a  depend- 
ency, being  one  of  the  Mascarene  group.  Area,  about  60 
sq.  m.  The  soil  is  fertile:  turtles  abound.  The  island  is 
interesting  to  naturalists  as  having  been  the  habitat  of  the 
now  extinct  bird,  the  Solitaire  (q.v.).    Pop.  (1890)  1,978. 

ROE,  n.  to  [Icel.  hrogn;  Sw.  rom;  Dut.  roghe,  the  eggs 
of  a  fish:  Ger.  rogen,  spawn]:  the  eggs  or  spawn  of  fish. 
Roed,  a.  rod,  filled  or  impregnated  with  roe.  Hard  roe, 
familiarly  applied  to  the  spawn  of  the  female:  Soft  rob, 
to  the  milt  of  the  male.  Roe'stone,  a  familiar  term  for 
Oolite,  from  its  being  composed  of  a  mass  of  small  rounded 
grains  or  spherules,  resembling  the  roe  of  a  fish ;  larger- 
grained  varieties  are  called  peatfcmes  or  picilttes,  peagrits, 
etc.  Its  scientific  synonym  Oolite  is  applied  to  that  period 
in  the  earth's  geological  history  in  which  the  limestones 
with  this  structure  chiefly  occur. 

ROE,  rd,  Edward  Payson:  author:  1838,  Mar.  7—1888, 
July  19;  b.  New  Windsor,  N.  Y.  He  studied  at  Williams 
College  and  the  Aubuin  Theol.  Seminary,  was  chaplain  in 
the  Federal  army  1862-G5.  and  1865-74  held  the  oa*t0rnt; 


ROE. 


of  a  Presb.  church  at  Highland  Falls,  M.  Y.  In  the  latter 
year  he  resigned  his  charge  and  settled  on  a  farm  which 
he  purchased  at  Cornwall,  N.  Y.,  where  he  divided  his 
time  between  authorship,  in  which  he  had  already  won 
considerable  success,  and  the  cultivation  of  small  fruits 
and  plants.  A  visit  to  Chicago  soon  after  the  great  fire  led 
to  the  writing  of  his  first  novel,  Barriers  Burned  Away 
(1872),  of  which  69,000  copies  were  called  for,  and  ten 
years  later  a  cheap  edition  of  about  100,000  copies  was  sold. 
All  his  stories  deal  ^ith  American  life  and  scenery. 
Country  life  is  described  in  Nature's  Serial  Story,  the 
Charleston  earthquake  furnished  interesting  features  in 
The  Earth  Trembled,  and  tenement-house  life  in  New 
York  is  described  in  Without  a  Home.  Among  his 
numerous  other  works  were  Opening  a  Chestnut  Burr 
(1874);  From  Jest  to  Earnest  (1875);  A  Knight  of  the  Nine- 
ieenth  Century  (1877);  Success  with  Small  Fruits  (1880); 
A  Young  Girl's  Wooing  (1884);  Driven  Back  to  Eden  (1885); 
and  Miss  Lou  (1888).  The  MS.  of  the  latter  work  was  com- 
pleted only  a  few  days  before  his  death.  It  is  said  that 
his  stories  have  had  a  larger  aggregate  sale  than  those  of 
any  other  American  author.  All  his  writings  were  marked 
with  a  purity  of  tone  and  a  moral  earnestness,  which  were 
recognized  by  all  who  knew  him  as  characteristic  of  his 
personality,  which  was  also  peculiarly  winning.  He  died, 
very  suddenly,  at  his  home  in  Cornwall. 

ROE,  rby  or  RoetDeer  [Ice.  vd;  Ger.  reh,  rehbock,  small 
kind  of  deer:  Dan.  rod],  (Cervus  capreolus,  or  Capreolus 
dorcas):  small,  elegantly  formed,  and  agile  species  of 
Deer  (q.v.),  inhabiting  Europe  and  parts  of  Asia,  chiefly 
in  hilly  or  mountainous  regions  that  are  either  covered 
with  forests  or  with  scattered  bushes  and  heath.  It  is 
seldom  found  in  the  higher  and  more  naked  mountain 
tracts,  the  haunt  of  the  stag  or  red  deer.    It  was  formerly 


Roebuck  {Cervus  capreolus). 


plentiful  in  Wales  and  in  hilly  parts  of  England,  as  well 
as  in  s.  Scotland.  The  R.  is  about  2  ft.  3  inches  in  height 
at  the  shoulder;  weight  about  50  or  60  lbs.    Its  color  is  a 


ROEBLING. 

shining  lawny-brown  in  summer,  more  dull  and  grizzled 
in  winter,  the  lower  parts  and  part  around  the  tail  white. 
There  is  considerable  variety  in  the  shade  of  color.  The 
hair  is  longer  than  in  many  deer.  The  tail  is  very  short, 
concealed  among  the  hair.  The  horns,  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  male  (the  Roebuck),  are  eight  or  nine  inches  long, 
erect,  round,  very  rough,  longitudinally  furrowed;  hav- 
ing, in  mature  animals,  two  tines  or  branches,  which,  as 
well  as  the  tip  of  the  horn,  are  sharp-pointed,  so  that  the 
horns  of  the  R.  become  very  dangerous  weapons  when 
it  -ed  for  offense.  The  ears  are  large.  The  habits  of  the 
it.  somewhat  approach  to  those  of  the  goat,  or  even  of 
the  chamois.  It  keeps  its  footing  on  rocks  with  great 
security,  bounds  very  actively,  and  takes  great  leaps.  Its 
usual  pace,  when  not  very  hard  pressed,  is,  however,  a 
kind  of  canter.  It  is  not  gregarious,  not  more  than  a  buck 
and  doe  with  one  or  two  fawns  being  usually  seen  together. 
Contrary  to  what  is  usual  among  deer,  the  male  and  female 
R.  remain  attached  during  life.  The  voice  of  the  R.y 
resembling  that  of  a  sheep,  but  shorter  and  more  barking, 
is  often  heard  through  the  night,  in  regions  where  it  is 
plentiful.  The  browsing  of  the  R.  is  very  injurious  to 
young  wToods,  which  has  led  to  its  extirpation  in  places 
where  it  would  otherwise  have  been  cherished.  It  feeds 
much  on  tender  shoots  of  trees  and  bushes  as  well  as  on 
herbage.  The  venison  is  superior  to  that  of  the  stag,  but 
not  equal  to  that  of  the  fallow-deer.  The  horns  are  used 
for  handles  of  carving-knives,  etc.  The  R.  is  never  very 
thoroughly  tamed,  and  when  partially  so,  is  apt  to  become 
mischievous,  and  the  male  dangerous.— Another  species  of 
R.  (Cervus  or  Capreolus  pygargus),  rather  larger  than  the 
common  R.,  is  found  in  Tartary.—  Boebuck  is  the  male  of 
the  roe-deer:  Boe  is  improperly  applied  to  the  adult  female 
of  the  hart. 

ROEBLING,  rd'bling,  John  Augustus:  civil  engineer: 
1806,  June  12—1869,  July  22;  b.  Prussia.  He  studied  at 
the  Royal  Polytechnic  School,  Berlin,  giving  much  atten- 
tion to  methods  of  constructing  suspension  bridges; 
graduated  1826,  and  for  three  years  was  in  the  govt,  service 
as  asst.  engineer  in  building  military  roads.  He  then 
removed  to  Penn.  and  engaged  in  farming,  but  soon  be- 
came interested  in  inland  navigation  through  canals,  and 
afterward  in  building  of  railroads  and  bridges.  He  sur- 
veyed  the  line  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad  over  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  constructed  an  aqueduct  across  the 
Alleghany  river  at  Pittsburgh,  supporting  the  structure 
by  wire  cables,  built  the  suspension  bridge  at  the  same 
city  over  the  Monongahela  river  1846,  and  2  years  later 
built  several  suspension  aqueducts  for  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  canal.  He  was  the  first  man  to  manufacture  wire, 
and  wire  cables,  in  America.  After  finishing  the  works 
above  named  he  removed  his  manufactory  to  Trenton, 
N.  J.  In  1851  he  began  the  famous  suspension  bridge 
orer  the  Niagara  river,  with  a  span  of  825  ft.,  supported  by 
4  cables  each  10  in.  in  diameter;  which  wTas  completed  in  4 
years,  was  the  first  railroad  suspension  bridge  built,  and  was 


ROEBLING — ROEBUCK, 
a  marvel  of  engineering  skill.  He  afterward  built  at  Pitts- 
burgh a  fine  bridge  over  the  Alleghany  river,  and  one  ovei 
the  Ohio  river  to  connect  Cincinnati  and  Coviugton.  He 
was  selected  1868  as  chief  engineer  of  the  great  East  Rivei 
bridge  connecting  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  prepared  all 
the  plans  and  specifications,  and  was  superintending  the 
initial  operations  of  its  construction  when  he  received  an 
injury  which  necessitated  the  amputation  of  one  of  his  feet, 
and  was  followed  by  lockjaw  which  caused  his  death. 
The  noble  structure  is  his  monument — designed  by  him, 
though  its  practical  achievement  is  due  to  his  son. 

ROE  BLING,  Washington  Augustus:  civil  engineer: 
b.  1837,  May  26,  at  Saxenburg,  Penu.  He  studied  civil 
engineering  at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute, 
graduated  1857,  and  began  work  under  his  father.  He 
was  in  the  Union  army,  serving  with  great  credit  through 
nearly  all  the  civil  war,  and  reaching  the  rank  of  maj.  by 
promotion  and  col.  by  brevet.  He  assisted  his  father  on  the 
bridge  at  Cincinnati,  and  spent  about  a  year  in  Europe 
studying  the  subject  of  pneumatic  foundations.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  1869,  he  became  chief -engineer 
of  the  East  River  bridge,  the  practical  work  on  which  had 
not  then  been  commenced.  His  arduous  labor  on  this 
vast  and  difficult  construction  soon  seriously  and  per- 
manently impaired  his  health;  he  was  obliged  to  spend 
some  time  in  Europe,  and  was  long  confined  to  his  room; 
but  retained  full  charge  of  the  bridge  till  its  completion 
1883.  During  his  illness  his  wife  rendered  him  invaluable 
assistance  in  looking  after  details  of  the  work.  Since  the 
completion  of  this  bridge,  the  finest  on  the  suspension 
principle  in  the  world,  he  has  been  engaged  in  manu- 
facture of  wire.  He  published  Military  Suspension 
Bridges  (1862). 

ROEBUCK,  rd'bttk,  John  Arthur:  English  politician: 
1801-1879,  Nov.  30;  b.  Madras,  India.  He  passed  his  youth 
in  Canada.  At  the  age  of  23,  he  came  to  England,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  1831.  He  entered 
parliament  from  Bath  as  a  radical  re  former 1832,  serving  till 
1837;  was  again  elected  1841,  and  held  his  seat  till  1847.  Pie 
represented  Sheffield  1849-68,  and  was  again  returned 
1874.  In  1855  his  motion  for  inquiring  into  the  condition 
of  the  army  before  Sebastopol,  was  carried  by  an  immense 
majority,  and  the  administration  of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen 
wa3  shattered  to  pieces.  The  ultimate  result  was  the  re- 
construction of  the  war  dept.,  and  reorganization  of  the 
military,  commissariat,  and  medical  systems.  On  the 
annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  1860,  R.  indulged  in  the 
sharpest  invective  against  Emperor  Napoleon.  During 
the  civil  war  in  the  United  States  he  strongly  favored  the 
secessionists.  He  warmly  supported  the  Earl  of  Beacons- 
field's  policy  during  the  Eastern  crisis  1877-8,  and  1878  was 
made  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  R.  was  fearless 
and  unmeasured  in  attack,  not  too  charitable  in  his  judg- 
ments, fond  of  personalities,  but  was  regarded  as  an 
honest  Englishman.  He  was  author  of  a  work  on  the 
Colonies  of  England,  etc. 


ROENTGEN  EAYS. 
ROENTGEN  RAYS,  rent' gen  rdz,  or  X  Rays  :  lately- 
discovered  form  of  radiant  energy  that  is  emitted  when 
the  cathode  rays  of  a  Crookes  tube  strike  on  the  opposite 
walls  of  the  tube  or  on  any  object  in  the  tube  :  discovered 
1895  at  Wiirzburg,  Germany,  by  Prof.  Wilhclm  Konrad 
Roentgen.  These  rays  resemble  light  in  the  respects  that 
they  move  in  straight  lines  ;  their  intensity  is  inversely- 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance  ;  they  affect 
sensitive  photographic  films  ;  they  excite  fluorescence  in 
many  substances  ;  they  are  not  deflected  by  a  magnet,  as 
are  the  cathode  rays  ;  they  discharge  electrified  bodies  ; 
and  they  temporarily  increase  the  electrical  conductivity 
of  many  insulating  materials.  These  rays  differ  from  light 
in  the  respects  that  they  have  not  as  yet  been  refracted  or 
polarized  ;  they  pass  readily  through  most  substances, 
even  such  as  are  opaque  to  the  other  forms  of  radiant 
energy  ;  and  they  do  not  sensibly  affect  the  retina.  It  is 
possible  by  means  of  these  rays  to  see  and  photograph  the 
shadows  of  bones,  bullets,  calculi,  etc.,  through  the  fleshy 
parts  of  the  body,  since  such  objects  are  more  opaque  to 
the  rays  than  is  the  flesh.  The  nature  of  these  rays  is  un- 
known. They  were  called  X  rays  by  their  discoverer  be- 
cause of  that  fact.  They  have  been  thought  to  be  :  longi- 
tudinal ether-waves  (as  opposed  to  light-waves,  which  are 
transverse) ;  ether  yortices  ;  very  long  ether  waves  ;  ether 
streams  ;  very  short  (ultra  violet)  light-waves.  The  last- 
named  theory  has  probably  the  largest  advocacy. 

It  was  on  1895,  Nov.  8,  that  Prof.  Roentgen— prof,  of 
physics  in  the  Univ.  of  Wiirzburg,  Bavaria— made  the  dis- 
covery which  has  rendered  him  famous.  He  announced 
it  at  the  Dec.  meeting  of  the  Wiirzburg  Physico-Medical 
Soc.  ;  and  in  1896,  Jan.  4,  described  it  at  the  celebration 
of  the  semi-centennial  of  the  founding  of  the  Berlin  Physi- 
cal Soc.  Since  that  time  not  only  have  the  scientific  labo- 
ratories of  the  world  been  largely  engaged  in  the  study  of 
the  rays,  but  the  sensational  and  superficial  aspects  of  the 
phenomena  have  taken  hold  of  the  popular  imagination 
and  monopolized  the  attention  of  the  unscientific  world. 
It  was  while  following  up  the  researches  of  Hertz  and 
Lenard  on  the  problem  of  the  cathode  rays  from  a  vacuum 
tube  that  Roentgen  discovered  the  X  rays.  He  had  en- 
cased a  Crookes  tube  in  a  covering  of  black  paper  imper- 
vious to  ordinary  light,  but  noticed  that  a  sheet  of  paper 
sensitized  with  barium  platino-cyanide,  which  was  lying 
near  by,  was  rendered  luminescent..  Investigation  showed 
that  the  effect  was  caused  by  invisible  ways  or  waves 
emanating  from  the  tube  aid  having  unusual  penetrative 
power.  It  merely  remained  for  him  then  to  study  the 
properties  of  the  newly  found  rays,  and  to  announce  the 
results  of  his  researches  to  the  world.  The  practical 
applications  of  the  discovery  of  R.  R.  have  been  mainly 
in  the  fields  of  surgery  and  medical  diagnosis.  R.  is 
the  author  of  many  treatises  on  physical  subjects  pub- 
lished in  the  Annalen  der  Physik  und  Chemie,  and  in 
1901  received  the  Nobel  prize  for  physics. 


ROERMOND— ROGER  I. 

ROERMOND,  ror-mont'  (Ft.  Ruremonde,  called  also  by 
old  writers  Godsward  [i.e.,  God's  Island]  op  de  Maas):  old 
but  lively  town  in  the  Netherlands,  province  of  Limburg,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Roer  and  the  Maas.  A  suburb  called 
St.  Jacob  is  connected  with  R.  by  a  beautiful  stone  bridge 
over  the  Roer.  The  cathedral  is  one  of  the  handsomest 
churches  in  the  Netherlands.  Principal  industries  are  weav- 
ing woolen  cloths,  cottons,  making  paper,  pipes,  wax  and 
tallow  candles,  cotton-spinning,  calico-printing,  refining  salt, 
etc.  R.  has  often  endured  the  horrors  of  being  besieged 
and  taken.   Pop.  12,350,  mostly  Rom.  Catholics. 

ROGATION,  n.  rd  gd'shun  [F.  rogation,  rogation-day — 
from  L.  rdgdtidnemta question— from  rogo,I ask:  It. rogaziord, 
rogation- week] :  litany;  supplication.  Rogation-week,  the 
second  week  before  Whitsunday,  so  called  from  the  prayers 
offered  up  on  the  first  three  days  for  the  fruits  of  the  earth, 
or  as  a  preparation  for  the  devotions  of  Holy  Thursday — 
called  specially  Rogation-days.  The  B.-days  (Lat.  Ferice 
Bogationum),  are  the  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday 
before  Ascension-day,  so  called  because  on  these  days  the 
Litanies  (q.v.)  were  appointed  to  be  sung  or  recited  by  the 
clergy  and  people  in  public  procession.  The  practice  of 
public  supplications  on  occasion  of  public  danger  or  calam- 
ity is  traceable  very  early  in  Christian  use;  but  the  fixing  of 
the  days  before  Ascension  for  the  purpose  is  ascribed  to 
Mamercus,  Bp.  of  Vienue,  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  c,  who, 
on  occasion  of  a  threatened  earthquake  or  other  public  peril 
in  his  city,  ordered  a  public  procession  and  prayer,  for  avert- 
ing the  Divine  anger.  The  usage  being  in  harmony  with 
the  spirit  of  the  times,  became  general  and  permanent,  and 
the  form  of  prayer  employed  is  that  known  as  the  Litany  of 
the  Saints,  In  England,  after  the  Reformation,  the  recita- 
tion of  the  Litanies  on  these  days  was  discontinued ;  but  a 
memorial  of  the  old  practice  long  survived  in  the  so-called 
Perambulation  of  Parishes  (q.v.).  The  R.  days  are  ob- 
served as  days  of  fasting  and  prayer. 

ROGER,  rdfer,  I.,  Count  of  Sicily  and  Calabria:  founder 
of  the  Norman  dynasty  in  these  countries:  about  1031-1101, 
July  11;  b.  Normandy;  youngest  of  the  12  valiant  sons  of 
Tancred  de  Hauteville.  He  joined  (1058)  his  brothers  (see 
Guiscard),  who  had  gained  possession  of  the  greater  part 
of  s.  Italy;  was  deputed  by  his  brother  Robert  to  conquer 
Calabria,  which  he  speedily  did.  In  1060  he  took  from  the 
Saracens  and  fortified  Messina,  making  it  the  base  of  his 
future  operations;  and  being  joined  by  Robert,  the  two,  at 
the  head  of  their  small  band,  performed  almost  miraculous 
exploits.  They  were  gradually  joined  by  the  Christian  in- 
habitants,and  1072  Palermo,  cap.  and  stronghold  of  the  Sara- 
cens, was  yielded  to  the  invaders.  R.  was  then  invested  by 
his  brother  with  the  crown  of  Sicily,  under  the  title  Count; 
but  not  till  19  years  afterward  did  he  thoroughly  supplant 
the  Saracens,  owing  to  the  repeated  reinforcements  they  re- 
ceived from  Africa.  R.  had  previously  divided  the  country 
into  fiefs,  which  he  now  distributed  among  his  chief  barons, 
whose  relations  to  their  subjects  were  regulated  by  him  with 
justice  and  moderation.    He  had  (1062)  received  from  Rob- 


ROGER  II. -ROGERS. 

ert  a  share  of  Calabria,  to  which,  on  Robert's  death  he  ad- 
ded  (1085)  a  number  of  towns,  wrested  from  Roger  and 
Bohemond,  Robert's  two  sons.  He  was  now  the  chief  of 
the  Haute ville  family;  and  the  fame  of  his  exploits,  and  the 
greatness  of  his  power,  caused  his  alliance  to  be  courted  by 
the  first  princes  of  Europe.  At  this  time  he  took  the  title 
'  Grand  Count/  to  distinguish  him  from  bis  vassal  barons, 
and  1098  he  received  from  Pope  Urban  II.  various  prerog- 
atives. The  last  acts  of  his  life  were  the  building  and  en- 
dowing of  churches  and  monasteries,  among  others  the 
Cathedral  of  Messina  (1097).  He  died  at  Mileto  in  Calabriac 

ROGER  II.,  King  of  Sicily:  about  1093-1154,  Feb.  26 
(reigned  1130-54);  second  son  of  Roger  I.  He  greatly  ex- 
tended his  dominions,  adding  the  remainder  of  Calabria, 
Apulia,  and  claiming  suzerainty,  under  gift  of  Anacletus  the 
anlipope,  over  the  duchies  of  Naples  and  Capua.  In  return, 
R.  established  Anacletus  on  the  pontifical  throne  1130.  At 
last,  his  bitter  enemy,  Innocent  II.,  who  had  now  become 
pope,  fell  into  his  hands  1139,  and  as  the  price  for  his  liberty, 
was  compelled  to  withdraw  the  excommunications  that  he 
had  pronounced  against  R.,  and  to  consent  to  his  retaining 
his  new  territories  (except  Naples),  obtaining  thus  the  firm 
attachment  of  R.  to  the  papal  see,  and  his  own  recognition 
as  lawful  pope.  In  1141  R.  received  from  Pope  Lucius 
II.  the  right  of  using  the  staff,  ring,  tunic,  mitre,  and  other 
symbols  of  ecclesiastical  dignity  and  power.  In  1146  he 
revenged  himself  on  the  Greek  emperor,  who  had  been  of 
the  league  against  him,  by  capturing  Corfu,  and  pillaging 
Cephalonia,  Negropont,  Corinth,  and  Athens,  returning 
with  an  immense  booty,  and  a  number  of  workers  in  silk 
who  introduced  the  silk  manufacture  into  Sicily.  He  next 
took  Tripoli  and  other  places  on  the  African  coast;  and  left 
at  his  death,  an  African  dependency  which  stretched  from 
Morocco  to  Kairwan.  He  died  at  Palermo.  R.  was,  like 
his  father,  prudent  and  resolute,  skilful  in  the  cabinet  and 
on  the  field ;  but  he  had  neither  the  fine  deportment  nor  the 
generous  soul  of  the  first  Roger.  His  mind  was  capable  of 
great  scope  and  untiring  energy,  so  that  the  material  interests 
of  his  states  were  never  overlooked,  and  the  system  of  taxa- 
tion and  government  was  a  pattern  to  the  rest  of  Europe* 
He  cared  nothing  for  the  religion  of  his  subjects— they 
might  be  heathens  if  they  chose;  but  obedience  to  himself 
and  respect  to  the  laws  were  rigorously  enforced.  His  fleet 
was  supreme  on  the  seas,  and  his  court  surpassed  in  magnif- 
icence that  of  every  other  prince  in  Europe.  He  spent 
many  of  his  later  years  in  rearing  splendid  religious  edifices. 

ROGERS,  rdferz,  Henry  :  English  Congl.  theological 
teacher  and  writer :  died  1877,  Aug.  20.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Highbury  for  the  Congl.  ministry,  became  prof, 
of  Eng.  literature  in  University  College,  London  ;  was 
appointed  to  a  theological  professorship  near  Birmingham, 
and  became  principal  of  the  Lancashire  Congl.  College 
1858.  The  Eclipse  of  Faith  is  his  best- known  book.  Bea- 
son  and  Faith  was  published  1866  ;  The  Superhuman 
Origin  of  the  Bible  Inferred  from  Bself  1874. 


ROGERS. 


ROGERS,  James  Edwin  Thorold:  1823-1890,  Oct. 
12;  b.  West  Meon,  Hampshire,  Eng.:  political  economist. 
He  was  educated  first  at  King's  Coll.,  London,  and  entered 
Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  1843;  he  graduated  with  highest 
honors  1846.  Soon  afterward  he  took  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England,  but  formally  renounced  them  some  years  later 
when  enabled  so  to  do  by  act  of  parliament.  Till  1856  he 
was  a  private  tutor  at  Oxford,  and  acted  as  examiner  in  the 
final  classical  school  1857,8;  was  appointed  Drummond 
prof,  of  political  economy  1862,  but  on  the  expiry  of  his 
term  1867,  was  denied  reappointment,  on  account  of  his 
radicalism.  He  sat  in  parliament  for  Southwark  1880-86 
On  the  death  of  Bonamy  Price,  his  successor  as  prof,  of 
political  economy,  R.  was  again  appointed  to  that  chair, 
1888,  with  unanimous  approval  of  friends  and  opposers. 
A  few  of  his  numerous  publications  are:  The  History  of 
Agriculture  and  Prices  in  England  from  1259  to  1793  (6 
vols.  1866-88).  his  greatest  work;  The  Economic  Interpreta 
Hon  of  History  (1886);  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages, 
(1885),  of  which  the  author  prepared  and  published  two  dif- 
ferent abridgments;  The  First  Nine  Years  of  the  Bank  of 
England  (1887). 

ROG  ERS,  John,  d.d.:  English  clergyman  and  martyr: 
1505-1555,  Feb.  4;  b.  Birmingham;  educated  at  Cambridge. 
While  officiating  as  chaplain  to  an  English  company  at 
Antwerp  for  several  years,  he  renounced  popery,  through 
the  influence  of  Tyndale  and  Coverdale,  and  became  pastor 
at  Wittenburg.  In  1548  (the  year  following  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.,  when  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  Re- 
formation, under  Abp.  Cranmer),  he  returned  to  England. 
Bp.  Ridley  made  him  rector  of  St.  Margaret  Moyses  and 
vicar  of  St.  Sepulchre,  London;  also  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's  and  St.  Pancras,  and,  later,  rector  of  Chigwell.  On. 
the  Sunday  following  the  triumphal  entry  of  Queen  Mary 
into  London,  1553,  Aug.  3,  he  addressed  the  people  at  St. 
Paul's  cross,  inveighing  against  popery,  and  exhorting 
them  to  abide  in  the  reformed  faith  taught  in  the  preceding 
reign.  Arraigned  before  the  privy  council,  his  defense 
procured  him  release;  but,  Aug.  18,  he  was  ordered  to  con- 
fine himself  to  his  own  house,  and,  six  months  later,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  NewTgate.  At  his  trial  before  Bp.  Gar- 
diner 1555,  Jan.,  he  was  condemned  to  be  burned  at  Smith- 
field.  To  the  last  he  exhibited  fortitude  and  calmness.  He 
translated  Melanchthon's  Weighing  and  Considering  of  the 
Interim.  His  most  important  work  was  an  ed.  of  the  Bible, 
1537,  in  which  he  combined  Tyndale's  and  Coverdale's 
versions  with  his  own  supplementary  work,  and  added 
notes;  it  was  published  under  the  assumed  name  of  Thomas 
Matthew,  and  by  that  name  it  is  known.  His  record  of 
his  examinations,  and  other  papers,  written  while  he  was 
a  prisoner,  were  preserved,  and  are  in  Foxe's  Martyrology 


ROGERS. 

ROG  ERS,  John:  sculptor:  b.  Salem,  Mass.,  1829,  Oct.  30. 
He  studied  at  the  high  school  in  Boston,  and  after  serving 
as  clerk  in  a  dry  goods  store,worked  in  a  machine  shop, 
where  he  began  modelling  in  clay.  He  visited  Europe 
1858,  and  the  next  year  made  a  group  for  a  Chicago  fair 
which  gave  him  some  reputation.  The  Slam  Auction,  1860, 
greatly  increased  his  fame.  He  produced  a  large  number 
of  statuette  groups  which  became  extremely  popular. 
They  are  known  as  Rogers's  Groups,  and  illustrate  a 
wide  variety  of  subjects,  from  common  life  to  characters 
irom  Shakespeare.  His  fine  equestrian  statue  of  Gen. 
Reynolds  was  placed  before  the  city  hall  in  Philadelphia. 
He  died  1904,  July  26. 

ROG'ERS,  Randolph  :  sculptor:  born  Waterloo,  W.  Y. , 
1825,  July  6.  At  the  age  of  23  he  began  the  study  of  art 
in  Rome  ;  had  a  studio  in  New  York  1850-55,  and  after 
the  latter  date  lived  in  Italy.  One  of  the  works  that  first 
brought  him  into  notice  was  Buth  (1851).  The  bas-reliefs 
on  the  bronze  doors  of  the  National  Capitol,  which  repre- 
sent scenes  in  the  life  of  Columbus,  were  designed  by  him 
1858.  Three  years  later  he  completed  the  Washington 
monument  at  Richmond,  to  which  he  added  various  statues 
and  ideal  figures  ;  and  soon  afterward  completed  the  Angel 
of  the  Resurrection  for  the  monument  of  Col.  Colt,  at  Hart- 
ford. Among  his  works  are  memorial  monuments  in  Provi- 
dence and  other  cities  ;  portrait  statues  of  Lincoln,  in  Fair- 
mount  Park,  Philadelphia  ;  and  of  William  H.  Seward,  in 
Fifth  Avenue  and  Broadway,  New  York  ;  and  an  eques- 
trian group  of  American  Indians.    He  d.  1892,  Jan.  15. 

ROG'ERS,  Robert:  soldier:  1727— about  1800;  b. 
Dunbarton,  N.  H.  In  the  old  French  war  he  organized  and 
fed  a  company  which  became  famous  under  the  name 
Rogers's  Rangers.  He  received  from  Pontiac  the  surrender 
of  Detroit;  visited  Englaud,  printed  and  gave  his  Journal 
to  the  king;  was  appointed  gov.  of  Mackinaw,  Mich.;  but 
was  suspected  of  a  design  to  betray  the  fort  to  the  French, 
and  was  court- martial  led  at  Quebec.  He  made  another 
visit  to  England  1769;  and  having  returned  to  the  colonies, 
was  arrested,  early  in  the  revolution,  and  released  on  parole 
by  the  continental  congress;  was  afterward  suspected  as 
being  a  spy,  and  was  again  examined  by  congress;  and  at 
length  in  spite  of  his  parole,  became  a  col.  in  the  British 
army  and  organized  an  efficient  company  known  as  the 
Queen's  Rangers.  He  afterward  went  to  England,  and 
was  proscribed  by  congress  1778.  He  published  A  Concise 
Accountof  North  America  (1765),  and  other  works.  He  died 
in  England,  1892,  Jan.  15. 

ROG  ERS,  Samuel:  English  poet,  litterateur,  and  cel- 
ebrated entertainer  of  celebrities:  1763,  July  30—1855, 
Dec.  18;  b.  London;  son  of  a  wealthy  banker,  who  was  a 
member  of  a  dissenting  church.  After  a  careful  education 
R.  was  placed  in  his  father's  bank.  His  taste  for  lit- 
erature and  the  company  of  literary  mer  awoke  in  youth; 
and  he  with  a  friend,  went  one  day  to  call  on  Dr.  Johnson, 
then  living  at  Bolt  Court;  but  his  courage  failed  him  when 
his  hand  was  on  the  knocker.    In  1786  he  published  his 


ROGERS. 

first  book,  An  Ode  to  Superstition,  and  Some  Other  Poems. 
In  1792  he  published  Pleasures  of  Memory,  a  work  received 
at  the  time  with  much  favor:  it  was  the  last  great  effort  of 
the  18th  c,  poetic  diction — carefully  elaborated,  elegant,  se- 
rious, elevated,  and  aiming  to  elevate  familiar  things  and 
commonplace  thoughts  by  presenting  them  in  abstract 
term-;  and  impressive  imagery;  but  frigid  and  lifeless. 
After  this,  R.  retired  from,  business,  and  in  the  possession 
of  ample  wealth,  in  his  house  in  St.  James's  Place,  he  em- 
ployed himself  with  literature,  his  cook,  the  company  of 
the  literary  celebrities  of  his  time,  and  the  collecting  of 
pictures  and  articles  of  virtu.  Then,  and  during  all  his 
subsequent  life,  his  breakfasts  were  more  famous  than  his 
poems:  critics  might  find  fault  with  the  one,  but  not  with 
the  other.  His  house  became  the  literary  social  centre  for 
London:  all  celebrities  could  be  met  there.  R.  not  only 
entertained,  he  also  generously  aided  literary  anen  in  their 
troubles:  he  helped  Sheridan  in  his  last  days,  and  Moore  and 
Campbell  in  their  need,  and  others  less  distinguished. 

In  1812  he  published  Columbus;  in  1814,  Jacqueline  ap- 
peared in  the  same  vol.  with  Lord  Byron's  Lara.  Iu  1819 
he  issued  Human  Life;  in  1822,  Italy,  an  edition  of  which, 
illustrated  by  the  best  artists  at  the  cost,  it  is  said,  of  $75,- 
000,  appeared  1836.  After  this  date,  he  published  nothing 
— his  time  being  given  mainly  to  taste,  dining,  epigram, 
and  anecdote.  The  aged  poet  rode  or  strolled  in  the  parks 
haunted  picture-galleries, and  was  a  constant  attender  at  the 
opera.  An  accident  in  the  street  at  last  confined  him  to  his 
room;  and  at  the  age  of  93  he  died.  He  read  Goldsmith's 
Traveller  when  it  was  published,  and  he  might  have  read 
Tennyson's  Maud.  He  published  his  first  book  before 
Burns's  first  volume  appeared  at  Kilmarnock.  —  Since  R.'s 
death  his  Table  Talk  has  been  published.  R.'s  best  work  is 
his  Italy,  which  has  long  had  numerous  readers:  it  is  in- 
structive, vivid,  interesting,  graceful,  and  pleasing  in  style. 

ROGERS,  William  Barton,  ll.d.:  geologist:  1*04, 
Dec.  7—1882,  May  30;  b.  Philadelphia.  He  studied  at 
William  and  Mary  College,  in  which  institution  he  became 
prof,  of  physics  and  chem.  1828,  holding  the  position  7 
years.  He  was  prof,  of  geology  and  nat.  philos.  in  Ihe 
Univ.  of  Virginia  1835-53,  and  in  the  former  year  organ- 
ized a  geological  survey  of  Va.,  of  which  he  published  6 
reports,  re-issued  as  Papers  on  the  Geology  of  Virginia. 
With  his  brother,  Henry  Darwin  R.,  he  developed  the 
wave  theory  of  mountain -chains.  Removing  to  Boston 
1853,  he  became  active  in  scientific  circles,  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  the  first  pres.  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology;  pres.  of  the  Amer.  Assoc.  for  Advance- 
ment of  Science  1875,  first  pres.  of  the  Amer.  Social  Sci- 
ence Assoc. ,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  National  Acad, 
of  Sciences,  and  its  pres.  for  the  four  j^ears  preceding 
his  death.  He  died  at  Boston.— His  brother,  James 
Blythe  R.,  m.d.  (1802-1852,  June  15;  b.  Philadelphia), 
was  educated  at  William  and  Mary  College,  became  prof, 
of  chem.  in  Washington  Medical  College,  Baltimore;  after- 
ward prof,  at  Cincinnati;  and  assisted  his  brother,  Wil- 


ROGUE— ROHLFS. 

Ham  Barton  R.,  in  the  geological  survey  of  Va.;  removed 
to  Philadelphia  1840  and  assisted  his  brother,  Henry  Dar- 
win R.,  Penn.  state  geologist;  was  prof .  of  chem.  at  the 
Franklin  Institute  1844-47,  and  from  1847  in  a  similar 
position  in  the  Univ.  of  Pennsylvania. — Another  broth 
er,  Robert  Empie  R.  ,  ll.d.  (1813-1884;  b.  Baltimore), 
studied  medicine  and  chem.  at  the  Univ.  of  Pennsylvania; 
was  prof,  of  chem.  in  the  Univ.  of  Virginia  1842-52;  suc- 
ceeded his  bro  ,  James  Blythe  R.,  as  prof,  in  the  Univ.  of 
Pennsylvania,  a  position  which  he  held  for  25  years,  being 
dean  of  the  med.  dept.  1856-77.  He  was  prof:  of  chem. 
in  Jefferson  Medical  College  1877-84.  He  held  govt, 
positions  involving 'duties  at  the  mints. 

ROGUE,  n.  rog  [F.  rogue,  supercilious:  Bret,  rok,  rogt 
haughty,  insolent]:  an  idle  disreputable  person;  a  vagrant; 
a  sturdy  beggar;  a  dishonest  person;  a  familiar  term  of 
slight  endearment;  a  sly  fellow.  Roguery,  n.  rd'ger-i, 
cheating;  dishonest  practices;  waggery.  Ro  guish,  a.  -glsh, 
fraudulent;  dishonest;  waggish;  slightly  mischievous. 
Ro  guishly,  ad.  li.  Ro'guishness,  n.  -nes,  the  quality  or 
state  of  being  roguish;  mischievousness;  sly  cunning. 
Rogue  money,  in  Scotland,  ancient  annual  assessment  in 
every  county  for  defraying  the  expense  of  apprehending 
offenders,  subsisting  and  prosecuting  them.  Rogue's 
march,  an  air  played  when  a  soldier  is  drummed  out  of  a 
regiment.  Rogue's  yarn,  yarn  of  different  twist  and  color 
to  the  rest,  inserted  in  the  royal  cordage  to  distinguish  it 
from  that  used  in  the  merchant  service. 

ROHILCUND,  rd-hil-kand ',  or  Rohilkhand:  exten- 
sive region  in  the  N.  W.  Provinces  of  India;  west  of  Oude, 
and  named  after  the  Rohillas,  an  Afghan  tribe  which  mi- 
grated thither  in  the  18th  c. — As  an  administrative  division 
(10,884  sq.  m.;  pop.  est.  5,344,000)  it  comprises  the  dis- 
tricts Bijnur,  Moradabad,  Bareilly,  Budaon,  Shahjehan- 
pur,  Pilibhit,  and  the  protected  state  of  Rampur. 

ROHLFS,  rolfs,  Anna  Katharine  (Green):  author: 
b.  Brooklyn.  N.  Y.,  1846,  Nov.  11.  She  graduated  from 
Ripley  Female  College,  Poultney,  Yt.,  1867.  When  eleven 
years  of  age  she  began  writing  poetry  and  stories,  but  did 
not  win  recognition  till  her  Ode  to  Grant  was  published  in 
the  New  York  Tribune  and  other  prominent  republican 
papers  on  the  day  of  his  first  inauguration.  Several  of  her 
short  poems  appeared  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly.  Her  first 
novel,  The  Leavenworth  Case(\§l%),  was  a  remarkable  suc- 
cess: it  has  been  pronounced  by  critics  the  best  detective 
story  ever  written.  Among  her  books  are:  A  Strange  Dis- 
appearance (1879);  The  Sword  of  Damocles  (1881);  The  De- 
fense of  the  Bride,  and  Other  Poems  (1882);  The  Mill  Mystery 
(1886);  A  Matter  of  Millions  (1890);  and  The  Forsaken  Inn 
(1890).  Some  of  her  novels  have  been  dramatized  and  her 
songs  set  to  music  She  was  married  to  Charles  Rohlfs,  1884k 
Nov.  25,  but  her  pen  name  remains  Anna  Katharine 
Green.  She  spent  a  large  part  of  1890  in  Europe.  Her 
home,  formerly  in  Brooklyn,  is  now  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


ROHTUK— ROJESTVENSKY. 

ROHTUK,  ro  tuk' ':  town  of  Brit.  India,  cap.  of  the  disk 
of  R.,  in  the  division  of  Hissar,  Punjab,  42  in.  n.w.  from 
Delhi.  A  water  course,  45  m.  long,  constructed  by  order 
of  the  British  govt.  1825,  supplies  R.  and  the  neighboring 
country  with  water  from  the  great  Feroze-shah  canal. 
Pop.  (1881)  15,699;  of  dist,  553,609. 

ROIL,  v.  royl  [Icel.  rugla,  to  mingle  together  in  confu- 
sion]: to  render  turbid,  as  wine  or  other  liquor,  by  stirring 
up  the  sediment;  to  excite  to  anger  or  resentment;  to  vex 
and  disturb.  Roiling,  imp.  Roiled,  pp.  royld.  Also 
spelled  Rile,  v.  rll.    Ril  ing,  imp.    Riled,  pp.  rlld. 

ROIL,  v.  royl  [Icel.  rbla,  to  wander  about:  Swiss,  rotten, 
to  run  hither  and  thither]:  in  OE.}  to  range;  to  wander 
about.    Roil'ing,  imp.    Roiled,  pp.  royld. 

ROISTER,  v.  roys'ter  [F.  rustre,  a  swaggerer;  OF.  ruste, 
a  rustic — from  L.  rusticus,  rustic — from  rus,  the  country; 
comp.  Bret,  rouestler,  a  disturber:  Gael,  riastair,  to  become 
turbulent:  Low  Ger.  r astern,  to  clatter]:  to  behave  turbu- 
lently;  to  bluster.  Rois  ter,  n  ,  or  Rois  terer,  n.  -er,  a 
rude*  blustering,-  turbulent  fellow.  Roistering,  imp.: 
Adj.  noisy;  uproarious;  violent.  Rois'tered,  pp.  -terd. 
Roist  ing,  a.  OE.  for  Roistering. 

ROJESTVENSKY,  Sinovi  Petrovich,  rd'jest-ven'ske, 
sin'-d-ve  pet'ro-vich:  Russian  naval  commander;  b.  1848. 
He  studied  at  the  Michael  Artillery  Academy,  and  was 
noted  as  a  brilliant  cadet  whose  specialty  was  gunnery. 
He  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  came  into 
prominence  during  the  Russo-Turkish  War  in  1877,  when 
as  lieutenant  on  board  the  gun-sloop  Vesta,  commanded 
by  Capt.  Baranoff,  he  was  said  to  have  fired  the  shot 
which,  after  a  five-hours'  fight,  disabled  ^±id  put  to 
flight  the  Turkish  iron-clad  Fethi  Bouland.  'ihe  story 
was  denied  by  Hobart  Pasha  and  the  English  engineer 
of  the  Turkish  war-vessel,  and  Rojestvensky  confessed 
that  the  tale  was  a  fabrication  of  Capt.  Baranoff,  who 
was  deprived  of  his  rank  as  adjutant  to  the  Czar,  con- 
ferred for  the  merit  of  his  supposed  heroic  action;  two 
shots  at  long  range  had  been  exchanged,  when  the  Vesta 
prudently  retired.  Rojestvensky  was  promoted  to  be 
commander  in  1885,  and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed 
naval  attache  to  the  Russian  Embassy  in  London.  He 
spent  several  years  in  England  and  made  a  special  study 
of  the  English  methods  of  organizing  and  equipping  the 
ships  of  the  navy,  becoming  favorably  known  for  his 
indefatigable  industry;  on  one  occasion  being  asked 
'what  his  favorite  pastime  was?'  he  laconically  replied 
'  Work,'  and  on  being  further  asked,  6  Then,  what  is 
your  hardest  work  ? '  the  answer  was  equally  concise : 
'  Idleness.'  Anxious  for  active  service  in  the  profession 
he  had  chosen,  Rojestvensky  applied  for  a  command  and 
was  assigned  to  the  Vladimir  Monomach,  one  of  the 
finest  cruisers  of  the  Russian  navy  at  that  time.  Later 
he  was  transferred  to  the  battle-ship  Peresviet  and  as 
second  in  command  to  Admiral  Alexieff  was  with  that 


ROJESTVENSKY. 


commander  in  the  waters  of  the  Far  East  during  the 
Chino- Japanese  War  and  for  several  years  after,  becom- 
ing accurately  acquainted  with  every  port  and  harbor 
on  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  coasts.  He  was  promoted 
rear-admiral  in  1902,  made  an  aid-de-camp  to  the 
Czar,  and  succeeded  Adm.  Avellan  as  Chief  of  the  Naval 
Headquarters  staff  and  head  of  the  Intelligence  Depart- 
ment, in  this  latter  position  becoming  responsible  for 
the  equipment  of  the  Baltic  Fleet  which  was  commis- 
sioned to  proceed  to  the  Pacific  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Port  Arthur  after  the  disasters  to  the  squadrons  in 
those  waters  in  1904.  Rojestvensky  was  considered  a 
cool-headed  leader  with  a  scientific  knowledge  of  sea- 
fighting  unsurpassed  in  the  Russian  service,  and  the 
superior  of  Admiral  MakarofT  as  a  sailor  and  tactician. 
He  took  command  of  the  Baltic  or  Second  Pacific  Fleet, 
as  it  was  officially  known,  in  September,  and  kept  it 
constantly  drilling  in  maneuvers  and  gun  practice.  He 
left  Libau,  Oct.  16,  and  on  the  night  between  Oct.  22-23, 
fell  in  with  a  British  fishing  fleet  in  the  North  Sea. 
Under  the  impression  that  they  were  Japanese  torpedo 
boats,  which  he  had  been  informed  were  in  the  vicinity, 
he  fired  upon  the  innocent  fishermen.  This  hostile  act 
led  to  an  international  commission  of  inquiry  ac  Paris 
in  January,  1905,  which  excused  the  admiral,  but  con- 
demned the  firing,  and  mulcted  the  Russian  govt,  in 
damages  and  costs.  Rojestvensky,  with  the  main  divi- 
sion of  his  fleet,  sailed  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  arrived  at  the  port  of  Nossi  Be,  on  the  north  coast 
of  Madagascar  at  the  beginning  of  January,  where  he 
was  joined  by  Rear- Admiral  von  Voelkersam,  who,  with 
the  cruiser  squadron,  had  travelled  by  way  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Suez  Canal.  Here  the  fleet  win- 
tered; the  fall  of  Port  Arthur,  Jan.  2,  1905,  making  that 
port  no  longer  an  objective,  the  Russian  Admiralty  for- 
mulated a  naval  campaign  for  the  spring,  and  Rojest- 
vensky left  Nossi  Be  Mar.  16,  arriving  in  the  Strait  of 
Malacca  in  the  first  week  of  April  and  passing  Singa- 
pore Apr.  8.  Again  availing  himself  of  French  neu- 
trality, he  sought  the  French  Indo-China  coast,  there  to 
re-coal,  re-victual,  and  await  the  arrival  of  a  squadron 
under  Adm.  NebogatofT.  His  prolonged  stay  at  Kam- 
ranh  Bay  led  to  diplomatic  exchanges  between  the  Japa- 
nese and  French  governments  and  Rojestvensky  was  or- 
dered to  leave.  He  courageously  sought  the  most  direct 
route  to  Vladivostok,  and  on  the  morning  of  Saturday, 
May  27,  1905,  was  discovered  by  Togo,  the  Japanese  ad- 
miral (q.v.),  near  the  Tsu  islands,  steaming  through 
the  Strait  of  Corea.  Here  he  was  attacked  by  Togo  with 
his  battleships  from  the  west,  by  the  light  cruisers  under 
Uriu  on  the  north  and  the  heavier  squadron  of  cruisers 
under  Kamimura  on  the  south.  He  was  thus  sur- 
rounded, on  three  sides,  by  the  Japanese  vessels,  and 
on  the  fourth  side  was  the  coast  of  Japan,  whence  the 


RO  JEST  VENSKY— ROLAND. 

Japanese  commanders  tried  to  drive  his  squadron.  The 
fire  from  the  Japanese  vessels  was  very  effective, 
whereas  the  Russian  gunners  invariably  shot  wide  of 
the  mark  and  immediately  showed  their  inferiority. 
By  Saturday  night  two  of  the  Russian  ships  had  been 
sunk  and  during  the  night  seven  more  succumbed.  The 
battle  was  carried  on  all  day  Sunday,  two  armored 
cruisers  being  sunk,  two  battleships  and  two  coast  de- 
fense ships  captured,  and  one  blown  up  by  her  com- 
mander. Three  cruisers  under  Admiral  Enquist  escaped 
to  Manila,  where  they  were  interned;  the  cruiser  Almaz 
and  three  destroyers  escaped  to  Vladivostok  and  one 
destroyer  to  Shanghai. 

The  Russian  loss  was  appalling;  the  squadron  was 
nearly  annihilated;  beside  which  the  dead  numbered 
7,000  and  the  captured  over  4,000,  among  whom  was 
Admiral  Rojestvensky,  who  was  seriously  wounded,  a 
fractured  skull  necessitating  an  operation  at  the  Sasebo 
Naval  Hospital,  to  which  he  was  taken.  He  was  after- 
ward released  by  the  Japanese.  See  Russo-Japanese 
War. 

ROLAND,  ro'land,  Legend  of  :  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  popular  epics  of  early  French  or  Frankish  litera- 
ture; having  for  its  hero  Roland,  according  to  tradition, 
the  favorite  nephew  and  capt.  of  Emperor  Charlemagne. 
In* 778,  when  Charlemagne  was  engaged  at  Paderborn  in 
organizing  the  government  of  the  recently-subjugated 
pagan  Saxons,  and  superintending  their  collective  bap- 
tism and  formal  admission  into  the  Christian  Church, 
he  was  visited  by  a  Saracen  chief,  who  unwilling  to 
recognize  the  supremacy  of  the  Caliph  of  Cordova,  of- 
fered to  put  the  Frankish  sovereign  in  possession  of  sev- 
eral towns  s.  of  the  Pyrenees  which  were  under  his  rule. 
Charlemagne,  accepting  the  offer,  marched  with  a  nu- 
merous army  through  the  territory  of  Gascony,  whose 
duke,  Loup,  he  constrained  to  do  him  homage,  and  took 
Pampelona  and  Saragossa.  Finding,  however,  that  his 
Saracen  ally  gave  him  but  little  aid,  he  turned  back 
toward  France;  and  it  was  during  this  retreat,  while 
the  Christian  army  was  slowly  treading  its  way  through 
the  narrow  valley  of  Roncevaux  or  Roncesvalles  (q.v.), 
that  Roland,  commander  of  the  Marches  of  Bretagne, 
who  commanded  the  rear-guard,  was  suddenly  attacked 
by  a  large  body  of  Vascons,  lying  in  ambush  in  the  sur- 
rounding woods,  and  slain  while  fighting  gallantly.  Be- 
yond these  meagre  details,  all  that  we  read  of  R.  is  tra- 
ditional. The  oldest  version  of  the  Song  of  Roland, 
forming  part  of  the  Chansons  de  Geste,  which  treat  of  the 
achievements  of  Charlemagne  and  his  paladins,  belongs 
to  the  11th  e.,  though  the  original  compositions  are  prob- 
ably not  much  later  than  the  period  to  which  they  refer. 
Throughout  the  middle  ages,  the  Song  of  Roland  was  the 
most  popular  of  the  many  heroic  poems  current,  and  Wil- 
liam of  Normandy,  on  his  way  to  conquer  England,  had  it 
sung  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  to  encourage  them  on  their 


ROLAND. 


march.  At  the  present  day,  the  traditionary  memory  of 
the  heroic  paladin  is  held  in  honor  by  the  mountaineers 
of  the  Pyrenees,  among  whose  dangerous  denies  the 
scene  of  his  exploits  and  death  is  laid. 

According  to  the  poem,  Charlemagne  had  been  six  years 
in  Spain,  when,  resolving  to  return  to  France,  he,  by  the 
advice  of  R.,  sent  his  capt. ,  Ganelon,  on  an  embassy  to  the 
pagan  king,  Marsilius  of  Saragossa,  to  receive  the  homage 
which  that  king  had  pledged.  The  mission  was  a  dangerous 
one,  as  all  other  ambassadors  to  the  king  had  been  slain,  and 
Ganelon,  wishing  to  revenge  himself  on  R.,  perfidiously 
betrayed  to  Marsilius  the  route  which  the  Christian  army 
was  to  take.  The  consequence  was,  that  after  Charle- 
magne had  safely  crossed  the  mountains  with  the  main  part 
of  his  forces,  R.,  who  commanded  a  rear-guard  of  20,000 
men,  was  surprised  within  the  narrow  valley  of  Roncesvalles, 
by  a  terrible  army  of  all  the  pagan  nations  of  the  world.  R., 
who  possessed  an  enchanted  horn,  which  could  have  been 
heard  far  beyond  the  mountains,  might  have  recalled  his 
uncle,  but,  despising  such  pusillanimity,  he  fought  on  till 
100,000  Saracens  lay  slain  around  him  and  the  50  warriors 
who  alone  remained  alive  to  aid  him.  Another  army  of 
50.000  men  of  Carthage,  Ethiopia,  and  Candia  now  pours 
down  upon  him.  At  length  he  blows  his  horn,  which  is 
heard  by  Charlemagne,  who,  however,  does  not  return,  as 
Ganelon  persuades  him  once,  twice,  and  thrice  that  R.*  is 
only  hunting  the  deer;  and  not  until  the  veins  of  R.'s 
neck  have  burst  with  the  violence  of  the  blast,  does  the 
emperor  retrace  his  steps.  In  the  meanwhile,  R.  has 
dragged  his  dying  limbs  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Cisaire,  above 
Roncesvalles,  where,  after  having  sung  his  death-song 
and  thrown  his  trusty  and  enchanted  &word  Durandal 
into  a  poisoned  stream,  where  it  stills  remains,  he  dies  ex- 
hausted from  his  many  wounds.  Charlemagne,  who  ar- 
rives too  late  to  save  him,  avenges  his  death  in  a  series 
of  marvellous  battles  and  bloody  victories. — The  83d  im- 
pression of  Leon  Gautier's  edition  of  the  Chanson  de  B. 
appeared  1881.    See  Bartsch,  Das  Eolandslied  (1874). 

Ro'land  for  an  Oliver,  blow  for  blow:  said  of  antag- 
onists who  prove  themselves  equal  to  each  other  in  every 
point  of  combat,  after  the  manner  of  Roland  and  Oliver , 
who,  according  to  the  legend,  fought  for  five  consecu- 
tive days  on  an  island  in  the  Rhine  without  either  getting 
the  least  advantage  of  his  adversary. 

ROLAND,  ro-long',  Manon  Jeanne  (Phlipon),  Ma- 
dame: 1754,  Mar.  17—1793,  Nov.  8;  b.  Paris;  wife  of  Jean 
Marie  R.  The  precocity  of  her  intelligence  was  remark- 
able. At  the  age  of  four,  she  had  a  passion  for  reading; 
at  seven,  she  learned  by  heart  a  treatise  on  heraldry;  at 
eight,  she  used  to  carry  Plutarch  with  her  to  church,  while 
the  Jerusalem  Delivered  of  Tasso,  and  the  Telemaque  of 
Fenelon,  fired  her  childish  imagination.  At  the  same  time, 
an  ardent  piety  began  to  develop  itself,  and,  when  only  11, 
she  entered  the  Maisondes  Dames  de  la  Congregation,  in  the 
Faubourg  Saint-Marcel.  Here  she  formed  close  friendship 
with  two  young  girls  from  Amiens,  Henriette  and  Sophie 


ROLAND. 

Can  net,  particularly  with  the  latter,  which  was  fruitful  in 
consequences.  On  her  return  to  her  father's  house  after 
the  lapse  of  two  years,  a  change  ensued:  she  no  longer 
cared  for  the  so-called  'religious'  writers— the  defenders 
of  the  creeds  and  the  church.  Her  faith  was  slowly  chang- 
ing from  the  dogmatic  creed  of  Bossuet  to  the  '  naturalism ' 
of  the  Encyclopedists  and  '  Philosophes.'  In  ethics,  now 
as  ever,  her  preference  for  the  stoical  system  was  marked. 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  her  mother,  1773,  she  read  for 
the  first  time  La  Nouvelle  Heloise,  which  seemed  to  her  (as 
it  has  to  many  another  young  impassioned  soul)  a  veri- 
table revelation.  At  the  age  of  25  (1780,  Feb.  4)  she  was 
married  to  Roland  (q.v.).  Her  influence  quickened  and 
heightened  his  revolutionary  zeal.  She  w&a  a  bold  thinker 
and  a  brilliant  writer,  and  her  political  contributions  to 
periodicals,  often  under  her  husband's  name,  commanded 
wide  attention.  After  their  removal  to  Paris  (1791,  Jan.), 
Madame  R.'s  salon  soon  became  the  centre  for  the  re- 
publican leaders.  Thenceforward  her  career  was  identical 
with  her  husband's  until  his  flight  from  Paris,  1793,  May 
31.  The  same  night,  she  was  herself  arrested,  and  im- 
prisoned in  the  Abbaye.  A  more  dauntless  and  intrepid 
spirit  never  entered  its  walls.  Released  June  24,  she  was 
instantly  rearrested  by  the  very  commissaries  who  had  set 
her  at  liberty,  without  the  shadow  of  a  tangible  accusation, 
and  confined  in  Sainte-Pelagie.  Madame  R.  spent  the 
period  of  her  imprisonment  in  study,  in  the  composition 
of  her  political  Memoires.  Summoned  before  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal  in  the  beginning  of  Nov.,  she  was  con- 
demned, and  on  the  8th  was  guillotined,  amid  the  shoutings 
of  an  insensate  mob.  It  is  said  that  while  standing  on  the 
scaffold,  she  asked  for  a  pen  and  paper  that  she  might 
'  write  down  the  strange  thought  s  that  were  passing  through 
her  head.'  Only  a  genuine  child  of  the  French  republic 
could  have  been  so  ostentatiously  speculative  at  such  a 
moment.  Still  more  celebrated  is  her  apostrophe  to  the 
statue  of  Liberty,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  scaffold  was 
erected:  4  O  Liberty,  what  crimes  are  committed  in  thy 
name!'  or,  according  to  another  version:  'Liberty,  how 
they  have  played  with  thy  name  !'— See  La  Correspondance 
de  Madame  Roland  avec  les  Demoiselles  Gannet  (2  vols.  Paris 
1841);  Lettres  Autographes  de  Madame  Roland,  adressees  a 
Bancal  des  Issarts  (Paris  1835). 

ROLAND  (DE  LA  PLATIERE),  ro-lbng  deh  Id  pld- te- 
ar', Jean  Marie:  French  minister  of  the  revolutionary 
period.  1734,  Feb.  18—1793,  Nov.  15;  b.  Mizy,  near  Ville- 
franche  (Beaujolais).  His  first  independent  appointment  was 
that  of  inspector-ordinary  at  Amiens.  In  1775  he  met  Manon 
Jeanne  Phlipon,  a  young  woman  of  brilliant  genius  and 
fascinating  manners,  and,  after  a  courtship  of  four  years, 
they  were  married,  1780,  Feb.  4.  When  the  Revolution 
broke  out,  1789,  R.  and  his  wife  became  decided  partizans 
of  the  movement.  In  1791  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  by  the 
municipality  of  Lyon,  to  represent  to  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly the  deplorable  condition  of  the  Lyonnese  weavers. 
After  the  dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  he 


r6le— roll. 


founded  at  Lyon  ths  Club  Central,  the  members  of  which, 
marked  by  their  attachment  to  constitutional  liberty,  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Bolandins.  Toward  the  close  of  1791, 
he  fixed  himself  at  Paris,  and  soon  became  one  of  the  heads 
of  the  Girondist  or  moderate  section  of  the  republicans. 
1792,  Mar.,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  but 
resigned  1793,  Jan.,  despairing  of  seeing  moderate  counsels 
adopted.  After  placing  his  accounts  in  the  hands  of  the 
Assembly,  he  asked  permission  to  withdraw  from  Paris, 
but  it  was  refused,  and  an  illegal  attempt  was  made  to 
arrest  him,  which  failed.  Immediately  afterward  he  fled, 
and  concealed  himself  in  Rouen.  When  news  reached  him 
of  the  beheading  of  his  wife,  he  wandered  some  miles  to  a 
small  village  in  the  environs  of  Rouen,  and  there,  maddened 
with  grief  and  despair,  committed  suicide.  R.  wrote  and 
published  several  memoirs  and  disquisitions  on  branches 
of  industry,  besides  6  vols,  of  Letters  addressed  to  his  wife 
before  their  marriage,  from  Switzerland,  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
Malta. 

ROLE,  n.  rbl  [F.  role,  a  roll,  a  scroll— from  L.  rotiila,  a 
little  wheel;  rota,  a  wheel]:  a  part  or  character  in  a  play  or 
other  public  performance. 

ROLL,  v.  rbl  [OF.  roler;  F.  rouler;  mid.  L.  rotuldre,  to 
roll — from  L.  rota,  a  wheel:  It.  rotolare;  Dut.  and  Ger. 
rollen;  Icel.  rulla;  Dan.  rulle,  to  roll]:  to  move  by  turn- 
ing over  and  over;  to  move  round,  as  a  wheel;  to  revolve; 
to  cause  to  revolve;  to  involve;  to  form  or  be  formed  into  a 
round  mass;  to  wrap  round  upon  itself;  to  spread  or  flatten 
by  means  of  a  roller  or  cylinder;  to  drive  with  a  circular 
motion,  or  forward,  as  in  a  stream;  to  perform  a  periodical 
revolution;  to  move,  as  waves;  to  sound  as  a  drum,  the 


thing  wound  into  a  cylindrical  form;  twist  of  tobacco; 
small  piece  of  baked  bread:  in  arch.,  around  molding — 
sometimes  modified  by  introduction  of  a  fillet,  and  then 
called  the  roll-and -fillet  molding:  anciently,  a  volume; 
public  document;  register  or  catalogue;  chronicle.  Roli/- 
ing,  imp,:  Adj.  revolving;  movable:  N.  motion  of  a  ship 
from  side  to  side.  Rolled,  pp.  rold.  Roller,  n.  rol  er, 
long  round  body  of  wood,  stone,  or  iron,  used  to  press, 
crush,  grind,  or  smooth:  in  surg.,  long  broad  bandage  of 
cotton  or  linen:  in  agri.  (see  below):  in  printing  (see  below). 
Roll  ers,  n.  plu.  -erz,  tumbling  heavy  waves  of  a  ground 
swell;  huge  rolling  waves.  Long-roll,  in  mil.,  prolonged 
roll  of  the  drums,  as  the  signal  for  an  attack,  or  for  troops 
to  fall  into  line.  Rolling-chocks,  n.  rdl'mg-choks,  or 
Rolling-cleats,  n.  klets,  in  naut.,  jaws  on  a  yard  to 
steady  it  against  the  mast  when  a  ship  rolls.  Rolling-mill, 


Roll  Molding. 


strokes  producing  a  continuation 
of  sounds;  to  be  tossed  about,  or 
to  move  from  side  to  side,  on 
rough  water,  as  a  ship;  to  run  on 
wheels;  to  move  tumultuously: 
N.  act  of  rolling;  state  of  being 
rolled;  thing  rolling;  mass  made 
round  [F.  rouleau];  writing  or 
paper  rolled  upon  itself;  any- 


HOLLER. 

heavy  steel  rollers  for  reducing  red-hot  masses  of  iron- 
copper,  etc.,  to  bars  or  thin  plates,  or  sheets  (see  Iron). 
Rolling-pin,  round  piece  of  wood  for  pressing  and  shap 
ing  dough  or  paste.  Rolling  prairie,  undulating  prairie- 
land  in  N.  Amer.  Rolling -press,  press  consisting  of 
two  rollers.  Rolling  stock,  locomotives,  carriages,  and 
wagons  belonging  to  a  railroad  company.  Rolls,  n.  plu. 
rolz,  a  part  of  London  between  the  City  and  Westminster, 
enjoying  certain  liberties,  so  called  from  the  court  rolls 
or  law  records  formerly  deposited  in  its  chapel:  office 
where  the  Brit,  chancery  records  are  kept,  hence  'the 
master  of  the  rolls ' — that  is,  '  the  judge  of  tbe  court '  (see 
Master  of  the  Rolls).  Rolls  of  court  or  of  par- 
liament, etc.,  the  parchments,  etc.,  on  which  the  list  of 
causes  depending,  or  of  the  acts  and  proceedings,  is  en- 
grossed. To  call  the  roll,  to  recite  a  list  or  register  of 
the  names  of  persons,  as  of  a  school,  college,  or  of  any  or- 
ganized body  of  persons,  to  ascertain  their  presence  or  ab- 
sence. Roller-skates,  wooden  bases  or  soles  for  the  boots 
under  which  are  small  movable  wheels  for  skating  on 
smooth  level  surfaces  not  formed  of  ice.— SvN.of  'roll,  n.': 
catalogue;  list;  schedule;  inventory;  register. 

ROLL  ER:  agricultural  implement,  long  in  use,  con- 
sisting of  a  cylinder  of  wood,  stone,  or  iron,  placed  in  a 
frame,  so  as  to  revolve  like  a  wheel,  and  drawn  over  the 
land  by  a  horse.  The  weight  of  the  R.  is  greater  or  less 
according  to  tbe  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended:  the 
breaking  of  stilt"  clay  clods,  the  consolidating  of  very  light 
soils  after  frost,  the  hardening  of  the  surface  of  the  ground 
to  check  evaporation,  the  levelling  of  an  uneven  surface 
before  harvest  operations,  etc.  The  introduction  of  hollow 
cylinders  of  iron,  instead  of  solid  ones  of  wood  or  stone, 
was  the  first  improvement  on  the  old  simple  implement; 
which  was  afterward  further  modified  by  dividing  the 
cylinder  into  two  parts,  to  give  greater  facility  in  turning, 
and  to  diminish  its  injurious  action  in  scraping  the  soil 
before  it  while  turning;  and  this  process  of  division  being 
carried  further,  with  other  modifications,  giving  each  part 
or  wheel  a  more  independent  action,  and  breaking  up  the 
uniformity  of  surface  by  giving  a  raised  wedge-like  edge 
to  the  circumference  of  each  wheel,  the  result  is  a  clod- 
crusher. 

ROLL'ER  :  part  of  the  inking  apparatus  in  letter-press 
printing;  of  modern  invention.  In  the  old  process  of  ap- 
plying ink  to  the  surface  of  types,  stuffed  leather  balls  or 
cushions  were  used,  inapplicable  to  cylinder-printing.  The 
first  improvement  on  the  stuffed  balls  consisted  in  covering 
them  with  a  soft  and  elastic  composition.  Catching  at  this 
idea,  the  inventors  of  cylinder-printing  machines  made 
rollers  by  coating  longitudinal  and  rounded  pieces  of  woo*d 
with  the  composition,  by  means  of  casting  in  a  mold. 
This  invention  came  generally  into  use  1814-18,  rendering 
printing  machinery  practicable. 

A  R.  may  be  of  any  length,  to  suit  work  of  different 
kinds;  for  hand-presses  it  is  usually  about  30  inches  long, 
but  longer  for  machines,  according  to  their  dimensions. 


ROLLER. 

The  thickness  is  about  3  inches,  of  which  the  composition 
on  the  wood  is  probably  three-quarters  of  an  inch  all  round. 
The  composition  now  used  is  of  glucose  (with  a  little  glue) 
and  glycerine  in  about  equal  parts,  somewhat  resembling 
soft  India-rubber.  In  summer,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  some- 
what larger  proportion  of  glucose  than  in  winter,  to  secure 
suitable  firmness.  Rollers,  in  time,  shrivel  and  become 
hard  by  use,  and  the  composition  may  then  be  remelted, 
with  some  small  addition  of  new  materials.  In  all  cases, 
the  rollers  require  to  be  kept  very  clean,  and  suspended  in 
a  rack  when  not  in  use. 

ROLL'ER  (Coracias):  genus  of  birds  long  generally  refer- 
red to  the  Crow  family  ( Corvidce),  but  by  many  recent  natural  - 
ists  to  the  Bee-eater  family  (Meropidce),  and  to  the  King-fish- 
ers, with  which  they  regard  the  habits  and  colorsof  the  species 
as  indicating  a  closer  alliance.  The  bill  is  moderately  kirge, 
compressed  toward  the  point,  straight,  the  upper  mandible 
curved  downward  at  the  point,  the  sides  bristled  at  the 
base,  the  gape  wide;  the  legs  short  and  strong;  the  wings 
long.  The  colors  are  in  general  very  brilliant.  Swainson 
says  of  the  Blue-bodied  R.  (G.  cyanogasier)  of  w.  Africa, 
that  'no  effort  of  art  can  possibly  do  justice  to  those  inimita- 
bly rich  lines  of  ultramarine,  beryl  color,  and  changeable 
fawn,  with  which  it  is  ornamented;  for  there  are  no  tints 


Roller  (Coracias  garrula). 
hitherto  discovered,  either  mineral  or  vegetable,  which  will 
enable  the  painter  to  produce  their  successful  imitation. ' 
The  species  are  numerous,  all  natives  of  the  old  world,  and 
mostly  of  the  warmer  parts  of  it.  One  only  is  found  in  Eu- 
rope, the  Common  R.  (<7.  garrula),  a  bird  nearly  equal  in  size 
to  a  jay;  with  head,  neck,  and  wing-coverts  greenish  blue, 
other  shades  of  blue  strongly  marked  in  the  wings.  This 
bird  is  abundant  in  n.  Africa  and  in  w.  Asia;  it  is  par- 
tially migratory,  and  is  rare  in  Britain.  It  tosses  its  food, 
which  consists  of  insects  or  parts  of  plants,  into  the  air 
before  eating  it,  swallowing  it  when  it  falls  in  a  proper  di- 
rection for  entering  the  throat.  The  name  R.  is  derived 
from  its  habit  of  rolling  or  tumbling  in  the  air  like  a  tum- 
bler-pigeon. It  is  an  inhabitant  of  woods.  It  is  very  shy, 
and  the  sportsman  always  finds  it  difficult  of  approach.  In 
countries  where  it  abounds,  as  in  some  islands  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, it  is  in  high  esteem  for  the  table. 


ROLLIC— ROMAGNA. 

ROLLIC,  or  Rollick,  v.  rbl'lik  [Scot,  roliochin,  lively, 
free-spoken:  prov.  Eng.  rallack,  to  romp:  Sw.  rolig, 
merry:  Gael,  roilig,  a  frolicsome  person]:  to  move  or  act 
with  a  careless  swaggering  air.  Rol  licking,  imp. :  Adj. 
rudely  boisterous  in  merriment;  careless;  swaggering. 
Rol  licked,  pp.  likt. 

ROLLIN,  rbl'ln,  F.  rol-lang' ,  Charles:  French  historian: 
1661,  Jan.  30-1741,  Dec.  14;  b.  Paris.  He  studied  at  the 
College  duPlessis,  where,  1687,  he  became  prof,  of  rhetoric. 
In  1688  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  eloquence  at  the  Col- 
lege Royal  de  France;  1694  he  was  chosen  rector  of  the  Univ. 
of  Paris,  signalizing  his  brief  tenure  of  two  years  by  many 
reforms— e.g.,  his  revival  of  the  study  of  Greek,  then  fall- 
ing into  neglect.  In  1699  he  was  appointed  coadjutor  to 
the  principal  of  the  College  of  Beauvais;  but  was  removed 
1712,  through  the  machinations  of  the  Jesuits,  for  R.  was 
a  strenuous  Jansenist.  In  1720  he  was  re-elected  rector  of 
the  univ. ;  and  1726  published  his  Traite  des  Etudes,  which 
Yillemain  has  pronounced  '  a  monument  of  good  sense  and 
taste/  and  which  is  his  best  literary  performance.  His 
Histoire  Ancienne  (Paris  12  vols.  1730-38),  for  several  gen- 
erations prodigiously  popular,  and  translated  into  English 
and  other  languages,  is  feeble  in  its  philosophy,  jejune  in 
its  criticism,  and  often  inaccurate  in  its  narrative.  Never- 
theless, to  multitudes,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  it  has 
well  served  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  ancient  his- 
tory. 

ROLLIN,  Ledru:  see  Ledru-Rollin. 
ROLLOCKS,    rbl'loks,   for   Rowlocks:    see  under 
Row  1. 

ROLL  OF  ARMS:  heraldic  record  of  arms,  either  ver- 
bally blazoned,  or  illuminated,  or  both,  on  a  long  strip  of 
vellum,  rolled  up,  instead  of  being  folded  into  leaves. 
Rolls  of  arms  are  the  most  important  and  most  authentic 
materials  for  the  history  of  early  heraldry.  In  England, 
they  go  back  to  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  the  oldest  being  a 
copy  of  a  roll  of  that  reign,  containing  a  list  of  the  arms 
borne  by  the  sovereign,  the  princes  of  the  blood,  and  the 
principal  barons  and  knights,  1216-72,  verbally  blazoned 
without  drawings.  The  original  has  been  lost;  but  the  copy 
(1586),  called  '  Glover's  Roll/  is  in  the  English  College 
of  Arms.  The  Boll  of  Caerlaverock  is  a  heraldic  poem  in 
Norman -French,  reciting  the  names  and  arms  of  the 
knights  at  the  siege  of  Caerlaverock,  1300. 

ROLY-POLY,  or  Roll y-poly,  n.  rol'i-pol'i  [said  to  be  a 
compound  of  roll,  and  pool,  a  hollow]:  a  game  in  which  a 
ball  rolling  into  a  certain  hollow  place  wans;  a  pudding 
formed  of  a  sheet  of  paste  on  which  a  conserve  of  fruit  is 
spread,  then  rolled  up  and  cooked. 

ROMAGE,  n.  rom'dj  [see  Rummage]:  in  OR,  active  and 
tumultuous  search  for;  disturbance;  tumult 

ROMAGN'A:  see  Papal  States 


ROMAIC— ROMAINE. 

ROMAIC,  n.  ro-ma'ik  [F.  Bomdique:  mod.  Gr.  Boma- 
lkos\ :  a  term  applied  to  the  modern  Greek  tongue :  Adj.  of 
or  relating  to  modern  Greece,  or  its  language. 

ROMAINE,  ro-mdn',  William:  clergyman  of  the  Church 
of  England,  noted  for  the  ardor  with  which  he  preached 
'  evangelical '  and  Calvinistic  doctrines  in  an  age  of  relig- 
ious apathy:  1714,  Sep.  25— 1795,  July  26;  b.  Hartlepool; 
son  of  a  French  Prot  refugee.  R.  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
the  Church  of  England  1738,  and  immediately  obtained  a 
curacy  near  Epsom.  In  1739  he  published  a  sermon 
preached  before  the  Univ.  of  Oxford,  which  led  to  a  contro- 
versy with  Bp.  Warburton.  In  1748  he  was  chosen  lecturer 
of  St.  Botolph's  in  London,  and  in  the  following  year  lect- 
urer of  St.  Dunstan's  in-the-West.  Two  years  later,  he  was 
appointed  assistant  morning-preacher  at  St.  George's;  but 
was  afterward  deprived  of  the  situation  by  the  rector,  Dr. 
Trebeck,  who  was  jealous  of  his  popularity,  and  averse  to 
the  1  plainness  '  of  his  preaching.  His '  evangelicalism  '  grew 
with  his  years;  and  at  length,  1757,  in  a  sermon  on  The  Lord 
Our  Bighteousness,  it  became  so  offensive  to  the  torpid  dons 
of  Oxford  that  the  univ.  pulpit  was  closed  against  him.  In 
1756  he  became  curate  and  morning-preacher  at  St.  Olave's, 
South wark,  a  situation  which  he  exchanged  in  the  course  of 
a  year  for  a  preachership  at  St.  Bartholomew  the  Great, 
near  West  Smithfield.  In  1766  he  was  chosen  by  the  pa- 
rishioners rector  of  St.  Andrew,  Wardrobe,  and  St.  Anne, 
Blackfriars,  an  office  which  he  held  till  his  death.  R.  pub- 
lished: Twelve  Sermons  upon  Solomon's  Song  (1759);  Twelve 
Discourses  upon  the  Law  and  the  Gospel  (1760);  The  Life  of 
Faith  (1763);  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  (1765);  The  Walk  of  Faith  (1771);  An 
Essay  on  Psalmody  (1775);  The  Triumph  of  Faith  (1795). 
His  works  were  republished  in  a  collected  form,  8  vols.,  1796. 


ROMAN— ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

ROMAN,  a.  to' man  [L.  Romanics,  a  Roman — from 
Roma,  Rome]:  pertaining  to  Rome  (q.v.)  or  its  people; 
pertaining  to  the  pope;  papal;  the  type  commonly  used  in 
printing,  as  distinguished  from  the  Italic:  N.  a  native  or 
citizen  of  Rome.  Romanese,  n.  to  man  ez' ,  language  of 
the  Walachians,  spoken  in  Walachia,  Moldavia,  and  parts 
of  Hungary.  Romanza,  n.  rd-mantz'a  [It.]:  in  mus.,  a 
romance.  Roman zieri,  n.  rd-mantz-i-are  [It.,  romancists]: 
a  school  of  Italian  poets,  who  took  for  their  subjects  the 
romances  of  France  and  Spain,  especially  those  relating  to 
Charlemagne  and  his  knights.  Ariosto  is  the  chief  poet  of 
the  school.  Romanic,  a.  rd-man'lk,  derived  from  the 
Roman  alphabet.  Romanism,  n.  ro'man-izm,  the  tenets  of 
the  Church  of  Rome  (see  Roman  Catholic  Chukch). 
Ro  manist,  n.  -1st,  adherent  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Ro  - 
manize,  v.  -Iz,  to  convert  or  to  conform  to  the  Rom.  Cath. 
religion;  to  Latinize.  Ro  manizing,  imp.:  Adj.  tending 
or  leading  toward  the  Church  of  Rome.  Ro  manized,  pp. 
-izd:  Adj.  inclined  toward  the  Roman  language,  or  to  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Roman  Catholic,  a.  applied  to  that  form 
of  the  Christian  religion  of  which  the  pope,  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  is  the  acknowledged  chief  or  head:  N.  one  who 
professes  that  form  of  Christianity  (see  Roman  Catholic 
Church).  Roman  Catholicism,  ka-thol'i-sizm,  the  doc- 
trines and  practices  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  Chh.  Roman 
cement,  cement  or  mortar,  formed  from  an  argillaceous  car- 
bonate of  lime  calcined,  used  in  the  surface- fronting  of  brick 
and  other  buildings  to  imitate  stone,  which  art  was  brought 
from  Italy;  a  hydraulic  cement  (see  Cement).  Roman 
candle,  a  firework  in  form  of  a  large  candle  which  throws 
up  colored  balls.  Roman  indiction:  see  Indiction. 
Roman  law,  name  given  to  the  body  of  laws  founded  on 
the  laws  and  statutes  of  anc.  Rome,  and  incorporated  more 
or  less  into  the  laws  of  every  country  of  Europe,  and  into 
laws  in  the  United  States  (see  Law  [Established  Rule] — 
References).  Roman-ochre,  n.  -d'ker,  a  pigment  of  rich, 
deep,  and  powerful  orange  yellow  color,  transparent  and 
durable.  It  is  used,  both  raw  and  burnt,  in  oil  and  water- 
color  painting.  The  coloring  matter  is  oxide  of  iron  mixed 
with  earthy  matter.  Roman  order,  in  arch.,  the  Composite 
order.  Roman  school,  n.  in  art,  the  style  formed  or  preva- 
lent at  Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  c. ;  remarkable  for 
its  solid  and  legitimate  effects.  The  works  of  Raphael  exhibit 
this  school  in  its  full  development,  and  he  is  accordingly 
considered  its  head.  Rome  not  built  in  a  day,  great 
achievements  or  undertakings  can  only  be  accomplished  by 
patience  and  perseverance. 

RO  MAN  AL'UM.  see  Roche  Alum  (under  Roche). 

RO  MAN  AR  CHITECTURE:  the  mixed  architectural 
style  of  ancient  Rome.  Of  the  early  architecture  of  Rome 
and  the  other  Latin  cities,  comparatively  little  is  known. 
With  the  conquest  of  Carthage,  Greece,- and  Egypt,  the 
Romans  became  acquainted  with  the  arts  of  those  countries, 
and  began  to  endeavor  to  use  them  for  the  embellishment 
of  the  imperial  city.  Besides,  Rome  under  the  empire  was 
the  capital  of  the  world,  and  attracted  artists  from  every 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

country.  The  result  was  that  the  architecture  of  Rome  be- 
came a  mixed  style.  It  was  all  imported,  and  partook  of  the 
character  of  the  importers.  The  great  interest  of  R.  A.  is,  that 
it  is  a  mixture  and  amalgamation  of  all  ancient  styles,  and  the 
starting-point  for  all  modern  styles.  It  is  thus  the  connect- 
ing link  between  ancient  and  modern  art;  the  whole  history 
of  R.  A.  being  that  of  a  transition,  slow  but  steady,  from 
the  external  architecture  of  the  Greeks  to  the  internal  ar- 
chitecture of  the  Christians.  Rome  borrowed  from  Greece 
the  oblong:  peristylar  temple,  with  its  horizontal  construc- 
tion and  decoration,  and  the  various  '  orders.'  See  Col- 
umn: Grecian  Architecture.  From  the  Tuscans,  prob- 
ably, were  derived  the  circular  form  of  temple  and  the 
circular  arch,  which  became  leading  features  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  future  Roman  style 

The  Orders  imported  from  Greece  were  the  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian  (q.v.).  These  were  all  used  in 
Rome,  but  with  some  modifications;  the  Doric,  e.g.,  being 
never  used  as  in  Greece,  but  without  fluting,  and  with  the 
capital  and  entablature  altered,  and  a  base  added,  so  as  to 
make  the  style  more  similar  to  the  others,  with  which  it  was 
often  associated.  The  Ionic  had  the  volutes  turned  out 
angularwise,  so  as  to  present  a  similar  face  in  each  direc- 
tion. The  favorite  'order'  of  the  Romans,  however,  was 
the  Corinthian.  It  was  invented  in  Greece,  but  more  fully 
developed  in  Rome,  where  it  suited  the  desire  for  richness 
and  luxuriance  in  architecture.    Many  fine  examples  of 


Fig.  1. — Doric  Arcade. 


tliis  style  exist  in  Rome  (as  the  Pantheon,  Jupiter  Stator, 
etc.),  and  in  the  provinces  (as  the  Maison  Carree  at  "Nlmos, 
Baalbek,  etc.),  the  capitals,  wherever  found,  being  de- 
signed in  endless  variety.  The  Composite  order  was  an 
invention  of  the  Romans,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Bo- 
man  order:  it  is  a  combination  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian. 
AD  these  orders  were  used  by  the  Romans,  but  in  a  man- 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

.cer  peculiar  to  themselves;  they  combined  with  me  Greek 
orders  the  arch.  They  placed  the  columns  (fig.  1)  at  wide 
intervals,  and  set  them  on  pedestals,  to  give  them  and  the 
entablature  a  proper  proportion;  while  behind  tbe  columns 
they  placed  square  piers,  and  from  them  threw  arches 
which  supported  the  wall.  This  was  the  favorite  Roman 
style,  and  may  be  seen  in  all  their  important  works  (am- 
phitheatres, arches,  baths,  etc.).  They  piled  one  order 
above  another,  marking  each  story  with  the  entablature. 
As  the  style  proceeded,  vaulting  and  archiug  became  more 
common,  especially  in  internal  construction,  but  the  hori- 
zontal ornamentation  was  never  entirely  abandoned. 
Arches  of  this  construction  were  thrown  from  pillar  to 
pillar  behind  the  entablature,  and  gradually  the  pier  was 
omitted,  and  the  arch  openly  thrown  from  pillar  to  pillar, 
the  architrave  bent  round  it,  and  the  cornice  continued 
horizontally  above. 


Fig.  2  —Court-yard  at  Spalatr~. 
(From  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson's  Dalmatia.) 

the  buildings  executed  by  the  Romans  are  very  varied 
In  iheir  character,  but  the  same  style  was  used  for  temples, 
bz*ths,  amphitheatres,  triumphal  arches,  tombs,  etc.  The 
earliest  temples  of  which  remains  now  exist  are  those  of 
Jupiter  Stat  or  in  the  Forum,  Jupiter  Tonans,  and  Mara 
Ultor,  all  of  the  Augustan  epoch,  and  each  with  only  three 
columns  left.  These  are  supposed  to  have  been  nearly 
peripteral,  and  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  all  the  cells  are 
large,  and  one  of  them  has  an  apse. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  temples  of  Rome  is  the  Pan* 
theon.  Tne  portico  is  of  the  age  of  Augustus,  but  the 
rotunda  is  probably  considerably  later.  The  dome  of  the 
interior  is  h  splendid  example  of  the  progress  of  R.  A.  in 
developing  the  use  of  the  arch,  and  transferring  the  deco- 
ration from  the  exterior  to  the  interior.  The  former  is  in 
this  case  totally  sacrificed  to  the  latter;  but  the  interior  has 
not  yet  been  surpassed  for  boldness  of  construction  or 
iimplicity  and  sublimity  of  effect.    Other  examples  of  cir- 


I10MAJST  ARCHITECTURE. 

cuiar  temples,  on  a  small  scale,  are  found  at  Tivoli  and  in 
Rome,  both  dedicated  to  Vesta. 

The  greatest  works  of  the  Romans,  however,  were  not 
their  temples.  The  Basilicas  (q.v.),  Amphitheatres  (q.v.), 
and  Baths  (q.v.)  are  far  more  numerous  and  more  stupen. 


Fig.  3.— Transverse  Section  of  Basilica  of  Maxentius. 

(From  Fergusson's  Handbook  of  Architecture.) 

dous  as  works  of  art,  and  all  show  how  well  the  Romans 
had  succeeded  in  producing  an  internal  architecture,  which 
at  a  later  period  became  useful  as  a  model  for  Christian 
buildings.  The  Basilica  of  Trajan  is  a  type  of  the  Chris- 
tian wooden-roofed  churches;  while  that  of  Maxentius  (fig. 
3),  with  its  great  intersecting  vaults,  its  vaulted  aisles,  and 


Fig.  4.— Tomb  of  Csecilia  Metella. 
(From  Fergusson's  Handbook.) 

its  buttresses,  contains  the  germs  of  the  greatest  Christian 
cathedrals.  The  Roman  Amphitheatres  (q.v.)  have  never 
been  surpassed  for  size  and  grandeur,  or  for  suitability  to 
their  purpose.    And  of  the  Baths  (q.v.)  sufficient  remains 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

are  left,  though  much  decayed,  from  the  perishable  nature 
of  the  brick  aud  stucco  employed  in  their  construction,  to 
prove  that  the  scarcely  credible  descriptions  of  contempo- 
raries were  surpassed  by  the  magnificence  of  the  buildings 
themselves. 

Among  other  varied  public  works  of  the  Romans  are 
their  Aqueducts  (q.v.)  and  bridges,  Triumphal  Arches 
(q.v.),  pillars  of  victory,  and  tombs.  Of  the  tombs  of  the 
Romans,  the  earliest  and  best  specimen  is  that  of  Csecilia 
Metella  (wife  of  Crassus),  on  the  Appian  Way  (fig.  4).  It 
consists  (like  most  Roman  tombs)  of  a  round  drum  on  a 
square  basement,  and  was  probably  surmounted  by  a  conical 
roof.  The  tomb  of  Augustus  was  similar,  on  a  very  large 
scale,  and  the  sloping  roof  was  broken  into  terraces  planted 
with  trees.  The  tomb  of  Adrian  (now  the  castle  of  Sao 
Angelo  in  Rome)  is  another  enormous  example.  The  tombs 
were  generally  ranged  along  the  ways  leading  to  the  gates 
of  cities. 

The  later  tombs  of  Rome  are  well  worthy  of  study,  as  they 
contain  many  specimens  of  the  transition  toward  the  Chris' 


Fig.  5.— Plan  of  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Medica  at  Rome, 
tian  style.  They  are  generally  vaulted,  frequently  with 
domes;  e.g.,  the  tombs  of  St.  Helena  and  Sta.  Costanza. 
Fergusson  places  the  so-called  '  Temple  of  Minerva  Medica' 
(fig.  5)  also  among  the  tombs.  It  is  a  beautifully  arranged 
building  with  ten  sides,  all  containing  deep  niches  (except 
the  side  with  the  door),  surmounted  by  a  clerestory,  with 
ten  well  proportioned  windows.  The  vault  is  polygonal 
inside  and  outside;  and  the  pendentives,  ribs,  buttresses, 
etc.,  which  became  so  important  in  the  Christian  architect- 
ure both  of  the  East  and  West,  are  distinctly  used  in  its 
construction. 

Of  the  domestic  architecture  of  the  Romans,  there  are 
many  wonderfully  preserved  specimens  in  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii,  showing  both  the  arrangements  and  decora- 
tions of  the  dwellings  of  all  classes.  Of  the  great  palaces 
and  villas,  however,  none  remain  except  the  palace  of  Dio- 
cletian, at  Spalatro,  in  Dalmatia.  It  is  an  important  build 
ing,  as  it  shows  many  steps  in  the  progress  of  the  style. 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH:  community  of  Chris 
tians  throughout  the  world  who  recognize  the  spiritual  su- 
premacy of  the  pope  or  bishop  of  Rome,  and  are  united 
together  by  the  profession  of  the  same  faith,  and  the  p^rtic'pa 
tion  of  the  same  sacraments.  The  subject  may  be  conve- 
niently treated  by  considering  under  separate  heads  the  his- 
tory of  this  great  Christian  community;  its  doctrinal  and  dis- 
ciplinary system;  and  finally,  its  organization  and  constitu* 
tional  forms,  especially  as  affected  by  the  decrees  of  the  late 
council  of  the  Vatican,  and  by  other  doctrinal  constitutions 
of  recent  years. 

Although  a  few  other  points  of  doctrinal  difference  sepa- 
rate the  Roman  Church  from  the  Greek,  Russian,  and 
oriental  communions,  yet  the  most  palpable  ground  of 
division  lies  in  the  claim  of  supremacy  in  spiritual  juris- 
diction on  the  part  of  the  Roman  bishop.  The  history  of 
the  Roman  Church,  therefore,  in  relation  to  the  ancient 
oriental  churches,  is,  in  fact,  the  history  of  this  claim  to 
supremacy.  In  the  minds  of  Roman  Catholics,  the  claim 
of  supremacy  on  the  part  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  rests  on 
the  belief  that  Christ  conferred  on  the  apostle  Peter  a  '  pri- 
macy of  jurisdiction;'  that  Peter  fixed  his  see  and  died  at 
Rome  (a  position  which  many  Prot.  hi  torians  have  called  in 
question);  and  thus,  that  the  bishops  of  Rome,  as  successors 
of  the  apostle  Peter,  have  succeeded  to  his  prerogatives  of  su- 
premacy. In  this  light,  Rom.  Cath.  historians  read  the  facts 
of  the  early  history  of  the  church— and  they  trace  to  this  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  superiority  of  that  see,  the  numerous 
references  to  Rome  on  matters  of  doctrine  or  discipline; 
the  appeals  from  other  churches,  even  those  of  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  and  Constantinople;  the  depositions  or  nomina- 
tions of  bishops,  examination  and  condemnation  of  heresies 
— of  which  the  first  five  centuries,  especially  the  4th  and  5th, 
present  examples,  but  in  which  Prot.  historians  recognize 
only  the  natural  result  of  the  political  and  social  superiority 
of  Rome  as  capital  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  letters  of 
Pope  Leo  the  Great  show  beyond  question  that  the  bishops 
of  Rome,  in  the  commencement  of  the  5th  c,  claimed  to 
speak  and  act  with  supreme  authority;  and  the  first  direct 
challenge  to  this  claim  was  made  by  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, Acacius,  and  led  to  a  schism  of  many  years, 
which,  however,  terminated  in  the  humiliation  of  the 
younger  see.  In  all  the  controversies  on  the  Incarnation — 
the  Arian,  the  Nestorian,  the  Eutychian,  the  Monothelite — 
not  only  was  the  orthodoxy  of  Rome  never  impeached,  but 
she  even  supplied  at  every  crisis  a  rallying-point  for  the  or- 
thodox of  every  church.  It  was  so,  again,  in  the  Icono- 
clast controversy;  and  though  Constantinople,  in  the  time 
of  Gregory  the  Great  and  again  of  Nicholas  I.,  renewed 
the  struggle  for  supremacy,  or  even  equality,  the  superior 
position  of  Rome  continued  to  be  recognized.  The  separa- 
tion of  the  Greek  Church  and  her  dependencies,  under  the 
patriarch  Michael  Cerularius,  1054,  was  but  a  narrowing  of 
the  territorial  jurisdiction  of  Rome;  and  within  that  portion 
of  the  church  which  remained  faithful,  it  even  enhanced 
her  dignity,  and  widened  her  prerogatives.    The  abandon- 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

merit  of  Italy  by  the  emperors  to  its  fate,  under  the  invasion 
of  the  barbarians,  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  temporal 
sovereignty  of  the  popes;  and  the  social  disorganization  of 
Europe  combined  with  the  spiritual  authority  of  the  Roman 
bishop  to  establish  the  general  recognition  of  his  authority 
throughout  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  as  an  arbiter  in  the 
temporal  relations  of  sovereigns  with  their  subjects,  and  of 
sovereigns  toward  each  other.  This  extraordinary  tempo- 
ral authority  was  at  once  the  consequence  and  the  support 
of  his  acknowledged  spiritual  power;  and  even  Protestants 
have  recognized  the  Rom.  Church  of  the  mediaeval  period 
as  absorbing  in  itself  almost  the  whole  of  European  Chris- 
tendom, and  as  the  only  public  (even  though  they  believe  it 
degenerate  and  corrupt)  representative  of  the  church  in  the 
West.  The  temporary  withdrawal  of  the  papal  residence 
from  Rome  to  Avignon  brought  notable  diminution,  at 
least,  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes,  which  was  still 
further  weakened  by  the  long  western  schism,  by  the  con- 
flicts of  the  rival  pontiffs,  and  the  scandals  which  arose 
therefrom.  The  modern  political  institutions  which  then 
began  to  break  forth  upon  the  world  so  modified  the  public 
relations  of  church  and  state,  as  by  degrees  to  undo  the  con- 
dition of  society  in  which  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes 
had  its  foundation.  The  great  revolution  of  the  16th  c. 
completed  the  process. 

The  revolution  with  which  the  popes  thus  found  them- 
selves face  to  face  was  not  without  its  influence  in  the  ex- 
ternal history  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  defections  con- 
sequent on  the  Reformation,  at  first  numerous  and  formi- 
dable, received  a  check.  The  great  Council  of  Trent  did 
more  to  systematize,  to  define,  and  to  present  in  popular 
form  the  doctrinal  belief  of  Rome,  than  had  been  accom- 
plished by  the  united  efforts  of  the  schoolmen  of  the  three 
centuries  which  preceded  the  Reformation;  while  the 
decrees  of  reform  which  it  enacted,  and  still  more  the 
schemes  of  local  and  individual  reform  which  it  originated, 
and  to  which  it  gave  impulse  as  well  as  example,  tended 
to  bring  about  an  active  internal  reform.  The  latter  half 
of  the  16th  c.  was  a  period  of  new  life  in  the  Roman 
Church.  The  celebration  of  local  synods,  the  establish- 
ment of  episcopal  seminaries,  the  organization  of  schools, 
and  other  provision  for  religious  instruction— above  all,  the 
foundation  of  certain  religious  orders  of  both  sexes — had  the 
effect  of  arresting  the  progress  of  Protestantism,  which  in 
many  countries  had  been  at  first  rapid  and  decisive;  and 
Lord  Macaulay  has  traced  with  curious  minuteness  the  line 
which  marks  in  the  several  kingdoms  the  origin  and  the 
progress  of  this  religious  reaction. 

From  the  end  of  the  16th  c,  therefore,  the  position  of  the 
Rom.  Cath.  Church,  especially  in  her  external  relations,  may 
be  regarded  as  settled.  The  local  distribution  of  the  rival 
churches  in  the  world  has  hardly  been  altered,  except  by 
migration,  since  that  time.  But  in  her  relations  to  the 
state,  the  Roman  Church  has  since  passed  through  a  long 
and  critical  struggle:  see  Gallic  an  Church:  Febronian- 
&sm;  Innocent  XI:  etc.    The  new  theories  to  which  the 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

French  Revolution  gave  currency  have  still  further  modi- 
fied these  relations;  but  in  most  of  the  European  kingdoms 
they  were  read  justed  after  1815,  either  by  concordat  or  some 
similar  agreement.  Many  conflicting  claims  on  either  side, 
however,  stiJl  exist;  but  in  the  conflict  with  the  state,  the 
policy  of  the  Rom  Cath.  Church  has  generally  been  to  record 
her  protest  against  any  violation  of  her  right,  and,  this  pro- 
test having  been  made,  to  subir.it  under  protest,  unless  in 
what  are  considered  the  essentials  of  faith  or  of  discipline. 
Where  the  encroachments  of  the  state  are  considered  to 
violate  the  essentials  of  faith  or  discipline,  the  resistance 
must  result  in  definitive  separation,  as  in  the  case  of  Eng- 
land under  Henry  VIII.  and  his  successors,  and  of  Poland 
under  the  czar. 

The  details  of  the  doctrinal  system  of  the  Rom.  Cath- 
Church  may  be  best  collected  and  explained  from  her  latest 
authentic  creed,  commonly  called  'the  creed  of  Pius  V./ 
drawn  up  as  a  summary  of  the  authoritative  teaching  of 
that  ecclesiastical  body  till  the  time  at  which  it  was  writ- 
ten, and  published  together  with  certain  later  doctrinal 
pronouncements.  It  is  necessary  only  to  premise  that, 
while  in  the  view  of  Rom.  Catholics  (see  Rule  of  Faith) 
all  doctrine  must  be  based  on  the  word  of  God,  written  or 
unwritten,  the  church  is  the  only  authoritative  judge  of 
that  rule  of  faith.  For  the  tribunals  which  are  held  to  rep- 
resent this  teaching,  as  well  as  the  subjects  to  which  the 
privilege  extends,  and  the  limits  within  which  it  is  held  to 
be  exercised  infallibly,  see  Infallibility.  But  Rom. 
Catholics  hold,  that  while  the  church  has  authority,  when 
doubts  or  difficulties  arise,  to  propound,  in  such  terms  as 
leave  no  room  for  doubt,  new  definitions  of  faith,  never- 
theless these  new  definitions  must  not  be  regarded  as  addi- 
tions to  the  accepted  faith  of  the  church,  or  indeed  to  the 
original  deposit  of  Divine  teaching,  but  only  as  expositions  of 
former  articles,  or  at  most  as  developments  of  what  already 
existed  in  the  germ  and  has  but  been  evolved  by  contro- 
versy, or  brought  into  practical  action  by  the  progress  of 
time  and  by  the  change  of  the  external  relations  of  the 
church.    The  creed  of  Pius  V.  is  as  follows: 

'I,  N.  N.,  with  a  firm  faith  believe  and  profess  all  and 
every  one  of  those  things  which  are  contained  in  that 
creed  which  the  holy  Roman  Church  maketh  use  of.  To 
wit:  I  believe  in  one  God,  the  Father  Almighty,  Maker 
of  heaven  and  earth,  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible. 
And  in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  begotten  Son 
of  God,  born  of  the  Father  before  all  ages;  God  of  God; 
Light  of  Light;  true  God  of  the  true  God;  begotten, 
not  made;  consubstantial  with  the  Father,  by  whom  all 
things  were  made.  Who  for  us  men,  and  for  our  salva- 
tion, came  down  from  heaven,  and  was  incarnate  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  was  made  man. 
He  was  crucified  also  for  us  under  Pontius  Pilate,  suffered, 
and  was  buried.  And  the  third  day  he  rose  again  accord- 
ing to  the  Scriptures:  he  ascended  into  heaven,  sitteth  at 
the  right  hand  of  the  Father,  and  shall  come  again  with 
glory  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead;  of  whose  kingdom 


ROMAN  CATHOLXO  CHURCH. 

there  shall  be  no  end.  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Lord 
and  life-giver,  who  proceedeth  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son;  who,  together  with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  adored 
and  gloritied;  who  spake  by  the  prophets.  And  in  one 
holy,  Catholic,  and  Apostolic  Church.  I  confess  one  bap- 
tism for  the  remission 'of  sins;  and  I  look  for  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  and  the  life  of  the  world  to  come. 
Amen. 

'1  most  steadfastly  admit  and  embrace  the  apostolical 
and  ecclesiastical  traditions,  and  all  other  observances  and 
constitutions  of  the  same  church. 

'I  also  admit  the  holy  Scriptures,  according  to  that  sense 
which  our  holy  mother  the  Church  hath  held  and  doth 
hold;  to  whom  it  belongeth  to  judge  of  the  true  sense  and 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures;  neither  will  I  ever  take 
and  interpret  them  otherwise  than  according  to  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  the  Fathers. 

'I  also  profess  that  there  are  truly  and  properly  seven 
sacraments  of  the  new  law,  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ,  our 
Lord,  and  necessary  for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  though 
not  all  for  every  one:  to  wit — Baptism,  Confirmation,  the 
Eucharist,  Penance,  Extreme  Unction,  Order,  and  Matri- 
mony; and  that  they  confer  grace;  and  that  of  these,  Bap- 
tism, Confirmation,  and  Order  cannot  be  repeated  without 
sacrilege.  I  also  receive  and  admit  the  received  and 
approved  ceremonies  of  the  Catholic  Church,  used  in  the 
solemn  administration  of  the  aforesaid  sacraments. 

'  I  embrace  and  receive  all  and  every  one  of  the  things 
which  have  been  defined  and  declared  in  the  holy  Council 
of  Trent  concerning  original  sin  and  justification. 

'  I  profess,  likewise,  that  in  the  Mass  there  is  offered  to 
God^a  true,  proper,  and  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the  living 
and  the  dead;  and  that  in  the  most  holy  sacrament  of  the 
Eucharist  there  is  truly,  really,  and  substantially  the  Body 
and  Blood,  together  with  the  soul  and  divinity,  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ;  and  that  there  is  made  a  conversion  of  the 
whole  substance  of  the  bread  into  the  Body,  and  of  the 
whole  substauce  of  the  wine  into  the  Blood;  which  conver- 
sion the  Catholic  Church  calleth  Transubstantiation.  I 
also  confess  that  under  either  kind  alone  Christ  is  received 
whole  and  entire,  and  a  true  sacrament. 

'  I  constantly  hold  that  there  is  a  Purgatory,  and  that  the 
souls  therein  detained  are  helped  by  the  suffrages  of  the 
faithful. 

'  Likewise,  that  the  saints  reigning  together  with  Christ 
are  to  be  honored  and  invocated,  and  that  they  offer  prayers 
to  God  for  us,  and  that  their  relics  are  to  be  had  in  venera- 
tion. 

'  I  most  firmly  assert  that  the  Images  of  Christ,  of  the 
Mother  of  God,  ever  Virgin,  and  also  of  other  saints,  ought 
to  be  had  and  retained,  and  that  due  honor  and  veneration 
are  to  be  given  them. 

'  I  also  affirm  that  the  power  of  indulgences  was  left  by 
Christ  in  the  church,  and  that  the  use  of  them  is  most 
wholesome  to  Christian  people. 

'I  acknowledge  the  holy,  Catholic,  Apostolic,  Roman 
Vol.  32  —  13 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

Church  for  the  mother  and  mistress  of  all  churches;  and 
I  promise  true  obedience  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter,  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  and  Vicar  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

'I  likewise  undoubtingly  receive  and  profess  all  other 
things  delivered,  defined,  and  declared,  particularly  by 
the  holy  Council  of  Trent;  and  I  condemn,  reject,  and 
anathematize  all  things  contrary  thereto,  and  all  here- 
sies which  the  church  hath  condemned,  rejected,  and 
anathematized. 

'I.  N.  N.,  do  at  this  present  freely  profess  and  sincerely 
hold  this  true  Catholic  faith,  out  of  which  no  one  can 
be  saved;  and  I  promise  most  constantly  to  retain  and 
confess  the  same  entire  and  inviolate,  by  God's  assist- 
ance, to  the,  end  of  my  life.' 

In  addition  to  these  articles,  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church 
has,  since  the  compilation  of  the  creed  of  Pius  V.,  de- 
fined certain  further  doctrines  in  the  controversy  on 
grace,  which  arose  from  the  teaching  of  Jansen  (q.v.)  ; 
still  more  recently  that  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  (q.v.)  ;  and  a  still  more  com- 
prehensive body  of  articles  in  the  memorable  Syllabus 
issued  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  and  in  the  decrees  of  the  Vati- 
can Council,  celebrated  under  the  presidency  of  the  same 
pontiff.  The  doctrinal  decisions  of  this  latter  council 
are  divided  into  two  sections,  the  first  'on  the  Catholic 
Faith/  the  second  'on  the  Church  of  Christ.'  Each  sec- 
tion contains  a  'scheme  of  doctrine/  in  which  the  heads 
of  belief,  and  the  grounds  on  which  they  rest,  are  ex- 
plained; and  to  each  is  appended  a  body  of  'canons/  in 
which  the  several  points  are  summarized,  stated  in  pre- 
cise theological  language,  and  defined  as  articles  of 
'Catholic  belief.'  In  the  scheme  'on  the  Church  of 
Christ'  are  contained,  in  'an  additional  chapter/  the  cel- 
ebrated declarations  regarding  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope.  See  Omnium  Concilii  Vaticani  Documentorum 
Collectio  (8vo,  Paderbornise  1873). 

The  details  of  the  discipline  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church 
would  be  out  of  place  here.  But  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  Rom.  Cath.  Church  leans  toward  asceticism,  as  re- 
gards fasting,  with  less  rigor  than  the  Greek  and  orien- 
tal communions;  while,  on  the  contrary,  as  to  the 
Celibacy  (q.v.)  of  the  clergy,  her  law  is  much  more 
stringent;  all  the  clergy  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church  in  the 
sacred  orders,  including  sub-deacons,  being  so  strictly 
bound  to  celibacy,  that  a  marriage  contracted  after 
ordination  is  invalid  by  the  church  law.  This  rule  does 
not  hold  in  the  various  churches  of  ancient  rite  which 
are  in  communion  with  Rome:  in  these  churches  the  as- 
pirant to  the  ministry  is  permitted  to  marry  before  his 
ordination  as  sub-deacon,  and  may  thereafter,  as  deacon 
and  priest,  live  in  wedlock.  But  should  his  wife  die  he 
is  not  permitted  to  marry  again.    As  well  in  these 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 


churches  as  in  the  Greek  and  Russian  Orthodox  com- 
munion Bishops  are  obliged  to  celibacy.  In  all  that 
regards  the  general  discipline  of  the  whole  church,  only 
the  pope  or  a  general  council  is  considered  to  have  power 
to  legislate;  national  or  provincial  synods  for  the  disci- 
pline of  a  kingdom  or  province,  and  bishops  for  that  of 
their  own  dioceses. 

For  the  constitution  of  the  Rom.  Cath  Church,  Fee 
Hierarchy.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  under  the  ge- 
neric name  Rom.  Catholics  are  comprised  all  Chris- 
tians who  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  even  though  they  be  not  of  the  Roman  or 
Latin  Rite  (q.v.).  Not  a  few  individuals  and 
churches  of  other  rites  are  included  under  this  des- 
ignation— Greeks,  Slavonians,  Ruthenians,  Syrians  (in- 
cluding Maronites),  Copts,  and  Armenians;  and  these 
communities  are  permitted  to  retain  their  own  national 
liturgy  and  language,  and  for  the  most  part  their  estab- 
lished discipline  and  usages.  The  most  remarkable  ex- 
amples of  the  diversity  of  discipline  thus  introduced  un- 
der the  common  rule  of  the  Roman  pontiff  are  the  reten- 
tion in  the  East  of  the  use  of  the  cup  for  the  laity,  and 
the  permission  of  the  marriage  of  the  clergy. 

As  regards  its  organization  for  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, the  normal  territorial  distribution  of  the  Rom. 
Cath.  Church  of  the  several  rites  in  the  various  coun- 
tries where  it  exists  is  into  provinces,  which  are  subject 
to  primates,  patriarchs  and  archbishops,  and  are  sub- 
divided into  bishopries  or  dioceses  each  governed  by  its 
proper  bishop.  Most  of  the  patriarchates  are  in  the 
Turkish  dominions,  but  there  are  three  other  patri- 
archates, that  of  the  Indies,  that  of  Lisbon  and  that  of 
Venice.  Antioch,  in  Syria,  has  three  patriarchs  in  com- 
munion with  the  see  of  Rome,  one  of  Latin  rite,  one  of 
Maronite  rite,  and  one  of  Melchite  rite;  and  there  is, 
in  communion  with  the  same  see  a  patriarch  of  Cicilia 
of  the  Armenian  rite  and  a  patriarch  of  Babylon  of  the 
Chaldaic  rite. 

The  Cardinals  number,  when  the  college  of  cardinals 
is  full,  70.  The  number  of  bishops  of  the  R.  C.  Ch.  in 
the  world  (including  patriarchs,  primates,  metropoli- 
tans, auxiliary  bishops,  and  bishops  retired),  is  over 
1,100.  The  bishops  who  previous  to  1882  were  officially 
styled  bishops  in  partibus  infidelium  are  now  called 
titular'  bishops  of  the  sees  to  which  they  are  named, 
viz.,  ancient  episcopal  cities  in  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 
Africa,  whose  churches  were  overwhelmed  by  the  Mo- 
hammedan hordes.  Thus  the  phrase  bishop  in  partibus 
infidelium  denotes  not  that  such  a  bishop  exercises  his 
functions  in  an  'infidel'  country,  but  only  that  the  an- 
cient see  from  which  he  gets  his  title,  his  brevet,  is  with- 
in the  dominious  of  the  Mohammedans  (infideles) . 
Canonically,  only  one  bishop  can  take  his  episcopal  title 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION  ACTS. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION  ACTS  (or— 
Relief  Acts):  acts  in  Britain  for  removal  of  sundry  disabil- 
ities formerly  imposed  on  Rom.  Catholics.  After  the  Refor- 
mation, in  England  and  in  Scotland,  Rom.  Catholics  were 
subjected  to  many  penal  regulations  and  restrictions  whose 
origin  was  due  to  the  bloody  persecutions  to  which  Protes- 
tants had  been  subjected  under  Rom.Cath.  rule.  A  deep  sense 
of  the  danger  of  repetition  of  such  scenes  prevailed  in  the 
public  mind:  see  Mary  I.,  Queen  of  England:  Cranmer, 


John  (1505-55):  etc.  As  late  as  1780,  the  law  of  England 
— which,  however,  was  not  always  rigidly  enforced— made 
it  felony  in  a  foreign  Rom.  Cath.  priest,  and  high  treason 
in  one  who  was  a  native  of  the  kingdom,  to  teach  the  doc- 
trines of  his  church  or  perform  Divine  service  according  to 
its  rites.  Rom.  Catholics  were  debarred  from  acquiring 
land  by  purchase.  Persons  educated  abroad  in  the  Rom. 
Cath.  faith  were  declared  incapable  of  succeeding  to  real 
property,  and  their  estates  were  forfeited  to  the  next  Prot. 
heir.  A  son  or  other  nearest  relation,  being  a  Prot.,  was  em  • 
powered  to  take  possession  of  the  estate  of  his  Rom. 
Cath.  father  or  other  kinsman  during  his  life.  A  Rom. 
Cath.  was  disqualified  from  undertaking  the  guardianship 
even  of  Rom.  Cath.  children.  Rom.  Catholics  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  legal  profession,  and  it  was  presumed  that 
a  Prot.  lawyer  who  married  a  Rom.  Cath.  had  adopted  the 
faith  of  his  wife.  It  was  a  capital  offense  for  a  Rom.  Cath. 
priest  to  celebrate  a  marriage  between  a  Prot.  and  a  Rom. 
Catholic  The  law  was  similar  in  Ireland,  where  the  large 
majority  of  the  population  adhered  to  the  old  faith.  In 
Scotland,  also,  Rom.  Catholics  were  prohibited  from  pur- 
chasing or  taking  by  succession  landed  property.  The 
inexpediency  and  irrationality  of  imposing  fetters  of  this 
description  on  persons  not  suspected  of  disloyalty,  and  from 
whom  danger  was  no  longer  apprehended,  began  about  1778 
to  occupy  the  attention  of  liberal-minded  statesmen;  and 
1780  Sir  George  Saville  introduced  a  bill  for  the  repeal  of 
some  of  the  most  severe  disqualifications  in  the  case  of  such 
Rom.  Catholics  as  would  submit  to  a  proposx!  test.  This 
test  included  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  sjvereign,  and  ab- 
juration of  the  Pretender;  a  declaration  of  disbelief  in  the 
several  doctrines,  that  it  is  lawful  to  put  individuals  to 
death  on  pretense  of  their  being  heretics;  that  no  faith  is  to 
be  kept  with  heretics;  that  princes  excommunicated  maybe 
leposed  or  put  to  death;  and  that  the  pope  is  entitled  to  any 
temporal  jurisdiction  within  the  realm.  The  bill,  from 
the  operation  of  which  Scotland  was  exempted,  eventually 
passed  into  law.  An  attempt  at  the  same  time  to  obtain  like 
relief  for  the  Rom.  Catholics  of  Scotland  was  defeated  by 
an  outburst  of  religious  fanaticism.  The  populace  of 
Edinburgh,  stirred  up  by  a  body  called  '  The  Committee  for 
the  Protestant  Interest,'  attacked  and  set  fire  to  the  Rom. 
Cath.  churches  and  the  houses  of  the  clergy  and  of  persons 
suspected  to  be  favorable  to  Rom.  Cath.  relief.  The  frenzy 
spread  to  England,  where  a  '  Protestant  Association '  had 
been  formed  to  oppose  the  resolutions  of  the  legislature 


Ridley,  Nicholas:  Rogers, 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION  ACTS, 
see  Gordon,  Lord  George.  In  1791  a  bill  was  passed  at 
fording  further  relief  tosucnRom  Catholics  as  would  sign  a 
protest  against  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  and  his  au- 
thority to  release  from  civil  obligations;  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  the  most  highly  penal  of  the  restrictions  bearing  on 
the  Scottish  Rom.  Catholics  were  removed  without  opposi- 
tion; a  form  of  oath  and  declaration  being  prescribed,  on 
taking  which  they  could  freely  purchase  or  inherit  landed 
property. 

Endeavors  were  made  at  the  same  time  by  the  Irish  par- 
liament for  riddance  of  the  more  important  disqualifications, 
and  for  placing  Ireland  on  equality  in  religious  freedom 
with  England.  In  1780  G rattan  carried  his  resolution  that 
the  king  and  parliament  of  Ireland  only  could  make  laws 
that  would  bind  the  Irish;  and  separation  from  England 
was  urged  as  the  alternative  with  repeal  of  the  disqualifying 
statutes.  The  agitation  culminated  in  the  Irish  rebellion  of 
1798;  the  union  of  1800  followed,  carried  partly  by  means 
of  pledges,  not  redeemed,  regarding  the  removal  of  the  dis- 
abilities in  question.  Meantime,  in  England,  Rom.  Catholics 
continued  subject  to  many  minor  disabilities,  which  the 
above-mentioned  acts  had  not  removed.  They  were  ex 
eluded  from  sitting  and  voting  in  parliament,  and  from 
numerous  offices,  franchises,  and  civil  rights,  by  the  require- 
ment of  signing  the  declaration  against  transubstantiation, 
and  the  invocation  of  saints,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  19th  a, many  measures  were  proposed 
for  removal  of  these  disqualifications,  and  in  1813  and  suc- 
ceeding years  one  bill  after  another  for  this  end  was  thrown 
out.  Meanwhile,  the  agitation  on  the  subject  among  the 
Rom.  Catholics  themselves  greatly  increased,  assuming  or- 
ganized shape  1824  by  the  formation  of  the  *  Roman  Catho- 
lic Association'  in  Ireland, with  its  systematic  collections  for 
the  *  Catholic  rent.'  The  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  long  felt 
great  repugnance  to  admit  the  Rom.  Cath  claims,  was  at 
last  brought  to  the  conviction  that  the  security  of  the  empire 
would  be  imperilled  by  further  resisting  them;  and  1829  a 
measure  was  introduced  by  the  duke's  ministry  for  Rom. 
Cath.  emancipation.  An  act  having  been  first  passed  for 
the  suppression  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Association — which 
had  already  voted  its  own  dissolution— the  celebrated  Ro- 
man Catholic  Relief  Bill  was  introduced  by  Peel  in  the  house 
of  commons  Mar.  5,  passed  both  houses,  and  received 
the  royal  assent  Apr.  13.  By  this  act  (10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7),  an 
oath  is  substituted  for  the  oaths  of  allegiance,  supremacy, 
and  abjuration,  on  taking  which  Rom.  Catholics  may 
sit  or  vote  in  either  house  of  parliament,  and  be  admitted 
to  most  other  offices  from  which  they  were  excluded.  They, 
however,  continue  to  be  excluded  from  the  offices  of  guard- 
ian and  justice  or  regent  of  the  United  Kingdom,  lord 
chancellor,  lord  keeper,  or  lord  commissioner  of  the  great 
seal  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  and  lord  high  com- 
missioner to  the  gen.  assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
(the  disability  in  the  case  of  the  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland 
was  removed  1867)  As  members  of  corporations,  they 
jannot  vote  in  disposal  of  church  property  or  patronage. 
Ecclesiastics  or  othjr  members  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  persua 


ROMANCE. 

sum,  either  wearing  the  habit  of  their  order  or  officiating  in 
any  place  not  their  usual  place  of  worship,  or  a  private 
house,  forfeit  £50.  The' statute  is  that  Jesuits,  and  mem 
bers  of  orders  bound  by  monastic  or  religious  vows,  must 
register  themselves  with  the  clerk  of  the  peace  of  their 
county,  under  a  penalty  of  £50  for  every  month  that  they 
remain  in  the  kingdom  unregistered.  Jesuits  not  natural- 
born  subjects,  who  have  come  into  the  country  since  the 
passing  of  the  act,  are  liable  to  be  banished.  Persons  admits 
ting  others  to  such  societies  within  the  United  Kingdom  are 
liable  to  fine  and  imprisonment,  and  those  who  have  been  so 
admitted  are  liable  to  be  banished.  These  provisions 
against  Jesuits,  however,  exist  in  posse,  and  are  not  knowr 
to  have  ever  been  enforced. 

Restrictions  on  Rom.  Cath.  bequests  were  removed  by  2 
and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  115,  as  regards  Great  Britain,  and  by  7  and 
8  Vict.  c.  60,  with  relation  to  Ireland.  Acts  7  and  8  Vict,  c. 
102,  and  9  and  10  Yict.  c.  59,  abolished  a  few  minor  Rom. 
Cath.  disabilities.  British  legislation  tends  in  this  direction. 
— For  the  statutory  prohibition  against  assumption  of  ecclesi- 
astical titles  in  respect  of  places  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
see  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Assumption  Act. 

ROMANCE,  n.  rb-mam'  [Eng.  Roman,  the  Latin  or 
common  language  of  Rome,  or  any  language  which  grew 
out  of  it,  as  the  Spanish,  Italian,  Provencal— from  L. 
Romanics,  a  Roman:  F.  Roman  or  Romance,  romance,  old 
French:  Sp.  Romance;  It.  Romanzo,  the  common  vulgai 
language:  Prov.  romansar;  F.  romancier,  to  write  in  the 
vulgar  tongue]:  name  applied  to  those  languages  of  Europe 
(French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese)  which  grew  out 
oi  the  literary  Latin  of  Rome  and  the  ordinary  spoken 
dialects  of  ancient  Italy:  but  a  preferable  name  for  these 
languages  is  Romanic  (see  Romanic  Languages):  in  Sp., 
the  term  came  to  signify  a  ballad;  in  Eng.,  applied  first  to 
translations  from  the  French,  and  subsequently  a  story  of 
fiction,  a  meaning  which  the  word  had  acquired  in  French 
(see  Novels  and  Romances):  any  incredible  tale  of  wild 
adventure  in  love  or  war  resembling  those  of  the  middle 
ages:  Adj.  sprung  from  the  literary  Latin  and  the  dialects 
of  anc.  Italy:  V.  to  lie;  to  deal  in  extravagant  stories. 
Romancing,  imp.  rd-man'sing:  Adj.  indulging  in  romance. 
Romanced7,  pp.  -manst'.  Roman'cer,  n.  -ser,  or  Roman- 
cist,  n.  -sist,  one  who  writes  romances;  one  who  invents 
wild  and  extravagant  stories  of  love  or  war;  a  teller  of 
falsehoods.  Romancero,  n.  romdn-serd  [Sp.]:  a  collection 
of  national  ballads  or  romances.  Ro  manesque',  n.  -esk' 
[F.]:  style  of  architecture  and  ornament  adopted  in  the 
later  Roman  empire:  the  common  dialects  (called  usually 
Provencal— see  Romanic  Languages)  of  some  of  the 
southern  districts  of  France,  founded  on  the  literary  Latin 
and  the  dialects  of  anc.  Italy;  in  paint.,  that  which  is  made 
up  of  fable  and  romance.  Romansh',  n.  -mansh' ,  the 
Romanic  language  of  the  Grisons  of  Switzerland — also 
spelled  Romansch,  Roumanscli,  Rumonsch.  Romany,  or 
Rommany,  n.  rom'g-ni,  a  gypsy;  the  language  of  the  gypsies! 
caoo  av?RY. — Syn.  of  '  romance,  n.':  fable;  fiction;  tale; 
novel;  story. 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE. 
ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE,  rd-mqn-eskr:  de- 
based style  which  succeeded  Roman  architecture,  from 
about  the  time  of  Constantine  (350)  to  that  of  Charlemagne 
(800).  It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  date  of  the  style  definitely, 
because  Roman  Architecture  (q.v.)  was  itself  a  transitional 
style,  and  the  one  fades  gradually  into  the  other.  When 
Constantine  proclaimed  Christianity  the  religion  of  the  em- 
pire, he  gave  the  Christians  freedom  of  action.  They  could 
worship  in  public,  and  consequently  desired  buildings  for 
their  service;  hence  the  new  impetus  to  architecture.  As 
explained  under  Apse  and  Basilica,  the  Christians  adopted 
the  Roman  hall  of  justice  as  the  model  for  their  church 
or  place  of  assembly,  and  erected  many  noble  basilicas  in 
Rome,  Ravenna,  and  over  all  the  empire.  These  consisted 
of  three  or  five  aisled  halls — the  aisles  separated  by  rows  of 
columns.  In  Rome,  the  columns,  entablatures,  and  other 
ornaments  were  frequently  taken  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
buildings  which  abounded  there.  The  new  style  is  there- 
fore closely  allied  to  the  ancient  one  in  the  imperial  city; 
but  in  Ravenna,  Jerusalem,  Provence,  and  remoter  districts, 
where  few  ancient  remains  exist,  a  simpler  and  ruder  copy 
of  the  ancient  work  is  found.  There  is  always,  however,  a 
certain  resemblance  to  the  old  forms  which  distinguishes  the 
Romanesque  from  the  round-arched  Gothic  which  succeeded 
it.  The  piers  along  the  aisles  are  always  single  columns, 
generally  with  caps  intended  to  be  Corinthian,  and  wide 
arches;  the  aisles  are  wide,  with  open  wooden  roof;  and 
there  are  remnants  of  entablatures,  moldings,  etc.,  which 
recall  the  ancient  Roman  work.  The  early  Christians  de- 
rived their  round  churches  also  from  the  Romans.  They 
were  probably  originally  tombs,  copied  from  such  buildings 


Romanesque  Interior. 

as  the  Minerva  Medica  (see  Roman  Architecture),  and 

were  the  most  sacred  places;  where  the  burial  -service  was 

said,  and  the  sacraments  were  l .ministered.  Hence  they 
afterward  became  Baptisteries  v'q  v.),  and  were  finally  ab- 
sorbed into  the  church  (see  Hhkmku  Architecture), which 


ROMANIC  LANGUAGES. 

then  contained  within  itself  everything  connected  with  the 
Christian  service. 

In  Rome  there  are  still  about  30  basilicas,  and  the  Roman- 
esque style  may  be  said  never  to  have  died  out  there.  As 
we  recede  from  the  centre,  we  find  its  influence  gradually 
weakening,  and  succumbing  to  the  northern,  Gothic.  Thus, 
in  Lombardy  and  Provence,  it  was  superseded  by  the  Lom- 
bard (q.v.)  and  Romance  styles  in  the  11th  and  12th  c;  while 
in  Byzantium  and  the  East,  it  gave  way  to  the  Byzantian 
style  about  the  time  of  Justinian.  Among  its  finest  ex- 
amples remaining  are  St.  Paul's  (see  Basilica)  and  Sta. 
Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome;  and  at  Ravenna,  St.  Apollinare; 
the  interior  decoration  of  which  last  (see  fig.)  is  very  beauti- 
ful. The  mosaics  of  the  apse,  the  painted  walls,  and  the 
inlaid  pavements  of  the  Romanesque  churches,  are  among 
their  finest  features.    In  color,  they  always  excel. 

In  Tuscany  there  is  a  late  form  of  Romanesque,  of  which 
the  cathedrals  at  Pisa  and  Lucca,  San  Miniato  at  Florence, 
and  many  churches  in  those  cities,  are  examples.  They 
are  intermediate  specimens,  built  during  the  11th  c,  when 
the  cities  became  prosperous,  and  they  have  a  certain 
amount  of  Gothic  feeling;  but  though  beautiful  in  colored 
decoration,  they  have  not  the  simple  grandeur  of  the  early 
basilicas;  and  though  more  decorated  externally  than  these, 
they  have  not  the  bold  and  purpose-like  appearance  of 
Gothic  elevations. 

ROMANIC  LANGUAGES;  often  called  Romance 
Languages:  general  name  for  those  modern  languages 
that  are  immediate  descendants  of  the  language  of  ancient 
Rome.  In  those  parts  of  the  empire  in  which  the  Roman 
dominion  and  civil  institutions  had  been  most  completely 
established,  the  native  languages  were  speedily  and  com- 
pletely supplanted  by  that  of  the  conquerors — the  Latin. 
Tnis  was  the  case  in  Italy  itself,  in  the  Spanish  peninsula, 
in  Gaul  or  France,  including  parts  of  Switzerland,  and  in 
Dacia  (see  Moldavia,  'under  Rotjmania).  When  the 
Roman  empire  was  broken  up  by  irruptions  of  the  northern 
nations  (5th  and  6th  c),  the  intruding  tribes  stood  to  the 
Romanized  inhabitants  in  the  relation  of  a  ruling  caste  to 
a  subject  population.  The  dominant  Germans  continued 
for  centuries  to  use  their  native  tongue  among  themselves; 
but  from  the  first  they  seem  to  have  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  Latin  for  civil  and  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
and  at  last  the  language  of  the  rulers  was  merged  in  that 
of  their  subjects,  and  the  various  Romanic  languages  (e.g., 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese)  arose;  not,  how- 
ever, without  leaving  decided  traces  of  the  struggle — traces 
visible  chiefly  in  intrusion  of  numerous  German  words, 
and  in  mutilation  of  the  grammatical  forms  or  inflections 
of  the  ancient  Latin,  and  substitution  therefor  of  preposi- 
tions and  auxiliary  verbs.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the 
language  which  underwent  this  change  was  not  the 
classical  Latin  of  literature,  but  a  popular  Roman  language 
{Lingua  Bomana  vustica) — the  common  language  of  the 
people  of  the  Roman  empire  in  s.  Europe  both  for  a  time 
before  Christ  and  during  the  first  centuries  after  Christ — 


ROMANIC  LANGUAGES. 

which  had  been  used  by  the  side  of  the  classical,  and 
different  from  it — not  to  the  extent  of  being  radically  and 
grammatically  another  tongue,  as  some  writers  unwarrant- 
ably conclude — but  chiefly  by  slovenly  pronunciation,  the 
neglect  or  misuse  of  grammatical  forms,  and  the  use  of 
4  low  '  and  unusual  words  and  idioms.  As  distinguished 
from  the  old  Lingua  Latina,  the  language  of  the  church, 
the  school,  and  the  law,  this  newly  formed  language  of 
ordinary  intercourse,  in  its  various  dialects,  was  known  as 
the  Lingua  Bomana;  and  from  this  name,  probably 
through  the  adverb  Romanic,  came  the  term  Romance 
(Prov.  and  O.  Fr.  romans,  Sp.  romance,  It.  romanzo), 
applied  both  to  the  language  and  to  the  popular  poetry 
written  in  it,  especially  to  the  dialect  and  productions  of 
the  troubadours  in  s.  France. 

According  to  the  theory  of  Raynouard  (q.v.),  the  new 
language  that  sprang  out  of  the  corruption  of  the  Latin 
was  at  first  essentially  the  same  over  all  the  countries  in 
which  Latin  had  been  spoken,  and  is  preserved  to  us  in  a 
pure  state  in  the  Provencal,  or  language  of  the  troubadours; 
and  it  was  from  this  as  a  common  ground,  and  not  from 
the  original  Latin,  that  the  several  Neo-Latin  tongues 
diverged  into  the  different  forms  which  they  now  present. 
This  theory  is  not  accepted  by  more  recent  inquirers;  its 
groundlessness  has  been  demonstrated  by  Sir  G.  Cornewall 
Lewis  in  his  elaborate  Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Formation  of 
the  Romance  Languages  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1862).  It  is  beyond 
doubt  that  the  several  daughters  of  the  mother  Latin  had 
their  characteristic  differences  from  the  very  first,  as  indeed 
was  inevitable.  The  original  Latin  spoken  in  the  several 
provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  must  have  had  very  differ- 
ent degrees  of  purity,  and  the  corruptions  in  one  region 
must  have  differed  from  those  in  another  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  superseded  tongues.  To  these  differences  in 
the  fundamental  Latin  must  be  added  those  of  the  super- 
added German  element,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  variety 
of  dialects  spoken  by  the  invading  nations  and  the  different 
proportions  of  the  conquering  population  to  the  conquered. 
French,  e.g.,  as  was  to  be  expected,  is  richer  in  German 
words  than  any  other  member  of  the  family,  having  450 
not  found  in  the  others.  Italian  is  next  to  French  in  this 
respect.  There  are  about  900  German  words  in  the 
Romanic  languages  altogether,  of  which  about  300  are 
common  to  them  all.  A  great  many  of  these  words  are 
terms  relating  to  warfare. 

The  term  Romanic  languages  seems  preferable  to  Romance 
languages,  employed  by  many  English  writers,  both  as 
Romanic  is  more  in  analogy  with  Italic,  Arabic,  etc.,  and 
as  it  avoids  the  association  with  a  particular  kind  of  litera- 
ture, and  the  special  Neo-Latin  tongue  in  which  that  lit- 
erature was  originally  written — viz.,  the  Proven cal.  The 
varieties  of  speech  originating  in  the  way  now  described 
(which  received  the  general  name  Romanic  languages  in 
recent  times,  first  from  German  scholars — Romanische 
Sprachen)  are  divided  by  Diez  into  six  jurisdictions: 

1.  The  Italian,  preserving,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the 


ROMANISM,  ROMANIST,  ROMANIZE. 

traits  of  the  mother  Latin  in  more  recognizable  form  than 
any  of  the  sister  tongues.  It  presents  a  variety  of  strongly 
marked  dialects. 

2.  The  Walachian  (see  Roumania). 

3.  The  Spanish,  characterized  by  copiousness  and  etymo- 
logical obscurity,  arising  from  the  establishment  of  so  many 
dilferent  nations  on  the  soil.  For  one  element  of  difference, 
it  contains  a  large  number  of  Arabic  words-  as  many  as 
500  terms  have  been  enumerated.  Of  its  various  dialects, 
the  Castilian  is  considered  the  standard. 

4.  The  Portuguese,  including  the  language  both  of  Por- 
tugal and  of  Gahcia:  it  is  nearly  akin  to  the  Spanish,  but 
differs  too  much  in  some  points  of  grammar  to  be  reck- 
oned a  mere  dialect. 

5.  Provencal,  the  language  of  s.  France,  extending  on 
the  one  side  into  Spain  over  Catalonia,  Valencia,  and  the 
Balearic  Isles;  and  on  the  other  over  Savoy  and  part  of 
Switzerland,  about  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  line  of  divi- 
sion between  the  Provencal  and  the  northern  idiom,  which 
has  now  become  the  literary  language  of  the  whole  of 
France,  is  drawn  usually  through  Dauphine,  Lyonnais, 
Auvergne,  Limousin,  Perigord,  and  Saiutomre.  From  the 
use  of  the  affirmative  oc  (—  yes),  the  Provencal  (according 
to  scholars  generally)  was  known  as  the  Langue  d'oc;  as 
the  northern  French  wr as  called  the  Langue  d'oil,  from  oil, 
modern  French  out  (see  Languedoc).*  The  Provencal  was 
at  an  early  period  a  cultivated  language,  with  a  regular 
system  of  grammar,  and  in  the  12th  and  13th  c.  produced 
a  rich  poetical  literature  (see  Troubadour). 

6.  French,  extending  over  the  n.  half  of  France,  and 
parts  of  Belgium  and  Switzerland.  Diez  conceives  that  at 
first  northern  French  may  have  been  little  different  from 
Provencal;  but,  beginning  with  the  9th  c,  it  has  been 
more  and  more  distinguished  by  the  greater  wearing  away 
of  the  original  grammatical  forms.  See  French  Lan- 
guage and  Literature. 

The  language  of  the  canton  of  the  Grisons  (q.v.),  an- 
ciently Bhcetia,  though  sufficiently  distinct  from  Italian 
and  French,  is  not  considered  by  Diez  to  have  atlained 
sufficient  fixity  or  independence  to  be  ranked  with  the 
others  as  a  seventh  Romanic  tongue.  It  is  called  by  the 
Germans  Curwalsch,  by  the  people  themselves  Rumonsch. 
There  are  two  chief  dialects:  the  Oberland,  about  the 
sources  of  the' Rhine;  and  that  spoken  in  the  Engadine 
(q  v.),  called  the  Ladin. 

The  chief  authorities  on  this  subject  are  the  two  great 
works  of  Diez  (q.v.),  the  Grammar  and  the  Dictionary  of 
the  Romanic  Languages.  The  Dictionary  and  the  Intro- 
duction to  the  Grammar  have  been  translated  into  English. 

ROMANISM,  ROMANIST,  ROMANIZE:  see  Roman: 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 


*  Instead  of  the  etymologies  of  oc  and  oil  given  in  the  article  re- 
ferred to,  Diez  derives  oc  from  Lat.  hoc,  this  (equivalent  to  Eng.  so,  It. 
and  Fr.  si,  which  are  only  other  forms  of  the  Pronoun  [q.v.]  sa  or  ta) ; 
in  the  north,  oc  was  first  shortened  into  o,  and  then  compounded  with 
il  (Lat.  hoc  illud). 


EOMANOFF. 


ROMANOFF,  TO~mti'nofy  The  House  of:  famous  line* 
of  which  the  present  imperial  family  of  Russia  is  the  chief 
representative.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  ?ts  origin  from  a 
Lithuanian  prince  of  the  4th  c  ;  but  however  this  may  be, 
U  is  certain  that  the  family  did  not  make  its  appearance  in 
Russia  till  the  14th  c,  when  Andrew  Kobyla  emigrated 
from  Prussia  to  Moscow  1341,  and  entered  the  service  of 
the  then  grand-duke,  Simeon  the  Fierce, —Andrew's  de- 
scendants became  bojars  early  in  the  15th  c,  their  territories 
lying  in  the  govt,  of  Vladimir,  and  dist.  of  Jurief-Polskoi. — 
The  bojar  Roman  Jurievich,  tifih  in  direct  descent  from 
Andrew,  died  1543,  leaving  a  son  and  daughter;  the  latter 
of  whom  became  czarina  by  her  marriage  with  Ivan  the 
Terrible;  while  the  former,  Nikita  Bomanomch  Jurief,  by 
his  nuptials  with  the  Princess  of  Susdal  (direct  descendant 
from  a  brother  of  St.  Alexander  Nevskoi),  was  allied  also 
to  the  royal  race  of  Rurik. — Nikita  was  one  of  the  regency 
during  the  minority  of  Feodor  I.;  and  his  eldest  son, 
Feodor,  under  the  name  Philarete,  was  elevated  to  the  rank 
of  archimandrite  and  metropolitan  of  Rostof  during  the 
reign  of  the  false  Dmitri.  The  Romanoffs  supported  that 
party  who  tendered  the  Russian  crown  to  the  Polish  prince, 
and  Philarete  h_*,o  gone  with  that  view  to  Poland,  when  a 
sudden  outburst  of  national  sentiment  put  a  stop  to  these 
negotiations,  and  the  unlucky  envoy  was  in  consequence 
thrown  into  prison  by  the  enraged  Poles.  The  national 
party  then  proceeded  to  the  election  of  a  native  sovereign, 
who  should  be  as  closely  allied  as  possible  by  blood  to  the 
race  of  Rurik;  and  after  much  hesitation  and  many  re- 
jections, they  chose  Mikail  Feodorovich  Romanoff, 
son  of  the  imprisoned  metropolitan,  and  the  representative, 
through  his  grandmother,  of  the  royal  House  of  Rurik, 
1613,  Feb.  21.  This  selection  by  the  higher  nobility  and 
the  clergy  was  rapturously  applauded  by  the  people;  and 
though  the  new  czar  was  not  quite  17  years  of  age,  the 
general  desire  of  all  classes  to  conform  to  his  ordinances 
rendered  the  cares  of  government  comparatively  light.— 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Alexei  Mikailomch 
(reigned  1648-70),  an  able  prince,  who  carried  on  war 
with  varied  success  against  the  Swedes  and  Poles,  and  ac- 
quired great  reputation  as  a  legislator.  Alexei  was  twice 
married,  and  left  by  his  first  wife  two  sons,  Feodor  and 
Ivan,  and  many  daughters,  and  by  his  second  wife  one 
son,  Peter. — His  eldest  son,  Feodor  (reigned  1676-82),  was 
a  prince  of  much  talent  and  foresight,  and  labored  with 
success  to  reduce  the  power  ox  the  aristocracy;  but  died  at 
the  age  of  25  without  posterity,  leaving  the  throne  by  nis 
will  to  his  half-brother,  Peter,  as  hie  full  brother,  Ivan*  was 
an  imbecile. — Seven  years  after  this,  Peter  (see  Peter  I., 
the  Great)  succeeded  in  obtaining  possession  of  the  throne. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  hitherto  all  the  czars  of  the 
House  of  R.  had  mounted  the  throne  before  attaining  20 
years  of  age.  Peter  (see  Peter  I.,  the  Great)  was  twice 
married;  by  his  first  marriage,  he  had  a  son,  Alexei  (q.v.), 
who  died  during  his  father's  lifetime,  leaving  one  son, 
Peter,  afterward  Peter  II.;  and  by  his  second  marriage, 


ROMANOFF. 


with  Catharine  L  (q.v.)  (reigned  1725-27),  lie  had  two 
daughters,  Anna  and  Elizabeth.    Cathanne  1.  left  the 

throne  to  her  step-grandson,  Peter  II  (reigned  1727-30), 
the  last  of  the  male  line  of  R.;  and  n  his  death  without 
heirs,  the  succession  reverted  to  the  female  line.— Ivan, 
Peter  the  Great's  half-brother,  also  had  left  daughters,  and 
their  claims  to  the  crown  being  preferable,  one  of  them, 
An  la  Ivanovna  (reigned  1730-40),  was  placed  on  the 
throne,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  grand-nephew,  Ivan  IV. 
(reigned  1740-1);  but  then  a  revolution  drove  Ivan's  fam 
ily  from  the  throne,  of  which  the  cadet  female  line  in  the 
person  of  Elizabeth  (reigned  1741-01),  daughter  of  Peier 
the  Great  and  Catharine,  obtained  possession. — Failing 
heirs  of  Elizabeth,  her  nephew,  Peter,  son  of  her  elder 
sister,  Anna  Petrovna,  who  had  married  the  Duke  of  Hoi- 
stein-Gottorp  (cadet  of  the  family  of  Oldenburg),  and  died 
1728,  was  the  heir-presumptive;  and  accordingly,  on  her 
death  1761,  he  mounted  the  throne  as  Peter  III.  (reigned 
1761-2),  founding  a  new  dynasty,  that  of  Romanoff- 
Oldenburg;  but  his  brief  tenure  of  power  was  ended  by 
his  assassination,  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife,  Princess 
Sophia- August  a  of  Anhalt-Zei  bst,  who.  as  Catharine  II. 
(reigned  1762-96),  wielded  the  sceptre  of  this  mighty  empire 
for  34  years  She  was  succeeded  by  Paul  I  (q.v.)  (reigned 
1796-1801),  her  only  son  by  Peter  III.;  and  Paul,  also,  af- 
ter a  brief  reign,  was  assassinated  leaving  several  sons, 
the  eldest  of  whom  was  Alexander  1.  (reigned  1801-25); 
but  as  he  left  no  issue,  the  crown  at  his  death  devolved  by 
right  on  his  next  brother,  Constantine.  Constantiue  had, 
however,  in  compliance  with  the  wish  of  his  elder  brother, 
previously  relinquished  his  claims  to  the  supreme  power, 
and  the  third  brother.  Nicholas  I.  (reigned  1825-55),  as- 
cended the  throne.  Nicholas  left  at  his  death  four  sons 
and  several  daughters,  and,  1891,  his  grandson,  Jitemntie? 
111.  (began  reign  1881),  is  the  present  czar. 


ROMAN  RELIGION. 

ROM  A1ST  RELIGION,  Ancient:  conglomeration  of  the 
most  widely  different  theological  or  rather  mythological 
elements,  introduced  by  the  various  strata  of  immigrations 
that  flowed  into  different  parts  of  Italy  at  different  pre- 
historic times.  It  was  chiefly  under  Greek  influence  that 
it  assumed  that  most  characteristic  and  systematic  form 
under  which  it  was  known  during  the  classical  times  of 
Roit.3,  and  as  which  it  generally  presents  itself  to  our 
minds.  Noma  Pompilius  (q.v,),  mythic  successor  of  Rom- 
ulus, is  by  the  primitive  legend  mentioned  as  founder  of 
the  Roman  religion,  or  rather  of  its  ceremonial  law.  He  is 
probably  the  type  of  the  period  when  first  the  religious 
notions  of  the  Sabines  were  joined  to  the  primitive  elements 
Df  legendary  belief  of  the  early  settlers.  Among  the  vast 
number  of  the  different  and  obscure  component  elements, 
the  Peiasgian,  Sabellian,  Oscan,  Gallic,  etc.,  out  of  which 
grew  the  recognized  state  religion,  we  can,  with  compara- 
tive clearness,  distinguish  chiefly  three—the  Etruscan,  the 
Sabine,  and  the  Latin.  For  the  religion  of  the  Etruscans 
— as  distinct  from  the  Pelasgians  (q.v.)— -see  Etuukia, 
Of  the  gods  of  the  Latins,  many  are  closely  related  to  those 
of  the  Greeks  (see  Greek  Religion),  a  fact  easily  ac- 
counted for  by  their  common  eastern  origin  (see  Rome — 
4  general  term  for  the  territory,'  sic—History):  others, 
however,  seem  indigenous.  Their  principal  deities  are 
Tellus  (q.v.)  (the  earth);  Saturn  (q.v.)  (god  of  seeds),  and 
his  wife,  Ops  (goddess  of  earth  and  plenty),  who  are  some- 
what akin  to  Kronos  and  Rhea;  Jupiter  (q.v.),  with  Juno 
(q-v-)>  givers  of  light.  Deities  more  peculiar  to  the  Latins 
are  Janus  (q.v.)  and  Diana  (q.v.).  Faunus  and  Fauna  are 
prophesying  wood-deities,  and  were  allied  to  Lupercus,  in 
whose  honor  the  Lupercalia  (q.v.)  were  celebrated;  Picus 
and  Pilumnus,  who  preside  in  some  way  over  agriculture 
and  the  fruits  of  the  field;  Vesta  (q.v.);  Fortuna  (q.v.); 
Ferentina,  goddess  of  leagues.  A  number  of  agrarian 
deities  (Anna  Perenna,  Venus,  etc.)  form,  with  those  men- 
tioned, the  bulk  of  *  native*  Latin  numina.  Of  chiefly 
Sabine  deities  were  Feronia  (the  Ferentina  of  the  Latins),  a 
goddess  of  the  soil,  worshipped  with  gifts  of  flowers  and 
fruits;  and  the  two  war  gods,  Mars  and  Quirinus — the 
former  a  deity  worshipped  at  first  under  the  symbol  of 
shield  and  spear,  and  of  high  importance  for  colonizations, 
to  whom  every  animal  and  every  human  being  born  in  a 
certain  year  was  sacred;  the  animal  being  doomed  to  be 
sacrificed,  and  the  person  at  the  age  of  20  to  emigrate  and 
to  found  new  settlements;  -  Quirinus,  a  deity  of  strife, 
closely  connected  with  the  myth  of  Romulus.  Sabine 
deities  were  also  Sol,  the  sun,  Luna,  the  moon,  etc. 

Having  thus  traced  some  of  the  principal  gods  and  god- 
desses  (for  many  of  whom  see  the  proper  titles)  to  the  re- 
spective nationality  that  first  introduced  them  into  Italy, 
we  turn  to  a  brief  glance  at  the  Roman  Pantheon  as  it 
appeared  when  it  had  embodied  systematically  these  accli- 
matized primeval  idealizations:  for  it  was  as  character- 
istic of  the  Roman  gods  to  appear  in  sets,  as  it  was  for  the 
more  personal  gods  of  the  Hellenes  to  appear  singly.  The 


ROMAN  RELIGION. 

Romans  niaue  them  fail  rationally  into  rank  and  file,  each 
with  a  distinct  mission  of  its  own;  and  thus  filled  with 
them,  as  with  authorities  over  special  departments,  the 
whole  visible  and  invisible  world — above,  below,  and 
around.  The  first  rank  of  all  is  taken  by  the  three  Capito- 
line  deities,  personifications  of  highest  power,  highest 
womanliness,  and  highest  wisdom — Jupiter  (q.v.);  Juno 
(q.v.),  Queen  of  Heaven,  and  tutelary  deity  of  women;  and 
Minerva  (q.v.).  The  stars  also  had  three  foremost  repre- 
sentatives— Sol,  the  sun,  Luna,  the  moon,  and  Tellus,  the 
earth.  The  supreme  deities  of  the  infernal  regions  were 
Orcus;  Dis  (Dives,  Cousus?),  and  his  wife,  Queen  of  the 
Empire  of  the  Shadows,  Libitina.  The  element  of  the 
water  was  presided  over  by  Neptune  (q.v.);  that  of  the  fire 
by  Yulcan  (q.v.),  god  of  the  smithies,  and  by  Vesta,  god 
dess  of  the  domestic  hearth  and  its  pure  flame.  Agricult- 
uie  and  rearing  of  cattle  were  sacred  to  the  ancient  Latin 
king  Saturn  us,  whose  wife,  Ops— personifying  the  riches 
therefrom  accruing — had,  like  Demeter,  her  seat  in  the 
soil.  Ceres,  Liber,  and  Libera,  the  three  Greek  deities  of 
agricultural  pursuits,  were  superadded  about  B.C.  500. 
Pales,  special  protector  of  flocks,  and  his  festival  (the 
Palilia),  were  celebrated  on  the  foundation-day  of  Rome. 
Mars  himself  was  the  supreme  deity  of  the  Romans  next 
to  Jupiter.  Deities  of  oracles  are  Eaunus.  a  deified  king, 
who  gave  his  obscure  decisions  either  in  dreams  or  in 
strange  voices,  and  his  female  relative — wife,  daughter,  or 
sister—Fauna  (Bona  Dea),  who  attends  only  to  the  female 
sex;  and  the  Camenae,  prophesying  nymphs,  of  whose 
number  was  Egeria,  Numa  Poinpilius's  inspirer.  The 
Apollo  worship  was  of  late  growth  in  Rome.  The  Parca3 
represented  the  unchangeable  fate  of  the  individual.  For- 
tuna  was,  on  the  contrary,  the  uncertain  chance  of  destiny, 
the  ' luck'  to  be  invoked  at  all  important  junctures. 
Salus,  Pax,  Concordia,  Libertas,  Felicitas,  Pietas,  Virtus, 
Honos,  Spes,  and  a  host  of  other  abstract  notions,  explain 
themselves.  Venus  became  important  first  when  identified 
with  Aphrodite;  in  the  same  way  as  Amor,  Cupido,  and 
Voluptas  were  Greek  importations  brought  into  promi- 
nence by  the  poets  chiefly.  Life,  death,  and  life  after  death 
were  made  concrete,  by  the  Genii,  the  Lares,  Manes,  and 
Penates:  see  Lares  and  Penates  (under  Lak). 

Like  the  Greeks,  the  early  Romans  had  no  'mediators,' 
tout  addressed  their  prayers  and  supplications  directly  to 
the  individual  god.  The  priesthood,. we  find,  in  the  clas- 
sical period,  had  arisen  originally  from  the  'kindlers 
(flamines)  of  Mars,'  or  those  who  presented  burnt-olfcrings 
to  the  early  Italian  war-god  Mars,  and  the  12  dancers 
(Salii)  who  in  March  (the  month  of  Mars)  performed  war- 
dances  in  his  honor.  To  these  came  the  '  Field  Brethren,' 
the  *  Wolf-repellers,'  etc.;  and  thus  by  degrees  an  endless 
and  most  powerful  hierarchy  came  to  be  built  up.  By  the 
side  of  it,  but  not  identical  with  it,  were  certain  sacred 
colleges,  which  kept  the  sacred  traditions  alive,  and  were 
the  supreme  authority  on  religious  observances.  These 
were  the  colleges  of  Pontifices  (q.v.)  or  Bridge-builders,  of 


ROMAN  RELIGION. 

Augurs  (see  Auguries  and  Auspices);  the  keepers  of  the 
Sibylline  Books  (see  Sibyl);  the  20  Fetiales  or  state 
heralds,  the  supreme — advising,  not  executing— authorities 
ou  international  law;  the  Vestal  virgins,  on  whom  de- 
volved the  guardianship  of  the  Palladium  and  of  the 
sacred  fire;  the  Salii  (see  above);  and  others.  Priests  in. 
the  stricter  sense  of  the  word,  in  the  service  of  special  dei- 
ties, were  the  Flamens  (q.v.);  while  the  Dea  Dia,  goddess 
of  fields  (Tellus,  Ceres,  Ops,  Flora),  had  the  special  brother- 
hood of  the  12  Arvalian  brothers,  with  their  numerous  fol 
lowers.  The  state  sacrifice,  which  before  the  expulsion  of 
the  mythical  kings  was  supposed  to  have  been  offered  up 
by  these,  was  offered  by  a  special  Bex  Sacrorum  01  Rex 
Bacriflculus. 

The  mode  of  worship  was  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Greeks.  Votive  offerings,  prayers,  vows,  sacrifices,  liba- 
tions, purifications,  banquets,  lays,  songs,  dances,  aud 
games  made  up  the  sum  of  their  divine  service.  The  sa- 
cred places  wTere  either  fana,  delubra — mere  hallowed  spots 
on  hills  and  in  groves — or  templet,  cedes — special  buildings 
dedicated  to  a  special  deity.  The  latter  contained  two 
altars — the  ara>  for  libations  and  oblations;  and  the  altare, 
for  burnt-offerings  chiefly.  Frugality,  as  it  pervaded  in 
the  classical  period  the  domestic  life,  so  it  also  prevented 
all  extravagance  of  offerings  to  the  deity,  and  all  excess  of 
rejoicing  before  it.  Sober  and  dull  as  the  Roman  religion 
undoubtedly  was— for  it  never  once  expanded  into  the  joy- 
ful extravagances  of  fancy  with  which  the  Greek  religion 
was  fraught  throughout — it  kept  free  from  the  inhuman 
pollutions  and  abominations  that  are  the  natural  offspring 
of  such  unbounded  sway  of  fancy.  Human  sacrifices,  as 
far  as  they  are  found,  grew  out  of  the  idea  of  substitution, 
and  were  chiefly  enthusiastic  voluntary  acts  of  men  who 
threw  themselves  into  the  breach;  or  they  carried  out  de- 
crees of  civil  tribunals  which  had  convicted  the 'victim' 
of  a  deadly  offense.  In  their  dealings  with  the  gods,  the 
Romans  were  pure  merchants,  carrying  out  their  promises 
with  strict  literalness,  and  thus  often  fraudulently,  against 
the  patent  inner  meaning  of  their  promises;  but  the  gods 
Were  not  to  them  the  all-pervading  essences,  but  rather  cred- 
itors, strict  and  powerful,  yet  unable  to  exact  more  than 
Was  agreed  upon  outwardly. 

A  code  of  moral  and  ethical  rules,  furthering  and  pre 
serving  civil  order,  and  the  pious  relations  within  the  slate 
and  family,  were  the  palpable  results  of  this  religion, 
which,  in  its  barrenness  of  metaphysical  notions,  did  next 
to  nothing  for  the  furtherance  of  art. 

And  here  we  must  enter  somewhat  more  fully  into  that 
peculiar  phenomenon  of  the  utter  dissimilarity  in  the 
characters  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  religion,  which  has 
before  been  intimated — a  dissimilarity  all  the  more  surpris- 
ing as  the  self -same  symbolical  and  allegorical  views  cf 
nature,  filtered  through  howeTer  different  channels,  form 
the  foundation  of  both.  Both  also— especially  in  their 
later  stages— offer  a  general  analogy  not  only  of  deities 
shhI  spirits,  but  ®rm  ot  holy  places  and  thgir  mode  of  woj: 


ROMAN  RELIGION. 

ship.  But  the  fact  is  that  they  each  took  the  originally 
common  stock  of  notions  aud  conceptions,  clad  more  or 
less  in  mythical  garb,  and  utterly  transformed  it,  super  ^ 
adding  to  it  from  time  to  time  according  to  their  own  dis- 
tinct nationality.  It  is  here,  however,  that  their  charac- 
teristic traits  come  out  in  as  forcible  a  contrast  as  they  do 
in  every  other  relation  of  life,  in  their  art  and  culture,  in 
their  states  and  families.  While  to  the  Hellenes  the  in- 
dividual was  the  chief  end  of  all  things,  and  the  state  ex- 
isted for  the  citizen,  and  the  ideal  was  the  KaloJcagathia,  the 
beautiful  good,  the  Romans  imposed,  as  the  highest  duty, 
submission  to  authority — the  child  to  the  father,  the  citizen 
to  the  ruler,  aud  all  to  the  gods.  To  them,  only  that 
which  was  useful  appeared  good.  Idleness  was  not  to  be 
tolerated  in  a  community  where  every  single  member  ex- 
isted only  as  far  as  contributing  to  the  greatness  and  ag- 
grandizemeut  of  the  commonwealth.  Hence,  with  them, 
a  rational  thoughtfulness,  and  a  grand  and  awful  austerity 
in  their  relations  with  men  and  gods;  while  the  Greeks 
treated  both  with  joyous  serenity.  The  Greek  invested 
his  gods  w7ith  human  attributes,  and  then  surrounded  them 
with  a  halo  of  highest  splendor  and  glorious  divine 
beauty;  but  he  constantly  modelled  and  remodelled  them, 
until  they  reached  ^the  acme  of  beautiful  perfection,  as 
would  the  painter  and  the  sculptor  with  their  work.  The 
Roman,  on  the  other  hand,  cared  nothing  for  the  outward 
form  of  his  idealized  notions — the  notions  themselves, 
mere  fundamental  ideas,  were  his  sole  object  of  veneration. 
The  Greeks  made  everything  concrete,  corporeal,  and  in- 
dividual; the  Romans,  abstract  and  general.  The  Greeks 
could  worship  only  allegories;  the  Romans,  abstractions. 
Hence,  also,  the  utter  discarding  by  the  Romans  of  many 
of  the  myths  common  to  the  whole  Indo-Germanic  stock, 
the  unmarried  and  childless  state  of  their  gods,  who,  more- 
over, wanted  no  food,  and  did  not  wander  about  among 
men,  as  did  the  Indian  and  the  Hellenic.  As  in  the  late 
Midrash,  which  partly  has  found  its  way  into  Christianity, 
there  was  a  heavenly  Jerusalem  right  over  the  earthly 
Jerusalem,  in  which  all  things  below  were  reproduced  in 
an  exact  but  most  ideal  and  divine  manner.  Thus,  the 
Roman  Pantheoi?  was  the  counterpart  of  the  Roman 
world  as  it  existed  ir  reality.  Every  man,  and  thing,  and 
event,  and  act  haa  a  corresponding  tutelary  deity,  that 
came  aud  went  with  the  spe^iaP  j^di^idpal  phenomenon, 
or  event;  and  eternal  gods  were  tnose  o»:!y  V^at  repre- 
sented certain  great  unchanging  laws  of  nature,  /he  an- 
gels of  the  legendary  lore  of  later  Judaism  and  early  Ulnis? 
tianity,  that  protect  special  nations,  were  with  the  Roman? 
the  gods  of  these  nations,  and  historically  were  admitted, 
as  their  special  numina,  into  the  divine  commonwealth  of 
the  Romans  simultaneously  with  the  admission  of  these  na- 
tions into  the  Roman  pale  of  freedom. 

As  long  as  the  grand  old  Roman  simplicity  of  manners, 
the  frugality  of  domestic  life,  the  indefatigable  pursuit  of 
agriculture,  trade,  and  commerce,  lasted — and  all  of  these 
were  well  characterized  by  the  deep  reverence  paid  to  gods 


ROMANS. 

(albeit  not  in  the  highest  scale  of  divine  order),  who  pre- 
sided  over  the  house,  the  field,  the  forest,  mercantile 
enterprise,  and  the  like— Vesta,  the  Penates,  the  Silvani, 
the  Lares  or  Lases,  Hercules  or  Hercuhis  (a  native  Italian 
deity,  the  god  of  the  inclosed  homestead  [compare  Jupiter 
Herceus],  apparently  distinct  from  the  Greek  Heracles),  as 
the  god  of  property  and  gain,  whose  altar,  as  god  of  faith 
(Deus  fidius),  was  as  frequently  to  be  met  with  as  those  oi 
the  goddess  of  chance  (Fors,  Fort  una)  and  the  god  of 
traffic  (Mercury)— so  long  did  Roman  religion,  properly  so 
called,  retain  its  firm  hold  on  the  people's  minds,  and  its 
influence  cannot  easily  be  overrated.  But  when  the  an- 
tique austerity,  the  olden  spirit  of  grand  independence, 
the  unceasing  hard  work  that  steeled  body  and  soul,  had 
given  way  to  the  lazy  luxurious  ease  of  later  times— then 
Roman  religion  ceased  i  exist  in  reality,  and  over  its 
ruins  rose  a  mad  jumble  of  unbelief,  Hellenism,  sectarian- 
ism, and  oriental  creed:.  The  ancient  religio,  the  binding 
faith,  which  had  excited  .he  admiration  and  astonishment 
of  the  Greeks,  bad  waned;  and  in  proportion  with  the  un- 
belief rose  the  pomp,  and  stateliness,  and  luxury  of  public 
worship.  To  the  hierarchy  of  augursfc  oracle-keepers,  and 
pontifices  were  superadded  special  banquet-masters  for  the 
divine  banquets.  The  priests  more  and  more  freed  them- 
selves from  taxes  and  other  public  burdens,  and  the  custom 
of  perpetual  endowments  for  religious  objects  crept  in,  as 
their  influence  waxed  stronger  and  stronger.  *  Pious  serv- 
ices' became  as  much  mi  item  of  domestic  expenditure  as 
the  cook's  and  nurse's  wages.  Peuny  collections  for  the 
'  mother  of  God '  were  gathered  on  certain  fixed  days  by 
the  sound  of  fife  and  drum  played  by  priests  in  oriental 
garb,  headed  by  a  eunuch,  from  house  to  house;  and  the 
whole  substance  of  Roman  faith  was  transformed  into  an 
unwieldy  mass  of  dark,  grovelling  mysticism  and  shame- 
less profligacy,  presided  over  by  wretch -;d  gangs  of  un- 
educated and  unprincipled  priests.  This  state  of  things 
favored  the  gradual  introduction  of  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity into  the  dying  days  of  imperial  l»ome  (see  Gnos- 
tics). Constantine  the  Great  abolished  the  last  outward 
trace  of  Roman  religion  by  proclaiming  Christianity  as 
the  state  religion. — For  most  part  of  the  gods  and  god- 
desses above  mentioned,  see  the  respective  titles.  See  also 
Greek  Religion:  Etruria:  Pelasgians:  etc.  For 
fuller  teatment  of  the  whole  subject,  see  Mommsen's  His- 
tory of  Rome  (Eng.  transl.  Lond.  1864). 

ROMANS,  ro-mong':  town  of  France,  dept.  of  Drome, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isere,  14  m.  n.e.  of  Valence.  A 
bridge,  founded  in  the  9th  c,  connects  R.  with  the  small 
town  of  Peage,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  R.  owes  its 
origin  to  an  important  abbey,  founded  in  the  9th  c.  by 
Saint  Bernard,  Abp.  of  Vienne,  and  by  a  nobleman  named 
Remain,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  town.  Silk  and  woolen 
fabrics  are  largely  manufactured,  and  a  very  active  general 
trade  is  carried  on.  Pop.  (1872)  9,893;  (1886)  12,822, 


ROMANS. 

ROMANS,  ro'manz,  Epistle  to  the:  one  of  the  ca 
nonical  books  of  the  New  Test.,  doctrinally  the  most  pro- 
found and  elaborate  composition  of  the  apostle  Paul.  That 
it  proceeded  from  him  has  never  been  seriously  doubted 
by  any  competent  scholar.  Much  discussion  Las  taken 
place  regarding  the  composition  of  the  church  at  Rome,  and 
— connected  therewith — the  design  or  object  of  the  epistle. 
Were  the  members  of  the  church  Jewish  or  Gentile  Chris- 
tians? The  general  opinion  of  commentators  is  that  the 
church  was  a  mixed  congregation,  the  majority  of  mem- 
bers being  probably  of  pure  Gentile  descent,  and  the  mi- 
nority Jewish  Christians,  who  perhaps  formed  the  original 
nucleus  of  the  church.  Dr.  Jowett,  in  his  Epistles  of  St, 
Paul  to  the  Romans,  Galatians,  and  Thessalonians%  suggests 
that  the  phenomena  of  the  text — e.g.,  the  frequent  appeals 
to  the  authority  of  the  '  law '.addressed  to  Gentiles — may 
be  best  explained  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  apostle  is 
speaking  to  a  Gentile  congregation  which  had  passed 
through  a  phase  of  Jewish  proselytism.  The  great  value 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  consists  in  its  exhibition  of 
the  rationale  of  Christianity.  The  immediate  object  of  the 
apostle  was  probably  to  prevent  in  the  church  at  Rome 
those  violent  antipathies  of  religious  sentiment  between 
Jews  and  Gentiles  which  had  shown  themselves  elsewhere 
(e.g.,  at  Corinth)  and  had  produced  such  disastrous  conse- 
quences; but  for  a  complete  accomplishment  of  this  object 
—as  also  of  his  always  controlling  desire  to  make  known 
Christ  and  his  salvation — he  takes  a  broad  ethical  view  of 
human  nature,  and  finds  all  men — Jews  and  Gentiles  alike 
— estranged  from  God,  and  in  need  of  pardon  and  recon- 
ciliation. He  does  not  underrate  the  advantages  which  his 
Jewish  countrymen  possessed — nay,  he  extols  them;  but 
he  points  out  at  the  same  time  that  the  '  oracles'  or  *  law  ' 
could  not  make  the  Jews  holy:  they  could  only  condemn 
them  for  being  unholy.  The  Gentiles  were  declared  guilty 
not  less  decisively  by  their  own  consciences— the  law  was 
plainly  enough  'written  in  their  hearts.'  Hence  Pauls 
grand  argument,  that  if  men  are  to  stand  as  *  righteous '  in 
the  sight  of  God,  it  cannot  be  by  their  'works/  but  in 
virtue  of  a  Divine  justification  graciously  vouchsafed  to 
them,  and  received  into  their  hearts  by  an  act  of  faith. 
This  leads  him  to  unfold  the  purpose  and  significance  of 
Christ's  work,  to  dilate  on  the  '  f reeness '  of  God's  grace 
toward  'sinners,'  i.e.,  toward  all  men,  made  manifest  as  it 
was  especially  in  the  case  of  those  whom  God  had  chosen 
in  His  sovereign  love.  He  concludes  by  predicting  the 
conversion  of  his  '  kinsmen  according  to  the  flesh/  exhort- 
ing the  Gentiles  to  humility,  charity,  mutual  forbearance, 
and  the  practice  of  all  the  Christian  virtues.  The  epistle 
is  believed  to  have  been  written  from  Corinth  during  Paul's 
third  missionary  journey,  a.d.  59.  The  commentaries  on 
it,  or  on  special  chapters,  are  innumerable;  and  almost  all  the 
great  doctrinal  controversies  that  have  agitated  Christen- 
dom have  sought  their  weapons  in  it. 

RO  MANS,  King  of  the  :  title  assumed  by  the  German 
emperor?*:  it  never  exprewed  actual  fcing^bip    Pepin  and 


ROMANTIC— ROMANZOVITE. 
Charlemagne  were  each  styled  simply  patricius  Roma- 
norum,  4  patrician  of  the  Romans;'  the  successors  of 
Charlemagne  were  for  a  long  time  content  \«ith  that  style: 
thus  it  was  as  patricius  that  Otho  1.  intervened  in  the 
affairs  of  the  city  954;  and  it  was  as  patricius  that  Otho  III. 
sought  to  restore  the  ancient  dignity  of  Rome.  But  in  later 
times  it  became  the  custom  for  the  German  emperor  to 
style  himself  King  of  the  Romans,  and  I  lie  last  head  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  Joseph  II.,  bore  that  title 

ROMANTIC,  a.  rd-man'tik  [from  Romance,  which  see]: 
pertaining  to  romance,  or  resembling  it;  wild;  extravagant; 
full  of  wild  or  fantastic  scenery,  with  which  the  sublime 
and  the  beautiful  arr>  more  or  less  blended.  Roman'tic- 
ally,  ad.  -II.  Roman 'ticness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of  being 
romantic.  Roman  ticism,  n.-ti  slzm,  a  term  used  to  express 
the  unnatural  productions  of  the  modern  French  school  of 
novelists.  Roman'ticist,  n.  a  follower  of  romanticism 
(see  Romantic  School). — Syn.  of  'romantic':  sentimental; 
fanciful;  fictitious;  wild;  chimerical,  extravagant. 

ROMAN  TIC  SCHOOL:  name  assumed  first  in  Ger- 
many, about  the  beginning  of  the  10th  c.s  by  a  number  of 
young  poets  and  critics,  A.  W.  and  Fr.  Schlegel,  l\rovalis, 
Ludwig  Tieck,  Wackenroder,  ete0,  who  wished  to  indicate 
by  it  that  they  sought  the  essence  of  art  and  poetry  in  the 
wonderful  and  fantastic — elements  pre-eminent  in  the 
Romance  literature  of  the  middle  ages.  Their  efforts  were 
directed  to  the  overthrow  of  the  artificial  rhetoric  and  un- 
imaginative pedantry  of  the  French  school  of  poetry,  even 
then  influential;  and  to  the  restoration  of  a  belief  in  the 
mystery  and  wonder  that  envelop  the  existence  of  man — a 
belief  that  had  been  rudely  assailed  and  mocked  by  the 
prevailing  materialism  in  all  departments  of  thought. 
Thus,  their  purpose  wras  twofold — in  part  aesthetic,  in  part 
religious.  As  poetical  reformers,  the  Romantic  School  in 
Germany  unquestionably  exercised  a  most  beneficial  in- 
fluence; but  as  religionists— though  their  aim  was  intrinsi- 
cally high  and  noble— they  more  or  less  consciousl}'  sub- 
served the  designs  .of  a  reactionary  government,  and  so 
came  to  be  hated  and  distrusted  by  the  liberal  politicians 
and  thinkers  of  Germany.-— See  EichendorfFs  Ueber  die 
ethische  und  religiose  Bedeutung  der  neuern  Romantischen 
Poesie  (Leip.  1847);  H.  Heine's  Zur  GescMcMe  der  neuern 
schdnen  Liter atur  in  Deutschland  (Hamb.  1883);  Hettner's 
Die  Romantisclie  Schule  (1850);  R.  Haym's  Die  Romantisclie 
Bclmle  (1870);  and  the  Danish  work  of  Brandes  (1873). — 
Between  20  and  30  years  Inter,  a  similar  school  arose  in 
Frnnce,  and  had  a  long  struggle  for  supremacy  with  the 
older  Classic  School.  It  was  victorious,  but  not  wise; 
and,  except  in  a  few  instances — such  as  Lamartine  and 
Victor  Hugo — it  has  rushed  into  excesses  of  caprice  both 
literary  and  moral,  which  have  stamped  it  with  a  revolu- 
tionary rather  thanja  reformatory  character.— -See  Ten uet's 
Prosodie  de  V  Ecole"  Modeme  (1844);  Gau tier's  Histoire  du 
Romantisme  (Par.  1874). 

ROMANZOVITE,  n  rFt-marizd-mt  [after  Count  Roman* 
§off\\  a  brownish-black  variety  of  lime-garnet. 


ROME. 

ROME,  n.  rom  [L.  Rom'ulus,  its  founder;  Roma, 
Rome] :  the  chief  city  of  anc.  Italy,  and  now  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy;  the  seat  of  the  popedom;  the  Rom.  Cath. 
religion.  Romish,  a.  rd'mish,  of  or  belonging  to  the  Chh. 
of  Rome;  a  term  offensively  applied  to  the  adherents  of 
the  Rom.  Cath.  Chh.    Ro'mishly,  ad.  -M. 

ROME,  rom:  general  term  for  the  territory,  popula- 
tion, institutions,  and  historical  state  of  ancient  Italy, 
as  connected  with  the  cap.  city,  Rome  (q.v.).  These  are 
in  part  treated  under  special  titles  of  provinces,  peoples, 
etc.  As  the  Roman  state  gradually  conquered  and  in- 
corporated with  itself  the  other  states  and  territories 
of  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  as  these  (in  general)  figure 
separately  in  history  only  during  the  process  of  this  sub- 
jugation, it  is  convenient  to  consider  them  here. 

Ethnology. — In  the  earliest  times  we  find  in  Italy  five 
distinct  races;  three  of  which  (Iapygians,  Etruscans, 
and  Italians)  may,  in  a  restricted  sense,  be  termed 
'  native 5  inasmuch  as  we  do  not  meet  them  elsewhere; 
and  two,  Greeks  and  Gauls,  'foreign,'  inasmuch  as 
their  chief  settlements  were  not  in  Italy,  but  in  Greece 
and  Gallia.  But,  ethnologically,  this  distinction  is  arbi- 
trary. There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the  first 
three  races  were  indigenous,  and  the  last  two  immi- 
grant: the  analysis  of  their  languages,  or  of  such  frag- 
ments of  their  languages  as  survive,  leads  strongly  to  the 
conclusion  that  all  were  alike  immigrant,  and  that  in 
this  respect  the  only  difference  between  them  is  one  of 
time. — 1.  The  Iapygians. — This  race,  monuments  of 
which  in  a  peculiar  language  (as  yet  undeciphered) 
have  been  found  in  the  s.e.  corner  of  Italy — the  Messa- 
pian  or  Calabrian  peninsula — is  probably  the  oldest. — 2. 
Etruscans. — The  origin  of  this  mysterious  people  is  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  most  interesting,  as  also  one  of  the 
most  insoluble,  problems  in  history.  For  their  history, 
character,  and  civilization,  see  Etruria. — 3.  Italians. 
— At  what  period  the  earliest  immigrations  into  Italy  of 
the  so-called  '  Italian  *  races — the  Latins  and  Umbro- 
Sabellians — took  place,  is  unknown;  but  it  was  undoubt- 
edly long  before  the  Etruscans  had  settled  in  Etruria. 
They  were  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  various 
races  that  inhabited  the  peninsula;  in  fact,  the  entire 
historical  significance  of  Italy  depends  on  them;  there- 
fore it  is  fortunate  that  their  ethnological  origin  and  af- 
finities are  capable  of  certain  demonstration.  An  investi- 
gation of  their  language,  sub-divided  indeed  into  numer- 
ous dialects,  often  widely  differing,  but  fundamentally 
the  same,  has  resulted  in  the  discovery  that  they  belong 
to  the  great  Aryan  or  Indo-Germanic  family  (see 
Aryan),  and  are  in  particular  closely  allied  to  the  Hel- 
lenes. There  is  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  at  some  very 
remote  period  a  race  migrated  from  the  original  home 


HOME. 


of  the  '  Aryans  '  (the  East,  say  some  authors;  the  plains 
of  n.  central  Europe,  say  others),  embracing  the  ances- 
tors of  both  Greeks  and  Italians.  By  what  route  they 
proceeded,  or  at  what  point  they  diverged,  we  can  only 
conjecture ;  for  the  problem  is  not  yet  solved  whether  the 
Hellenes  reached  Greece  by  way  of  Asia  Minor  or  from 
the  regions  of  the  Danube.  There  is  ground  for  believing 
that  the  Latins  were  the  first  members  of  the  Italian 
family  to  enter  Italy,  and  that,  having  crossed  the  Apen- 
nines, they  spread  themselves  south  along  the  w.  coast, 
driving  the  Iapygians  before  them,  and  finally  cooping 
them  up  in  the  Calabrian  peninsula — the  heel  of  the 
boot.  But  this  conquest  belongs  to  prehistoric  ages,  and 
the  original  Latins  of  Campania,  Lucania,  Bruttium, 
perhaps  even  Sicily — i.  e.,  the  races  spoken  of  in  classic 
legend,  as  the  Itali,  from  whom  the  peninsula  received 
its  name,  the  Margetes,  Ausones,  Siculi,  etc. — were 
themselves  in  the  course  of  time  so  thoroughly  Hellen- 
ized  by  the  influence  of  the  rich  and  powerful  Greek  col- 
onies planted  on  their  coasts  (see  Magna  Gr.ecia ) ,  or 
so  overwhelmed  "by  successive  invasions  of  Samnite 
hordes,  that  nearly  every  trace  of  a  primitive  Latin  na- 
tionality has  disappeared.  It  was  only  in  Latium 
proper,  where  no  Greek  colonies  were  founded,  and  where 
the  fortune  of  war  was  in  its  favor,  that  the  Latin 
branch  of  the  Italian  race  firmly  rooted  itself.  There, 
however,  it  did  flourish,  and  petty  as  the  district  might 
seem — not  more  in  all  than  700  sq.  m. — it  was  incompar- 
ably the  most  important  in  the  peninsula,  for  within  its 
limits  rose  those  seven  hills  on  which  a  city  was  to  be 
built  that  was  destined  to  subdue  and  govern  the  world. 
The  other  branch  of  the  '  Italian '  stock — the  Umbro- 
Sabellian — must  have  entered  Italy  at  a  later  period 
than  the  Latin.  Its  advance  along  the  central  mountain 
ridge — the  Apennines — from  n.  to  s.,  can  still  be  traced; 
and  its  last  phases — i.  e.,  the  conquest  of  Campania  and 
the  other  southern  districts  of  the  peninsula  by  the  Sam- 
nite highlanders — belong  to  historical  times.  The  oldest 
members  of  this  branch  are  probably  the  Sabines  (q.v. ) 
who  seem  to  have  fixed  themselves  in  the  mountainous 
region  n.  e.  of  Rome,  and  are  regarded  as  the  progenitors 
of  that  multitude  of  tribes  which  we  find  occupying  the 
central  portion  of  Italy — the  Picentes,  Peligni,  Marsi, 
iEqui,  Vestini,  Marrucini,  Frentani,  Samnites — perhaps 
also  the  Volsci  and  Hernici. — 4.  Gauls. — To  a  period 
considerably  later  and  comparatively  historical  belongs 
the  settlement  of  the  Gauls  in  the  n.  and  of  the  Greeks 
in  the  s.  of  Italy.  The  Gauls,  a  branch  of  the  Celtic 
race,  itself  now  ascertained  to  be  also  a  member  of  the 
great  Aryan  family  (see  Celtic  Nations) — therefore 
allied,  however  distantly,  to  the  other  Italian  races — had, 
for  ages  before  history  begins,  fixed  themselves  in  the 
region  now  known  as  France.    Finding  further  progress 


PLATE  5. 


Roman  iPorum 


Kotnan  Forum,  restored, 


ROME. 


westward  barred  by  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic,  and  being 
of  a  restless  and  excitable  disposition,  they  turned  their 
steps  e.  and  s.e.,  broke  over  the  Alps  (according  to  the 
legend  in  Livy,  by  the  Little  St.  Bernard )  some  time  dur- 
ing the  3d  c.  after  the  founding  of  Rome,  and  poured 
down  into  the  plains  of  the  Po.  The  first  Gallic  tribe 
that  made  its  appearance  on  the  soil  of  the  Peninsula  is 
said  to  have  been  the  Insubres,  whose  capital  was  Medio- 
lanum  (Milan)  ;  then  followed  the  Cenomani,  whose 
headquarters  were  Brixia  (Brescia)  and  Verona,  and 
afterward  numerous  kindred  hordes,  among  the  latest 
and  most  powerful  of  whom  were  the  Boii  (q.v. )  and 
Senones,  who  forced  their  way  across  the  Po,  and  effected 
a  lodgment  in  the  modern  Romagna,  occupying  (besides 
an  inland  district)  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  as  far  s.  as 
Ancona.  Hence,  in  ancient  times,  the  whole  of  n.  Italy 
was  for  a  long  period  known  as  Gallia  Cisalpina  (Gaul 
on  this,  i.e.,  the  Italian,  side  of  the  Alps),  to  distinguish 
it  from  Gaul  proper,  which  was  called  Gallia  Transal- 
pina.  Gallia  Cisalpina  was  again  sub-divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  river  Padus  ( Po )  ;  the  northern  being 
named  Gallia  Transpadana,  and  the  southern  (the  coun- 
try of  the  Boii  and  the  Senones)  Gallia  Cispadana. 
Various  other  tribes  or  peoples  are  found  in  n.  Italy, 
such  as  the  Ligurians  (along  the  Gulf  of  Genoa)  and  the 
Veneti  (in  modern  Venetia),  regarding  whose  origin— 
in  the  absence  of  all  linguistic  and  other  memorials — we 
are  utterly  in  the  dark. — 5.  Greeks. — The  other  people 
which  we  have  distinguished  as  '  foreign  '  was  the  Greek. 
There  is,  however,  this  distinction  to  be  observed,  that  the 
Greeks  were  not  (like  the  Gauls)  barbarians:  they  did 
not  swoop  down  upon  the  southern  shores  of  Italy  to 
plunder  and  devastate;  nor  did  they  force  their  way  into 
the  interior  and  disposses  the  natives;  they  merely  col- 
onized the  coasts,  built  cities,  and  carried  on  commerce. 

Primitive  Social  Condition  of  the  Latins. — With  this 
brief  introductory  sketch  of  the  various  races  that  in- 
habited Italy  in  historical  or  prehistorical  times,  we  re- 
vert to  the  Latins,  with  whom  more  particularly  we  have 
at  present  to  do.  What  was  the  extent  of  their  civiliza- 
tion, or  how  far  their  social  organization  had  proceeded 
when  they  finally  settled  in  the  *  broad  plain '  that 
stretches  w.  from  the  Alban  hills  to  the  sea,  may  be  con- 
jectured, but  has  not  been  ascertained.  We  know,  indeed, 
that  long  before  they  had  set  foot  in  Italy,  before  even  they 
had  branched  off  from  their  Hellenic  brethren,  they  had 
ceased  to  be  mere  nomads,  or  wandering  shepherds.  The 
evidence  of  this  fact  lies  in  their  language.  Not  only  do 
the  names  of  the  oldest  Latin  nations,  as  the  siculi  ('the 
sickle-bearers  '  or  (  reapers  ' ) ,  and  the  osci  or  opsci  ( e  field- 
laborers  ' ) ,  clearly  prove  the  antiquity  of  Italian  husbandry, 
but  the  oldest  agricultural  terms  are  actually  common  to 
both  Latins  and  Greeks  (e.g.,  Lat.  ager,  Gr.  agros ;  Lat. 
aro.  aratrum,  Gr.  aroo,  arotron;  Lat.  ligo  (a  hoe),  Gr. 


ROME. 

lat'haino;  Lat.  hortus,  Gr.  chortos;  Lat.  milium,  Gr.  m$Un&; 
Lat.  rapa%  Gr.  taphanis;  Lat.  malva,  Gr.  malache;  Lat 
m,ium,  Gr.  ainos).  Moreover,  the  form  of  the  plow  was 
the  same  among  bcth  pe  pies,  as  also  their  mode  of  cutting 
and  preparing  the  gram;  many  of  the  usages  of  social  life; 
the  oldest  methods  of  measuring  the  land;  and  the  style  of 
their  national  dress — the  Latin  tunica,  corresponding 
exactly  with  the  Greek  chiton,  while  the  Latin  toga  is  only 
a  fullei  kimation.  Their  method  of  building  also  was  the 
same.  Such  evidence  (and  i  could  easily  be  extended) 
must  be  ■  egarded  as  conclusively  showing  that,  beiore  the 
Latino-Italians  entered  Italy,  they  had  been  accustomed  tc 
.ill  the  ground,  to  make  win  \  to  keep  gardens,  to  buf.d 
houses,  and  to  clothe  themselves  decently.  As  to  their 
5oci  \\  organization,  less  can  be  said.  It  appears,  "owevcr 
—judging  from  the  general  bearing  of  the  most  ancient 
traditions,  as  also  from  the  features  exhibited  in  historical 
times— that  at  a  very  early  period,  and  from  causes  of 
which  we  are  now  absolutely  ignorant,  they  had  begun  to 
develop  the  germs  of  what  may  be  called  'state-life.'  As 
among  their  Hellenic  brethren,  the  original  foundation  of 
their  social  constitution  was  '  households'  [Gr.  oikiai,  Lat. 
victor  i>agi — from pangere,  to  5  fix '  or  ' drive  in;'  hence  4 1 
build  'J:  these  households,  either  by  ties  of  blood,  or  by 
nearness  of  locality,  were  aggregated  into  clans,  and  their 
dwellings  formed  clan-villages  (thus pagus,  which  probabiV 
meant  at  first  only  a  single  '  household,'  came,  by  a  natural 
transition,  to  denote  a  collection  of  households — a  hamlet, 
or  a  village).  Such  clan-villages  were,  however,  not  re 
garded  as  independent  societies,  but  as  parts  of  a  political 
canton  or  community— the  cimtas  or  populus.  Each  canton 
or  civltas  possessed  a  local  centre  or  place  of  assembly, 
where  justice  was  administered  at  regular  intervals,  wher 
markets  and  sports  were  held,  and  religious  rites  celebrated, 
and  which  was  besides  fortified  to  serve  as  an  asylum  or 
place  of  refuge  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  open  hamlets  and 
their  cattle  in  time  of  war.  Such  a  centre  was  termed  the 
capita  Hum,  i.e.,  *  the  height,'  from  being  originally  fixed 
on  a  height  or  hi  11- top,  and  corresponded  to  the  akra  of 
the  Greeks.  Round  this  stronghold  of  the  canton,  which 
formed  the  nucleus  or  beginning  of  the  earliest  Latin  towns, 
houses  gradually  sprang  up,  which  in  their  turn  were  sur- 
rounded by  the  oppidum  ['  work,' from  opus],  or  the  urbs 
[  ring- wall,'  connected  with  urvus,  curvtts,  orbis]\  hence; 
in  later  times,  oppidum  and  urbs  became,  naturally  enough, 
the  recognized  designations  of  town  and  city.  Evidence 
is  not  wanting  for  this  view  of  the  genesis  of  the  Latin 
towns.  In  the  ruder  and  more  mountainous  districts  of 
central  Italy,  occupied  by  the  Marsi,  iEquicoli,  etc.,  the 
system  of  living  only  in  open  villages  prevailed  even  till 
the  close  of  the  empire  ;  and  there  the  Roman  antiquarians 
found,  to  their  surprise,  those  solitary  strongholds,  with 
their  mysterious  ring-walls,  which,  on  the  soil  of  Latium- 
prop  r,  expanded  into  towns,  but  in  the  recesses  of  the 
Apennines  never  advanced  beyond  their  original  design. 
The  sites  of  the  oldest  of  these  cantonal  centres  or  primi- 


ROME. 

tive  towns  in  Latium  are  to  be  sought  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Alban  hills,  where  the  springs  are  freshest,  the  air  is  most 
wholesome,  and  the  position  most  secure.  Tradition 
(which  makes  Alba  Longa  the  oldest  seat  of  a  Latin  com- 
munity) is  here  in  accordance  with  natural  probability. 
The  story  of  the  foundation  of  Alba  Longa  by  Ascanius, 
son  of  iEneas,  and  the  introduction  of  a  Tyrrheno- Trojan 
element  into  the  primitive  history  of  Latium,  is  utterly 
fabulous.  On  the  same  slopes  lay  Lanuvium,  Aricia,  and 
Tusculum,  to  whose  great  antiquity  ancient  tradition  bears 
testimony  in  many  ways;  on  the  offshoots  of  the  Sabine 
range,  in  the  e.  of  Latium,  stood  Tibur  and  Prseueste;  in 
the  plain  between  the  Sabine  and  Alban  ranges,  Gabii, 
Labici,  and  N  omentum;  on  or  near  the  coast,  Laurentum 
and  Lavinium;  and  on  the  isolated  hills  overlooking  the 
Tiber  (the  boundary  between  Latium  and  Etruria),  the 
frontier  town  of  Rome.  How  many  cantons  were  origi- 
nally in  Latium,  it  is  neither  possible  nor  important  to 
know.  Tradition  mentions  30  sovereign  or  politically  in- 
dependent communities  (with  Alba  Longa  at  their  head), 
which  formed  the  famous  Latin  League.  The  historical 
order  of  their  constitution  is  a  point  regarding  which 
equally  we  are  ignorant,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Roman  canton,  or  at  least  its  capital,  the  town  of  Rome, 
was  among  the  latest  political  organizations  of  the  Latins. 
The  history  and  fortunes  of  this  canton  we  now  proceed 
briefly  to  trace. 

History  of  R.  during  the  Earliest  or  Regal  Period. — 
According  to  the  myth  of  Romulus,  R.  was  an  offshoot 
from  Alba  Longa  (for  an  outline  of  the  ancient  legend,  see 
Romulus);  but  the  most  rational  view  of  the  city's  origin 
is  that  suggested  by  a  consideration  of  its  site.  It  proba- 
bly sprang  into  existence  as  a  frontier-defense  against  the 
Etruscans,  and  as  an  emporium  for  the  river-traffic  of  the 
country;  but  whether  it  was  founded  by  a  common  resolve 
of  the  Latin  confederacy,  or  by  the  enterprise  of  an  individ- 
ual chief,  is  beyond  the  reach  even  of  conjecture.  The 
precise  date  fixed  upon  for  the  commencement  of  the  city, 
by  the  formation  of  the  Pomcerium,  viz.,  b.c.  753,  Apr.  21, 
is,  of  course,  valueless:  we  know  andean  know  nothing  on 
the  point.  The  three  'tribes,'  Ramnians,  Tities,  and 
Luceres,  who  appear  in  the  Romuleian  legend,  as  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  primitive  commonwealth,  suggest  the 
idea  that  R.  (like  Athens)  arose  out  of  a  synoikismos  or 
amalgamation  of  three  separate  cantons;  but  Mommsen 
rejects  as  '  irrational '  the  common  opinion  that  these  can- 
tons represent  different  races,  and  that  the  Romans  were  a 
'mongrel  people,'  made  up  of  Latins,  Sabines,  and  Etrus- 
cans, with  perhaps  a  dash  of  Hellenic  and  imaginary 
'  Pelasgic '  blood  in  their  veins.  The  existence  of  a 
Sabine  element,  represented  by  the  Tities,  is  indeed  admit- 
ted; but  its  introduction  is  thrown  back  to  a  period  long 
anterior  to  the  foundation  of  the  city,  when  the  Roman 
clans  were  still  living  in  their  open  villages,  and  nothing 
of  R.  existed  but  its  '  stronghold '  on  the  Palatine.  Nor  is 
there  anything  to  indicate  that  that  element  materially 


HOME. 

affected  tne  Latin  character,  language,  polity,  or  religion 
of  the  commonwealth  which  was  subsequently  formed. 

The  motives  which  probably  led  to  the  building  of  R. 
led  also  to  its  rapid  development,  so  that  the  great  peculi- 
arity of  the  Roman,  as  compared  with  the  other  Latin 
cantous,  is  the  prominence  which  its  urban  life  assumed  in 
the  earliest  period.  No  doubt  the  Roman  continued  to 
manage  his  farm  in  the  cantonal  territory,  but  the  insalu- 
brity of  the  Campagna,  as  well  as  the  advantages  of  river- 
traffic,  and  the  necessity  for  watchfulness  imposed  on  all 
frontier  towns  in  rude  ages,  must  ever  have  acted  as  an 
inducement  to  him  to  take  up  his  residence  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  city.  The  consequence  was  that  the 
Roman  became  essentially  a  'citizen/  while  the  other 
Latins  remained  essentially  '  rustics.'  So  markedly  is  this 
the  case,  that  the  beginnings  of  Roman  history— if  the 
ancient  legend  may  be  so  designated — are  records  mainly 
of  its  urban  expansion  and  political  growth.  That  the 
Palatine  Hill  was  the  oldest  portion  of  the  city  is  attested 
by  a  variety  of  circumstances.  Not  only  does  it  hold  that 
rank  in  the  Romuleian  legend,  but  on  it  were  situated  the 
oldest  civil  an  I  religious  institutions.  The  Romuleian 
myth  op  the  establishment  of  an  asylum  on  the  Capitoline 
(see  Capitol)  for  homicides  and  runaway  slaves,  with  all 
its  famous  consequences  -  the  Rape  of  the  Sabine  Women, 
the  wars  with  the  Latins  of  Ccenina,  Antemnge,  and  Crus- 
tumerium,  but  especially  with  the  Sabines  of  Cures  under 
their  king  Titus  Tatius,  the  tragic  fate  of  Tarpeia,  and  the 
fine  feminine  valor  of  the  ravished  maidens,  who  had 
learned  to  love  their  captors — is  historically  worthless  ; 
except,  perhaps,  so  far  as  it  shows  us  how  from  the  begin- 
ning the  Roman  burghers  were  engaged  in  constant  feuds 
w7ith  their  neighbors  for  aggrandizement  of  their  power. 
The  entire  history  of  the  '  regal  period,'  in  fact,  has  come 
down  to  us  in  S3  mythical  and  legendary  a  form,  that  we 
cannot  feel  absolutely  certain  of  the  reality  of  a  single  in- 
cident. That  such  personages  as  Numa  Pompilius,  Tullus 
Hostilius,  Ancus  Martius,  Lucius  Tarquinius  Priscus,  Ser 
vius  Tullius,  and  Lucius  Tarquinius  Superbus,  ever  ex- 
isted, or  at  least  if  they  did,  that  the  circumstances  of 
their  lives,  their  institutions,  their  conquests,  their  reforms, 
wrere  as  the  ancient  narrative  describes  them,  are  things 
which  no  critical  scholar  can  believe.  The  destruction  of 
the  city  records  by  the  Gauls,  when  they  captured  and 
burned  R.  B.C.  4th  c,  deprived  the  subsequent  chroniclers 
of  authentic  information  in  regard  to  the  past,  and  forced 
them  to  rely  on  treacherous  reminiscences,  on  oral  tradi- 
tion, on  ballads,  and  on  all  the  multifarious  fabrications  of 
a  patriotic  fancy,  that  would  naturally  seek  compensation 
for  poliiical  disaster  in  the  splendor  with  which  it  would 
invest  its  primeval  history.  The  utmost  reach,  therefore, 
to  which  our  knowledge  can  attain,  is  to  form  some  gen- 
eral idea — mainly  by  inference  from  the  institutions  that 
we  find  existing  in  later  times — of  the  course  of  social  and 
political  progress  in  the  Roman  commonwealth. 

From  th  ;  very  beginning  of  the  city— and  probably  long 


ROME 

before — the  inhabitants  were  divided  into  two  orders  (ex« 
elusive  of  'slaves') — viz.,  householders  and  their  depend- 
ents, better  known  perhaps  as  'patricians'  [from  pater,  a 
father]  and  'clients'  [i.e.,  'listeners' — from  cluere,  'to 
listen 'J.  The  former  alone  possessed  political — i.e.,  bur- 
gess— rights.  It  was  they  who  exclusively  constituted  the 
populus(' the  people');  while  the  clients  had  no  political 
existence  whatever.  How  this  latter  class  originated  we 
do  not  know,  but  'superiors'  and  'inferiors'  exist  every- 
where, and  there  is  really  nothing  wonderful  in  the  phe- 
nomena, except  the  rigor  of  their  political  subjection.  In 
a  thriving  community  like  the  Roman,  which  seems  to 
have  always  held  a  somewhat  isolated  and  antagonistic 
position  relative  to  the  other  Latin  cantons,  new-comers, 
such  as  refugees  and  the  like,  would  be  frequent;  and 
these  alien  settlers,  it  is  clear,  never  obtained  (except 
under  very  special  circumstances)  the  privileges  of  the 
original  Roman  families.  That  the  clients  fovmed  a  body 
essentially  different  from  the  plebs  is  not  true,  and  seems 
based  merely  on  the  mythical  account  of  what  followed 
the  destruction  of  Alba  Longa  by  Tullus  Hostilius.  -  The 
name  plebs  [i.e.,  'the  multitude,'  from  the  same  root  as 
pleo,  I  fill,  plerius,  full;  with  which  is  perhaps  connected 
the  other  Latin  word  vulgus,  Eng.  folk]  is  doubtless,  as  its 
signification  indicates,  of  later  origin  than  clientes;  but 
both  are  applicable  to  the  same  persons,  who  were  called 
'  listeners '  in  reference  to  their  being  dependents  on  the 
different  burgess-households,  and  the  '  multitude '  in  refer- 
ence to  their  want  of  political  rights.  The  constitution  of 
the  state  was  simple.  All  the  burgesses  were  politically 
on  a  footing  of  equality.  From  their  own  ranks  was  chosen 
the  king  or  'leader'  (rex),  who  was  therefore  nothing 
more  than  an  ordinary  burgess — a  husbandman,  a  trader, 
a  warrior,  set  over  his  fellows.  But  it  must  at  the  same 
time  be  observed  that  his  authority  was  great,  for  the 
Roman  state  was  based  on  the  Roman  household,  and 
something  of  the  absoluteness  of  the  patria  potestas  appears 
in  the  uncircumscribed  nature  of  the  regal  powers.  The 
rex  held  his  office  for  life;  he  consulted  the  national  gods; 
he  appointed  the  priests  and  priestesses;  he  called  out  the 
populus  for  war,  and  led  the  army  in  person;  his  command 
(imperium)  was  not  to  be  gainsaid,  on  which  account  on 
all  official  occasions  he  was  preceded  by  '  messengers'  or 
'summoners'  [lictores — from  licere,  'to  summon,'  though 
commonly  given  from  ugo,  'to  bind'],  bearing  the  '  fasces' 
(axes  and  rods  tied  up  together),  the  symbols  of  power  and 
punishment;  he  bad  the  keys  of  the  public  chest,  and  he 
was  supreme  judge  in  all  civil  and  criminal  suits.  The 
Roman  religion  or  cultus  was  from  the  first  thoroughly 
subordinate  to  the  authority  of  the  state;  and  all  that  we 
can  infer  from  the  myth  of  Numa  is  that  R.  perhaps  owed 
its  colleges  of  augurs  and  pontiffs  to  the  wisdom  of  some 
enlightened  sovereign  who  felt  himself  at  times  embar- 
rassed in  his  decisions  on  matters  of  religious  and  public 
law,  and  recognized  how  valuable  might  be  the  aid  afforded 
him  by  a  body  of  sacred  experts.    It  is  certain  that  origi- 


ROME. 

Bally  the  sole  power  was  the  regal,  and  that  the  subordi- 
nate magistracies  appearing  at  a  later  time  arose  from  a 
delegation  of  regal  authority,  rendered  necessary  by  cease- 
less increase  of  state-business.  'All  the  officials  of  the 
earliest  period,'  says  Mommsen  (who  has  expounded  this 
view  with  admirable  sagacity  in  his  chapter  on  the  '  Origi- 
nal Constitution  of  Rome '),  ' the  extraordinary  city-warden 
(prmfectus  urbi,  who  doubtless  governed  in  the  absence  of 
the- rex),  as  well  as  those  who  were  probably  nominated 
regularly,  the  "trackers  of  foul  murder "  {quwstores  parri- 
cidii),  and  the  "leaders  of  division "  {tribuni,  from  tribus, 
part)  of  the  infantry  (milites)  and  of  the  cavalry  {celeres), 
were  mere  royal  commissioners,  and  not  magistrates  in  the 
subsequent  sense  of  the  term.'  On  the  other  hand,  we 
may  believe  that  the  senatus,  or  Council  of  the  Elders, 
from  its  very  nature,  was  as  old  an  institution  as  the  mon- 
archy itself.  Among  the  very  first  things  the  'citizen- 
king'  would  do  would  be  to  choose  out  of  the  ranks  of 
his  fellow- burgesses  a  number  of  experienced  men  to  assist 
him  with  their  counsel;  but  it  is  to  be  observed  that  this 
body  possessed  no  coercive  or  constraining  powers.  They 
gave  their  advice  when  the  rex  chose  to  ask  it;  that  was 
all.  Yet  as  the  tenure  of  their  office  was  for  life,  they 
necessarily  possessed  great  moral  authority;  and  it  was  only 
when  the  king,  the  senate,  and  the  community  were  at 
one  in  regard  to  any  important  matter — a  war,  for  example 
—-that  it  was  held  to  be  righteous,  and  likely  to  be  favored 
by  the  gods.  The  burgesses,  or  householders,  were  divided 
into  curim — i.e. , 4  wardships, '  connected  probably  with  cura 
and  curare,  'to  care  for,'  rather  than  with  quiris,  and  the 
Sabine  cures,  as  Y arro  thinks.  Ten  households  formed  a 
gens  (a  'clan'  or  'family');  10  clans,  or  100  households, 
formed  a  curia,  or  wardship;  and  10  wardships,  or  100 
clans,  or  1,000  households,  formed  the  populus,  civitas,  or 
community.  But  as  Rome  was  a  synoikismos  of  three 
cantons,  the  actual  number  of  wards  was  30,  of  clans  300, 
and  of  households  3,000.  Every  household  had  to  furnish 
one  foot  soldier  [hence  the  name  mil-es,  the  'thousandth 
walker' — from  mil,  and  eo  (?),  'to  go'],  and  every  clan 
a  horseman  and  a  senator.  Each  ward  was  under  the 
:  care '  of  a  special  warden  (the  curio),  had  a  priest  of  its 
own  (the  flame n  curialis),  and  celebrated  its  own  festivals. 
None  but  burgesses  could  bear  arms  in  defense  of  the 
■state  [hence  their  designation,  populus,  '  the  warrior  body,* 
connected  with  populari,  4  to  lay  waste,'  and  popa,  'the 
priest,  or  priest's  assistant,  who  felled  the  victim  at  the 
altar — the  sacred  butcher ').  In  the  old  litanies  the  bless- 
ing of  Mars  is  invoked  on  the  pilumnus  populus  (  the 
spear- armed  warrior  body  '),  and  when  the  rex  addressed 
them,  it  was  by  the  name  of  quirites  ['lancemen' — from 
quiris,  or  cutis,  a  'lance,'  and  eo,  'to  go'].  The  original 
Roman  army,  or  legio  (i.e.,  'the  gathering'),  was  com- 
posed of  three  'hundreds'  {centurion)  of  horsemen  {celeres — 
i.e.,  'the  swift/  or  Jkxuntes,  ' the  wheelers 0,  under  their 
divisional  leaders  {tribuni  celerum);  and  three  'thousands' 
of  footmen  (milites).  alsc  under  divisional  leaders  {tribuni 


ROME. 

militum);  to  whom  were  added  a  number  of  light-armed 
skirmishers  (velites),  especially  ' archers '  (arquites).  The 
rex,  as  we  have  said,  was  usually  the  general ;  but  as  the 
cavalry  force  had  a  colonel  of  its  own  {magisier  equitum), 
it  is  probabls  that  the  rex  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
infantry.  Military  service  was  do  doubt  the  prime  duty  of 
the  Roman,  burgesses,  but  the  king  could  impose  upon 
them  any  labors  that  he  reckoned  necessary  or  advanta- 
geous to  the  welfare  of  the  state,  such  as  erection  of  public 
edifices,  tilling  of  the  royal  demesnes,  execution  of  royal 
commissions,  or  the  building  of  the  city  walls. 

The  *  foreign  policy  '  of  R.  seems  to  have  been  aggres- 
sive from  the  first,  and  this  character  it  retained  as  long  as 
the  aggrandizement  of  the  state  was  possible.  We  have,  it 
is  true,  no  certain  knowledge  of  the  primitive  struggles  in 
which  the  enterprising  and  ambitious  Roman  burghers 
were  engaged,  but  it  appears  from  the  legend  that  at  a 
very  early  period  the  neighboring  Latin  communities  of 
Antemnae,  Crustumerium,  Ficulnea,  Medullia,  Ccenina, 
Corniculum,  Cameria,  Collatia,  Mere  subjugated.  The 
crisis  of  the  Latin  War,  however,  was  undoubtedly  the 
contest  with  Alba  Longa,  in  which  that  '  sacred  metropo- 
lis '  of  Latium  was  destroyed,  and  its  leadership  passed  to 
the  conqueror.  How  deadly  the  struggle  between  the  two 
was,  may  be  inferred  from  the  tragic  details  in  which  the 
legend  abounds.  As  a  rule,  on  the  subjugation  of  a  can- 
ton, the  conquered  inhabitants  were  allowed  to  remain  in 
their  open  hamlets,  but  their  capilolium  was  razed,  their 
weekly  market,  their  justice-court,  their  gods — everything, 
in  short,  strictly  national — were  removed  to  R.,  while 
they  themselves  were  enrolled  among  the  clients  or  plebs. 
But  sometimes  the  inhabitants  themselves,  in  whole  or 
part,  were  transferred  to  R.,  and  individuals  or  clans 
were  even  received  into  the  ranks  of  the  Roman  burgesses, 
as  in  the  case  of  Alba  Longa.  Some  of  the  famous  Ro- 
man gentes  claimed  to  be  of  Alban  descent — the  Julii,  Ser- 
vilii,  Quintilii,  Cloelii,  Geganii,  Cunatii,  and  Metilii.  The 
wars  with  the  Etruscans  of  Fidense  and  Yeii — assigned, 
like  the  destruction  of  Alba  Longa,  to  the  reign  of  Tullus 
Hostilius — were  apparently  indecisive;  those  with  the 
Rutuli  and  Volsci,  however,  were  probably  more  fortu- 
nate; but  uncertainty  hangs  like  a  thick  mist  over  the  an- 
cient narrative.  Even  the  story  of  the  Tarquins,  though 
it  belongs  to  the  later  period  of  the  monarchy,  is  in  many 
of  its  details  far  from  credible.  Both  Niebu brand  Momm- 
sen  consider  *  Tarquin  the  Proud  '  a  historical  personage, 
and,  without  accepting  literally  all  the  circumstances  of 
the  tradition,  believe  the  general  outline — his  character, 
his  exactions,  his  expulsion,  and  his  desperate  efforts  for 
the  recovery  of  the  throne — to  be  trustworthy.  The  mem 
ory  of  such  a  monarch  was  likely  to  be  preserved  by  the 
very  strength  of  the  hatred  that  he  excited,  and  an  act  so 
daring  as  his  expulsion  (which  was  at  the  same  time  the 
death-knell  of  a  system  of  government  that  had  prevailed 
for  ages)  could  hardly  be  a  mere  invention,  though  it 
might  be  overlapped  with  fold  upon  fold  of  picturesque 


HOME. 

fi  ction.  The  v  iew  taken  by  Napoleon  III.  (see  Histoire  m 
Jules  Cesar,  I.),  that  the  primitive  monarchy  had  served 
its  purpose,  and  had  consequently  to  disappear,  is  perhaps 
not  so  erroneous  as  the  oracular  language  of  the  imperial 
author  would  lead  us  to  suppose.  The  aristocracy  or  pop- 
ulus  had  become  so  much  more  powerful  than  the  indi- 
vidual rex,  that  they  wished  to  possess  dejure  as  we'3  as 
de  facto  the  supreme  authority.  The  pride  and  tyranny 
of  a  Tarquin  may  well  have  aided  in  furthering  their 
designs. 

Meanwhile  a  great  internal  change  had  taken  place  in 
Rome.  This  is  usually  designated  the  Servian  *  Reform 
of  the  Constitution,'  though  the  expression  tends  to  mis- 
lead. ,  There  was  nothing  directly  political  in  the  4  re 
form.'  It  was  a  reform  only  in  the  burgess-levy— i.e.,  in 
the  mode  of  raising  the  army.  Formerly,  as  we  have  seen, 
none  but  burgesses  could  bear  arms  in  defense  of  the  state; 
but  the  increase  of  the  general  population,  caused  partly 
by  annexation  of  the  conquered  Latin  communities  and 
partly  by  time,  had  totally  altered  the  relation  in  which 
the  non-burgesses,  or  plebs,  originally  stood  to  their  politi 
cal  superiors.  The  plebs  could,  of  course,  acquire  prop 
erty  and  wealth,  and  could  bequeath  it  just  as  legally  aa 
the  populus;  moreover,  such  of  the  Latin  settlers  as  were 
wealthy  and  distinguished  in  their  own  communities  did 
not  cease  to  be  so  when  they  were  amalgamated  with  the 
Roman  '  multitude.'  It  wac  therefore  felt  to  be  no  longer 
judicious  to  let  the  military  burdens  fall  exclusively  on 
the  old  burgesses,  while  the  rights  of  property  were  equally 
shared  by  the  no n -burgesses.  Hence  the  new  arrange- 
ment,  known  in  Roman  history  as  the  formation  of  the 
Gomitia  Centuriata.  When  or  with  whom  the  change 
originated,  it  is  impossiblo  to  say.  The  legend  assigns  it 
to  Servius  Tuliius,  predecessor  of  Tarquin  the  Proud;  and 
it  was  the  work  probably  of  some  kingly  ruler  who  saw 
the  necessity  of  reorganizing  the  national  forces.  That  it 
cannot  be  regarded  as*a  change  wrought  by  party-zeal,  is 
obvious  when  we  reflect  that  it  conferred  no  rights,  but 
only  imposed  duties  on  the  plebeians.  Its  details  were 
briefly  as  follows:  Every  Roman  *r  eholder  from  the  age 
of  17  to  60,  whether  patrician  r  Jebeiam,  was  made  liable 
to  serve  in  the  army;  but  ho  took  his  place  according  te 
the  amount  of  his  property.  'Jh'j  freeholders  were  distrib 
uted  into  five  classe:  [i.e.,  '  summoning::  V-f~om  calare,  to 
'  summon '  or  '  call  out'],  and  these  classes,  all  of  whom 
were  infantry,  were  again  sub-divided  into  centurice  (hun- 
dreds). The  first  class,  which  were  required  to  possess 
property  valued  at  100,000  ases,  or  an  entire  hide  of  land, 
furnished  82  *  hundreds;'  the  second,  property  valued  at  75,- 
000  ases,  or  f  of  a  hide  of  land,  furnished  20 'hundreds;' 
the  third,  property  valued  at  50  000  ases,  or  J  hide  of  land, 
furnished  20  'hundreds;'  the  fourth,  property  valued  at 
25,000  ases,  or  £  hide  of  land,  furnished  20  '  hundreds;' and 
the  fifth,  property  valued  at  12,500  ases,  or  J  hide  of 
land,  furnished  32  '  hundreds.'  A  single  '  hundred  '  was. 
moreover,  added  from  the  ranks  of  the  non-freeholders,  or 


ROME. 

proletarii  (mere  '  children-begetters  '),  though  it  is  possible 
that  from  the  same  order  came  the  two  'hundreds'  of 
1  horn-blowers  '  (cornicines)  and  '  trumpeters  '  (tibicines), 
attached  to  the  fifth  class.  Thus  the  infantry  '  hundreds  ' 
amounted  to  175 — that  is,  17,500  men,  besides  whom  were 
18  '  hundreds '  of  equites  {'  horsemen '),  chosen  from  the 
wealthiest  burgesses  and  non-burgesses;  so  that  the  Roman 
army  now  numbered  in  all  nearly  20,000  men.  We  have 
stated  that  the  original  design  of  this  new  arrangement  was 
merely  military,  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it  would  soon  pro- 
duce political  results.  Duties  and  rights  are  correlative: 
the  former  suggest  the  latter,  and  create  a  desire  for  their 
attainment.  Hence  the  Servian  military  reform  paved  the 
way  for  the  grand  political  struggle  between  the  patricians 
and  the  plebeians,  which  began  with  the  first  year  of  the 
Republic,  and  ended  only  with  its  dissolution. 

The  Roman  Republic  from  Its  Institution  to  the  Abolition 
of  the  Decemvirate. — 1.  Internal  History.  —According  to  the 
legend,  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  was  the  work  mainly 
of  their  cousins,  Junius  Brutus  and  Tarquinius  Collati- 
nus,  in  revenge  for  the  outrage  on  the  honor  of  Lucretia; 
and  was  followed  by  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy.  The 
date  usually  assigned  to  this  event  is  B.C.  509.  The  story 
is  intensely  tragical,  and  if  we  must  consider  it  poetry 
rather  than  fact,  yet  it  may  safely  be  taken  as  evidence 
that  it  was  unbridled  lust  of  power  and  self-gratification 
that  brought  ruin  on  the  Romano-Tuscan  dynasty.  Of 
course,  we  can  make  nothing  definite  out  of  the  early 
years  of  the  republic.  Dates  and  names,  and  even  events, 
must  go  for  very  little.  Valerius  Publicola  or  Poplicola, 
Sp.  Lucretius,  M.  Horatius,  Lars  Porsenna  (q.v.)  of  Clu- 
sium.  Aulus  Postumius,  with  the  glorious  stories  of  Hora- 
tius Codes  and  the  battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  will  not  bear 
scrutiny.  We  must  content  ourselves  with  the  knowledge 
of  historical  tendencies  and  general  results.  The  change 
from  'kings'  to  'consuls'  [consoles,  *  those  who  leap  to- 
gether'— more  generally,  those  who  act  together]  was 
intended  not  to  diminish  the  administrative  power  of  the 
supreme  rulers,  but  only  to  deprive  them  of  the  opportu- 
nity of  doing  harm— of  becoming  Tarquins;  and  this  it 
effectually  did  by  limiting  their  tenure  of  office  to  a  year, 
and  by  numerous  other  restrictions.  (For  an  account  of 
their  original  functions,  and  of  the  subsequent  modifica- 
tions which  these  underwent,  see  Consul.)  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  about  this  time,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
new  political  changes,  that  the  old  assessors  of  the  king, 
e.g.,  the  qumstores  pumcidii,  formally  became  established 
magistrates  instead  of  mere  honorary  counselors,  and  also 
that  the  priesthood  became  a  more  self-governing  and  ex- 
clusive body.  During  the  regal  period  the  priests  were 
appointed  by  the  king;  but  now  the  colleges  of  augurs  and 
pontiffs  began  themselves  to  fill  the  vacancies  in  their 
ranks;  while  the  vestals  and  separate  '  flamens '  were 
nominated  by  the  pontifical  college,  which  chose  a  presK 
dent  (pontifex  maximus)  for  the  purpose.  The  lapse  of 
years,  ever  increasing  the  quantity  of  sacred  lore,  increased 


ROME. 

its  importance  also,  and  the  importance  of  those  who 
specially  studied  it;  and  nothing  comes  out  more  clearly 
in  the  early  history  of  the  republic  than  the  fact  that  the 
opinions  of  the  augurs  and  pontiffs  became  more  and  more 
legally  binding.  This  is  to  be  connected  with  the  fact 
that  in  every  possible  way  the  patricians  or  old  burgesses 
— now  rapidly  becoming  a  mere  noblesse — were  seeking  to 
rise  on  the  ruins  of  the  monarchy,  and  to  preserve  sepa- 
rate institutions  for  the  benefit  of  their  own  order,  when 
they  could  only  with  difficulty  longer  exclude  the  plebs 
from  participation  in  common  civic  privileges.  In  the 
details  given  us  of  the  '  Servian  Reform,'  we  easily  discern 
a  spirit  of  compromise,  the  concessions  made  to  the  plebe- 
ians in  the  constitution  and  powers  of  the  Gomitia  Gentu- 
riata  being  partially  counterbalanced  by  the  new  powers 
conferred  on  the  old  burgess  body,  the  Gomitia  Curiata — 
viz.,  the  right  of  confirming  or  rejecting  the  measures 
passed  in  the  lower  assembly.  Toward  the  new  assembly, 
therefore,  the  old  burgess  body  stood  somewhat  in  the 
relation  in  which  the  house  of  lords  stands  to  the  house 
of  commons  in  Britain;  but  the  analogy  must  not  be 
pushed  too  far;  it  is  only  general.  The  character  of  the 
senate  altered  under  the  same  influences.  Although  it 
never  had  been  formally  a  patrician  body — although  ad- 
mission to  it  under  the  kings  was  obtainable  simply  by  the 
exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative,  yet,  practically,  299  out 
of  the  300  senators  had  always  been  patricians;  but  after 
the  institution  of  the  republic,  we  are  told  that  the  blanks 
in  the  senate  were  filled  en  masse  from  the  ranks  of  the 
plebeians,  so  that  of  the  800  members  less  than  half  were 
patres  ('  full  burgesses '),  while  164  were  conscripti  ('  added 
to  the  roll ') — hence  the  official  designation  of  the  senators, 
patres  et  conscripti  ('  full  burgesses  and  enrolled  '). 

As  yet,  however,  it  is  to  be  observed  the  plebeians  were 
rigorously  excluded  from  the  magistracies.  They  could 
vote — i.e.,  they  could  exercise  legislative  powers — but  they 
had  no  share  in  the  administration.  None  but  patricians 
were  eligible  for  the  consulship,  for  the  office  of  quaestor, 
or  for  any  other  executive  f  unction,  while  the  priestly  col- 
leges rigidly  closed  their  doors  against  the  new  burgesses. 
The  struggle,  therefore,  between  the  two  orders  went  on 
with  ever-increasing  violence.  One  point  comes  out  very 
clearly  from  the  narrative,  however  doubtful  may  be  the 
particular  details — viz.,  that  the  establishment  of  the 
republic  and  the  recoustitution  of  the  burgess  body,  in- 
stead of  allaying  discontent,  fostered  it.  Power  virtually 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  capitalists;  and  though  some 
of  these  were  plebeians,  yet  they  seem  to  have  preferred 
their  personal  money-interests  to  the  interests  of  their  order, 
and  to  have  co-operated  with  the  patricians.  The  abuse 
by  these  capitalists  of  the  Ager  Publicus— that  is,  such  por- 
tion of  the  land  of  a  conquered  people  as  had  been  taken 
from  them,  annexed  to  the  Roman  state,  and  let  out  origi- 
nally to  the  patricians  at  a  fixed  rent  (see  Agrarian  Law) 
— together  with  the  frightful  severity  of  the  law  of  debtor 
and  creditor,  whose  effect  was  almost  to  ruin  the  small 


ROME. 

plebeian  'farmers'  who  constituted,  perhaps,  the  most 
numerous  section  of  the  burgesses,  finally  led  to  a  great 
revolt  of  the  plebs,  known  as  the  '  Secession  to  the  Sacred 
Hill,' the  date  assigned  to  which  is  b.c.  494.  On  that 
oecasion  the  plebeian  farmer-soldiers,  who  had  just  re- 
turned from  a  campaign  against  the  Volscians,  marched  in 
military  order  out  of  Rome,  under  their  plebeian  officers, 
to  a  mount  near  the  confluence  of  the  Anio  with  the  Tiber, 
and  threatened  to  found  there  a  new  city,  if  the  patricians 
did  not  grant  them  magistrates  from  their  own  order;  the 
result  was  the  institution  of  the  famous  plebeian  tribunate 
(see  Tribune) — a  sort  of  rival  power  to  the  patrician  consu- 
late, by  means  of  which  the  plebeians  hoped  at  least  to  be 
shielded  from  the  high-handed  oppressions  of  the  wealthy. 
To  the  same  period  belongs  the  institution  of  the  yE dii.es 
(q.v.).  A  little  later,  the  Comitia  Tributa  emerged  into 
political  prominence.  This  was  really  the  same  body  of 
burgesses  as  formed  the  Comitia  Centuriata,  but  with  the 
important  difference,  that  the  number  of  votes  was  not  in 
proportion  to  a  property  classification:  the  poor  plebeian 
was  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  the  rich  patrician;  each 
gave  his  vote,  and  nothing  more.  Hence  the  Comitia 
Tributa  became  virtually  a  plebeian  assembly,  and  when 
the  Plebiscita  (l  Resolutions  of  the  Plebs/  carried  at  these 
comitia)  acquired  (as  they  did  by  the  Valerian  Laws  passed 
after  the  abolition  of  the  decemvirate)  a  legally  binding 
character,  the  victory  of  the  '  multitude '  in  the  sphere  of 
legislation  was  complete.  From  this  time  the  term  populus 
practically,  though  not  formally,  loses  its  exclusive  signifi- 
cance; and  thenceforth,  when  we  speak  of  the  Roman 
citizens,  we  mean  indifferently  patricians  and  plebeians. 
The  semi-historical  traditions  of  this  period — for  we  are 
now  (B.C.  5th  c.)  beginning  to  emerge  out  of  the  mythical 
era— unmistakably  show  that  the  institution  of  the  tribu- 
nate led  to  something  very  like  a  civil  wTar  between  the 
two  orders.  Such  is  the  real  significance  of  the  legends  of 
Caius  Marcus,  surnamed  Coriolanus  (q.v.);  the  surprise  of 
the  Capitol  by  the  Sabine  marauder  Appius  Herdouius,  at 
the  head  of  a  motley  force  of  political  outlaws, refugees,  and 
slaves;  the  migrations  of  numerous  Roman  burgesses  with 
their  families  to  more  peaceful  communities;  the  street- 
fights;  the  assassinations  of  plebeian  magistrates;  the  anni- 
hilation by  the  Etruscans  of  the  Fabian  gens,  who  had  left 
Rome  to  escape  the  vengeance  of  their  order  for  having 
passed  over  to  the  side  of  the  plebeians;  and  the  atrocious 
judicial  murder  of  Spurius  Cassius,  an  eminent  patrician, 
who  also  had  incurred  the  deadly  hatred  of  his  order  by 
proposing  au  agrarian  law  that  would  have  checked  the 
pernicious  prosperity  of  the  capitalists  and  overgrown 
landholders.  Finally,  B.C.  462,  a  measure  was  brought 
forward  by  the  tribune  C.  Terentillius  Ursa,  to  appoint  a 
commission  of  ten  men  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws  for  pro- 
tecting the  plebeians  against  the  arbitrary  decisions  of  the 
patrician  magistrates.  A  fierce,  even  a  frantic  opposition 
was  offered  by  the  patricians,  and  tin;  ten  years  that  fol- 
lowed were  literally  a  period  of  organized  anarchy  in 
Vol.  32  —  14 


HOME. 

Rome.  At  length  the  nobles  gave  way;  and  the  result 
was  the  drawing  up  of  the  famous  code  known  as  the 
Twelve  Tables—  at  first  Ten,  to  which  two  were  afterward 
added -  the  appointment  of  the  Decemviri  (q.v.),  and  the 
abolition  of  all  the  ordinary  magistrates,  both  patrician  and 
plebeian.  The  government  by  decemvirs,  however,  lasted 
only  two  years;  according  to  tradition,  the  occasion  of  its 
overthrow  was  the  attempt  of  the  principal  decemvir, 
Appius  Claudius  (q.v.),  to  possess  himself  by  violence  of 
the  beautiful  daughter  of  Virgiuius,  a  Roman  centurion; 
but  the  real  cause  was  doubtless  political,  though  the  cruel 
lust  of  a  Claudius  may  have  afforded  the  occasion;  the  re- 
sult of  which  was  the  restoration  of  the  pre-decemviral 
state  of  things — the  patrician  consulate  and  the  plebeian 
tribunate. 

2.  External  History  .—-The  external  history  of  Rome, 
from  the  establishment  of  the  republic  to  the  abolition  of 
the  decern vi rate,  is  purely  military.  The  Romans  fought 
incessantly  with  their  neighbors.  Long  tefore  the  close  of 
the  regal  period,  they  had  acquired,  as  we  have  seeu,  the 
leadership  of  Latium,  and  in  all  the  early  wars  of  the 
republic  they  were  assisted  by  their  allies  and  kinsmen; 
sometimes  also  by  other  nations — e.g.,  the  Hernicans, 
between  whom  and  the  Romans  and  Latins  a  league  was 
formed  by  Spurius  Cassius  in  the  beginning  of  B.C.  5th  c. 
The  most  important  of  these  wars  were  those  writh  the 
southern  Etruscans,  especially  the  Veien tines,  in  which, 
however,  the  Romans  made  no  success,  and  even  suffered 
terrible  disasters,  of  which  the  legend  concerning  the  de- 
struction of  the  Fabian  gens  on  the  Cremera,  B.C.  477,  may 
be  taken  as  a  distorted  representation;  the  contempora- 
neous wars  with  the  Volscians,  in  which  Coriolanus  is  the 
most  distinguished  figure;  and  those  with  the  iEqui,  B.C. 
458,  to  which  belongs  the  fine  legend  of  Cincinnatus  (q.v.). 

From  the  Abolition  of  the  Becemvirate  to  the  Defeat  of  the 
Samnites,  and  the  Subjugation  of  all  the  '  Italians  '  (B.C.  449- 
265).  —  1.  Internal  History. — The  leading  political  features 
of  this  period  are  the  equalization  of  the  two  orders,  and 
the  growth  of  the  new  aristocracy  of  capitalists.  After  the 
abolition  of  the  decemvirate,  ii  seems — judging  from  the 
course  of  events — that  the  whole  of  the  plebeian  aristocracy, 
senators  and  capitalists  (from  motives  of  selfish  aggrandize- 
ment), combined  with  the  'masses '  of  their  order  to  make 
a  series  of  grand  attacks  on  the  privileges  of  the  old  Roman 
noblesse.  The  struggle  lasted  100  years;  and  ended,  as 
only  it  could  end,  by  the  removal  of  all  the  social  and 
political  disabilities  under  which  the  plebeians  had  labored 
— though  the  stratagems  and  artifices  to  which  the  old 
aristocracy  had  recourse  proved  the  reluctance  with  which 
they  succumbed  to  fate.  First,  B.C.  445,  only  four  years 
after  the  fall  of  the  decemvirs  was  carried,  the  Lex  Canu- 
leia  was  passed,  enacting  that  marriage  between  a  pa- 
trician and  plebeian  should  be  legally  valid.  At  the  same 
time,  a  compromise  was  effected  with  respect  to  the  con- 
sulship: instead  of  two  patrician  consuls,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  supreme  power  should  be  intrusted  to  new  officers 


ROME. 

termed  'Military  Tribunes  with"  Consular  Power,'  who 
might  be  chosen  equally  from  the  patricians  or  plebeians. 
Ten  years  later,  B.C.  485,  the  patricians  tried  to  render  the 
new  office  of  less  consequence  by  transference  of  several 
of  the  functions  hilherto  exercised  by  consuls  to  two 
special  patrician  officers  named  Censors  (q.v.).  The  'cen- 
sorship,' Mommsen  remarks,  '  gradually  became  the  palla- 
dium of  the  aristocratic  parly,  less  on  account  of  its 
financial  influence,  than  for  t lie  s.ike  of  the  right  annexed 
to  it  of  filling  vacancies  in  the  senate  and  in  the  equites.' 
B.C.  421  the  quaestorship  (see  Quaestor)  was  thrown  open 
to  the  plebeians;  B.C.  368  the  mastership  of  the  horse;  B.C. 
356  the  dictatorship  (see  Dictator);  b.c.  351  the  censor- 
ship; B.C.  337  the  pretorship  (see  Pretor);  and  B.C.  300 
the  pontifical  and  augurial  colleges.  These  victories  were 
not  all  won  without  shedding  of  blood.  How  great  was  the 
exasperation  of  the  patricians  may  be  estimated  from  the 
story  of  Spurius  Maelius,  the  rich  plebeian,  who  was 
murdered  simply  because  in  a  season  of  famine  he  sold 
corn  at  a  very  low  price  to  the  poor. 

The  only  effect,  it  is  to  be  observed,  of  these  political 
changes  was  to  increase  the  power  of  the  rich  plebeians; 
consequently,  the  social  distress  continued  as  before.  No 
genuine  national  concord  was  possible  so  long  as  that  re- 
mained unmitigated.  Efforts  were  repeatedly  made  by 
individuals  to  remedy  the  evil,  but  without  success.  Such 
were  the  attempts  of  the  tribunes  Spurius  Mascilius  and 
Spurius  Metilius  (b.c.  417)  to  revive  the  agrarian  law  of 
Spurius  Cassius;  and  of  the  noble  and  patriotic  patrician 
Marcus  Manlius,  who,  though  he  had  saved  the  Capitol 
during  the  terrible  Gallic  siege,  was  hurled  from  the  Tar- 
peian  Rock  b.c.  384,  on  the  customary  charge,  as  ground- 
less in  his  case  as  it  was  base,  of  aspiring  to  the  monarchy; 
but  at  length,  b.c.  367,  after  a  furious  struggle  of  11  years, 
the  famous  Liciuian  Rogations  (see  Agrarian  Law)  were 
carried,  by  means  of  which  it  was  hoped  that  an  end  had 
been  put  to  the  disastrous  dissensions  of  the  orders.  Thus, 
at  least,  we  interpret  the  act  of  the  dictator  Camillus,  who 
raised  a  temple  'o  the  goddess  Concord,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Capitol. 

That  these  laws  operated  beneficially  on  the  class  in 
whose  interest  they  were  passed,  viz.,  the  plebeian  farmers 
or  middle  class  of  the  Roman  state,  is  unquestionable;  but 
events  showed  them  inadequate  to  remedy  the  evil,  and 
after  a  time  they  ceased  to  be  strictly  enforced.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  can  be  as  little  doubt  that,  owing  partly 
to  these  changes,  and  still  more  to  the  splendid  and  far- 
reaching  conquests  achieved  in  Italy  during  this  period  of 
internal  strife  by  the  Roman  arms,  the  position  of  the  ple- 
beian farmer  was  decidedly  raised.  Not  only  were  the 
'  general  coffers  filled '  by  the  revenue  drawn  directly  or 
indirectly  from  the  subjugated  lands,  so  that  a  tributum  (a 
forced  loan)  seldom  required  to  be  enforced  at  home,  but 
the  numerous  colonies  which  R.  now  began  to  send  forth 
to  secure  her  new  acquisitions  consisted  entirely  of  the 
poorer  plebeians,  who  always  received  a  portion  of  the 


ROME. 

land  in  the  district  where  they  were  settled.  THe  long 
struggle  between  the  two  orders  was  thus  virtual])'  at  an 
end;  but  the  date  usually  assigned  to  the  termination  o!  the 
strife  is  B.C.  286,  when  the  Lex  Hortensia  was  passed,  wh'u  h 
confirmed  the  Publilian  Laws  of  B.C.  389,  and  definitely 
gave  to  the  Plebiscites,  passed  at  the  Comitia  of  the  Tribes, 
the  full  power  of  laws  binding  on  the  whole  nation. 
Gradually,  however,  by  steps  which  we  have  not  room  to 
trace,  the  importance  of  the  popular  assemblies  declined, 
and  that  of  the  senate  rose.  This  was  due  mainly  to  the 
ever-increasing  magnitude  of  the  Roman  state,  ami  to  the 
consequent  necessity  of  a  powerful  governing  body.  The 
senate,  it  will  be  remembered, originally  possessed  no  admin- 
istrative power  at  all,  but  now  it  commenced  a  series  of  vast 
usurpations  whose  best  defense  is  that  they  excited  no 
opposition  among  the  community.  Every  matter  of  general 
importance — war,  peace,  alliances,  founding  of  colonies, 
assignment  of  lands,  building,  the  whole  system  of  finance 
— came  under  its  supervision  and  authority.  Nor,  on  the 
whole,  did  it  prove  itself  the  un worthy  arbiter  of  a  nation's 
destinies.  It  was  not  a  self-elected  oligarchy,  but  was 
rather  composed  of  the  ablest  representatives  of  both 
orders. 

2.  External  History. — We  have  said  that  the  military 
successes  of  Rome  during  this  period  of  internal  strife  were 
great;  but  we  can  only  briefly  allude  to  them.  The  irrup- 
tion of  the  Gauls  into  sub-Apennine  Italy  B.C.  891,  though 
accompanied  by  frightful  devastations,  was  barren  of  results, 
and  did  not  materially  affect  the  progress  of  Roman  con- 
quest. No  doubt  the  battle  on  the  Allia,  and  the  capture 
and  burning  of  Rome  B.C.  3'0,  were  great  disasters,  but 
the  injury  was  temporary.  The  vigilance  of  Manlius  saved 
the  Capitol,  and  the  heroism  of  Camillus  revived  the  cour- 
age and  spirit  of  the  citizens.  Again  and  again  in  the 
course  of  b.c  4th  c  ,  the  Gallic  hordes  repeated  their 
incursions  into  central  Italy,  but  never  again  returned  vic- 
torious. B.C.  367  Camillus  defeated  them  at  Alba  ;  B.C. 
360  they  were  routed  at  the  Colline  Gate;  b  c  358  by  the 
dictator  G.  Sulpicius  Peticus  ;  and  B.C.  350  by  Lucius 
Furius  Camillus.  Meanwhile  the  Romans,  aided  by  their 
allies,  the  Latins  and  the  Hernicans,  carried  on  the  longand 
desperate  struggle  with  the  iEcpiians,  Volscians,  and  Etrus- 
cans. Finally,  but  not  till  they  had  sustained  repeated  de- 
feats, the  Romans  triumphed.  The  causes  that  led  to  the 
decline  of  the  Etruscan  power,  which,  at  the  close  of  the 
regal  period  in  R  ,  and  during  the  infancy  of  the  republic, 
had  been  enormous,  both  by  sea  and  land,  cannot  be  con- 
sidered at  length  here  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  terrible 
irruption  of  the  Gallic  barbarians  into  Etruria,  and  the  vic- 
tories of  the  Samnites  in  Campania,  where  also  the  Etrus- 
cans had  established  themselves,  as  well  as  the  miserable 
jealousies  of  the  different  cities,  combined  to  paralyze  the 
power  of  this  people,  and  paved  the  way  for  the  final  tri- 
umph of  Rome.  But  even  before  the  Gauls  had  crossed  the 
Apennines,  the  fate  of  Etruria  was  virtually  sealed.  The 
fall  of  Veii  (q.v.),  B.C.  396,  was  really  the  death-knell  of 


ROME. 

Etruscan  independence.  Although  the  story  has  undoubt- 
edly descended  to  us  in  a  mythical  dress,  the  siege  of  Veii 
is  not  to  be  placed  in  the  same  category  with  the  siege  of 
Troy,  albeit,  like  it,  it  is  said  to  have  lasted  ten  years.  Fa- 
lerii,  Capena,  and  Volsinii— all  sovereign  cities  of  Etruria  — 
hastened  to  make  peace,  and  by  the  middle  of  B.C.  4th  c. 
the  whole  of  southern  Etruria  had  submitted  to  the  suprem-  * 
acy  of  Rome,  was  kept  in  check  by  Roman  garrisons,  and 
was  denationalized  by  the  influx  of  Roman  colonists.  In 
the  land  of  the  Volsci,  likewise,  a  series  of  Roman  fortresses 
was  erected  to  overawe  the  native  inhabitants—  Velitrse, 
on  the  borders  of  Latium,  as  far  back  as  b.c.  492,  SuessaPo- 
meliaB.c.  442,  Circeii  b.c.  303,  Satricum  b.c  385,  and  Setia 
B.C.  382  :  besides,  the  whole  Volscian  district,  known  as  the 
Pontine  Marshes  (q.  v.),  was  distributed  into  farm-allotments 
among  the  plebeian  soldiery.  Becoming  alarmed,  how- 
ever, at  the  increasing  power  of  Rome,  the  Latins  aud  Her- 
nicans  withdrew  from  the  league,  and  a  severe  and  pro- 
tracted struggle  took  place  between  them  and  their  former 
ally.  Nearly  30  years  elapsed  before  the  Romans  succeeded 
in  crushing  the  malcontents,  and  restoring  the  league  of 
Spurius  Cassius.  In  the  course  of  this  war,  the  old  Latin 
confederacy  of  the  '  Thirty  Cities  '  was  broken  up  b.c  384, 
probably  as  be  ng  dangerous  to  the  hegemony  (now  rapidly 
becoming  a  supremacy)  of  Rome  ;  and  their  constitutions 
were  more  and  more  assimilated  to  the  Roman.  The  terms 
of  the  treaty  made  by  the  Romans,  b.c  348,  with  the  Car- 
thaginians, show  how  very  dependent  was  the  position  of 
the  Latin  cities.  Meanwhile,  the  Romans  had  pushed  their 
garrisons  as  far  south  as  the  Liris,  the  n.  boundary  of  Cam- 
pania. Here  they  came  into  contact  with  the  Samnites 
(q.v.),  a  people  as  heroic  as  themselves,  their  equals  in 
everything  but  unity  of  political  organization  ;  perhaps 
their  superiors  in  magnanimity. 

The  Samnites  had  long  been  extending  their  conquests 
in  s.  Italy  as  R  had  in  the  centre  and  in  Etruria.  Descend- 
ing from  their  native  mountains  between  the  plains  of 
Apulia  and  Campania,  they  had  overrun  the  lower  part 
of  the  peninsula,  and  under  the  name  of  Lucanian-,  Brut- 
ians,  etc.,  had  firmly  established  themselves,  threatening 
everywhere  the  prosperity  of  the  Greek  and  Etruscan  pos- 
sessions in  those  regions.  But  it  was  the  dwellers  in  the 
original  mountain  territory  who  properly  bore  the  name  of 
Samnites,  and  between  them  and  the  Romans  now  began  a 
tremendous  struggle  ;  the  former  fighting  heroically  for 
preservation  of  their  national  freedom— the  latter  warring 
with  superb  though  almost  demoniac  valor  for  dominion. 
W e  cannot  afford  space  to  recount  the  circumstances  that 
brought  the  collision,  further  than  to  state  that  the  Samnite 
colonies  had  in  the  course  of  time  become  so  detached  in 
sympathy,  and  so  changed  in  character  and  interests,  from 
the  parent  stock,  as  almost  to  forget  their  original  unity. 
Hence,  hostilities  were  common  between  them  ;  and  the 
forays  of  the  Samnite  highlanders  in  the  rich  lowlands  of 
Campania  were  dreaded  above  all  things  by  their  more  pol- 
ished but  degenerate  kinsmen  of  Capua,  who  had  acquireci 


ROMi& 

the  luxurious  habits  of  the  Greeks  and  Etiuscans.    It  was 

really  to  save  themselves  from  these  destructive  forays  that 
the  Campanians  offered  to  place  themselves  under  the  su- 
premacy of  Rome;  thus  Romansand  Samnites  were  thrown 
into  direct  antagonism.  The  Samnite  wars,  of  which  three 
are  reckoned,  extended  over  53  years,  b.cc  843-290.  The 
second,  generally  known  as  the  'Great  Samnite  War/ 
lasted  22  years,  B.C.  326-304.  At  hist,  the  success  was 
mainly  on  the  side  of  the  Samnites;  and  after  the  disaster 
at  the  Gaudine  Forks  (q.v.),  it  seemed  as  if  Samnium  and 
not  Rome  was  destined  to  become  the  ruler  of  Italy;  but 
the  military  genius  of  the  Roman  consul,  Quiutus  Fabius 
Rullianus  (see  Fabius),  triumphed  over  every  danger,  and 
rendered  all  the  heroism  of  Cains  Pontius,  the  Samnite 
leader,  unavailing.  B.C.  304  Bovianum,  capital  of  Sam- 
nium, was  stormed,  and  the  hardy  highlanders  were  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  republic.  The 
third  war,  b.c  29&-290,  was  conducted  with  all  the  san- 
guinary energy  of  despair;  but  though  the  Etruscans  and 
Umbriansnow  joined  the  Samnites  against  the  Romans,  their 
help  came  too  late.  The  victory  of  Rullianus  and  of  P. 
Decius  Mus,  at  Sentinum  B.C.  295,  virtually  ended  the  strug- 
gle, and  placed  the  whole  Italian  peninsula  at  the  mercy  of 
the  victor.  It  only  remains  to  be  mentioned  that  at  the  close 
of  the  first  Samnite  war,  which  was  quite  indecisive,  an 
insurrection  burst  out  among  the  Latins  and  Volscians,  and 
spread  over  the  whole  territory  of  these  two  nations;  but 
the  defeat  inflicted  on  the  insurgents  at  Trifauum  B.C. 
340,  by  the  Roman  consul,  Titus  Maulius  Imperiosus  Tor- 
quatus,  almost  instantly  crushed  it,  and  in  two  years  the 
last  spark  of  rebellion  was  extinguished.  The  famous  Latin 
League  was  now  dissolved,  many  of  the  towns  lost  their  in- 
dependence, and  became  Roman  municipia;  new  colonies 
were  planted  both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior  of  the 
Latino- Volscian  region;  and  finally,  so  numerous  were  the 
tarm-allotments  to  Roman  burgesses,  that  two  additional 
tribes  had  to  be  constituted. 

From  the  Close  of  the  Samnite  to  the  Commencement  of  the 
PunicWars. — The  war  with  Pyrrhus(q.  v.),  King  of  Epirus, 
Which  led  to  the  complete  subjugation  of  Peninsular  Italy, 
is  a  sort  of  pendant  to  the  great  Samnite  struggle,  It  was 
brought  about  in  this  way:  The  Lucanians  and  Bruttians, 
who  had  aided  the  Romans  in  t  he  Samnite  wars,  consider- 
ing themselves  cheated  of  their  portion  of  the  spoil,  entered 
into  negotiations  with  the  enemies  of  their  former  associate* 
throughout  the  peninsula.  A  mighty  coalition  was  im 
mediately  formed  against  Rome,  consisting  of  Etruscans,, 
TTmbrians,  and  GauTs  in  the  north,  and  of  Lucanians,  Brut 
tians,  and  Samnites  in  the  south,  with  a  sort  of  tacit  under 
standing  on  the  part  of  the  Taren tines  that  they  would 
render  assistance  after  a  time.  The  rapidity  with  which  it 
took  shape  shows  alike  the  fear  and  the  hatred  inspired  by 
the  Roman  name.  In  a  single  year  the  whole  north  was  in 
arms,  and  once  more  the  power  and  even  the  existence  of 
Rome,  were  in  deadly  peril.  An  entire  Roman  army  of 
13,000  men  was  annihilated  at  Arctium  B.C.  284  by  the 


k~~  ROME. 

Senonian  Gauls;  but  that  dauntless  spirit  which  the  repub. 
lie  never  failed  to  display  in  the  crisis  of  its  fortunes,  and 
which  gives  grandeur  to  its  worst  ambition,  now  shone  out 
in  the  fulness  of  its  splendor.  Publius  Cornelius  Dolabella 
marched  into  the  country  of  the  Senones  at  the  head  of  a 
large  force,  and  literally  extirpated  the  whole  nation,  which 
thenceforth  disappeared  from  history.  Shortly  afterward, 
the  bloody  overthrow  of  the  Etrusco  Boian  horde  at  Lake 
Vadimo,  b.c.  283,  shattered  to  pieces  the  northern  confeder- 
acy, and  left  the  Romans  free  to  deal  with  their  adversaries 
in  the  south.  The  Lucanians  were  quickly  overpowered 
B.C.  282;  Samnium,  broken  by  its  long  and  luckless  strug- 
gle, and  overawed  by  the  proximity  of  a  Roman  army, 
could  do  nothing*  A  rash  and  unprovoked  attack  on  a 
small  Roman  fleet  now  brought  down  on  the  Taren  tines 
the  vengeance  of  Rome,  at  the  very  moment  when  Rome 
was  free  to  exert  all  her  terrible  power.  Awaking  to  a 
sense  of  their  danger,  the  Tarentines  invited  Pyrrhus  (q.v.) 
over  from  Epirus,  and  appointed  him  commander  of  their 
mercenaries.  This  royal  adventurer,  a  man  of  most  bril- 
liant, but  also  of  most  volatile  genius,  resembling  no 
modern  general  so  much  as  Charles  Mordaunt,  Earl  of 
Peterborough,  arrived  in  Italy  B.C.  280  with  a  small  army 
of  his  own  and  a  vague  notion  in  his  head  of  founding  a 
Hellenic  empire  in  the  West,  that  should  rival  that  created 
ji  the  East  by  his  kinsman,  Alexander  the  Great.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  narrate  here  the  varying  fortunes  of  the 
struggle  between  Pyrrhus  and  the  Romans,  which  lasted 
only  six  year?,  and  ended  in  his  return  to  Epirus  without 
accomplishing  anything. 

After  Pyrri-us,  baffled  in  his  attempts  to  check  the  prog- 
ress of  Rome,  had  withdrawn  to  Greece,  the  Lucanians 
and  Samnites,  whom  his  reputation  and  original  successes 
^rad  induced  to  rise  once  more  against  the  dreaded  foe, 
jontinued  the  unequal  struggle,  but  '  even  the  bravery  of 
despair/  as  it  has  been  said,  '  comes  to  an  end;  the  sword 
and  the  gibbet  at  length  (b.c.  269)  carried  peace  even  into 
the  mountains  of  Samnium.'  Tarentum  had  surrendered 
three  years  earlier;  and  now  from  the  Macra  and  the  Rubi- 
con to  the  Strait  of  Messina,  there  was  not  a  nation  in 
Italy  that  did  not  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Rome. 
Distant  kingdoms  began  to  feel  that  a  new  power  had  risen 
in  the  world  ;  and  when  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  sovereign 
of  Egypt,  heard  of  the  overthrow  of  the  famous  Epirote 
warrior,  he  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome  b  c.  273,  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  republic.  To  secure  their  new 
acquisitions,  the  Romans  established  in  the  south  military 
colonies  at  Paestum  and  Cosa,  in  Lucania,  b.c.  273  ;  at  Ben- 
eventum  B.C.  268,  and  at  iEsernia  b.c  263,  to  overawe  the 
Samnites  ;  and  in  the  north,  as  outposts  against  the  Gauls, 
Ariminum  b.c.  268,  Firmum,  in  Picenum  b.c.  264,  and  the 
burgess  colony  of  Castrum  Novum.  Preparations  were 
also  made  to  carry  the  gn  at  Appian  highway  as  far  as 
Brundisium,  on  the  Adriatic,  and  for  colonization  of  the 
latter  city  as  a  rival  (  mporlum  to  Tarenti  m. 

The  political  changes  were  almost  as  important  as  the 


ROME. 

military.  The  whole  population  of  f%nmsular  Italy 
was  divided  into  three  classes— 1.  Cives  Romani,  or  such 
as  enjoyed  th^  full  burgess  privileges  of  Roman  citizens; 
2.  Women  Lairnum—i.e.,  such  as  possessed  the  same  privi- 
leges as  had  pertained  to  the  members  of  the  quondam 
Latin  League — viz.,  an  equality  with  the  Roman  burgesses 
in  matters  of  trade  and  inheritance,  the  privilege  of  self- 
government,  but  no  participation  in  the  Roman  franchise, 
and  consequently  no  power  to  modify  the  foreign  policy 
of  the  state;  3.  Socii,  or  'Allies/  to  some  of  whom  were 
conceded  most  liberal  privileges,  while  others  were  gov- 
erned in  almost  despotic  fashion.  The  Gives  Romani  no 
longer  embraced  merely  the  inhabitants  of  the  old  Roman 
community,  the  well  known  '  tribes  '  (of  which  there  were 
now  33),  but  all  the  old  burgess-colonies  planted  in  Etruria 
and  Campania,  besides  such  Sabine,  Yolscian,  and  other 
communities  as  had  been  received  into  the  burgess  body  on 
account  of  their  proved  fidelity  in  times  of  trial,  together 
with  individual  Roman  emigrants  or  families  of  such, 
scattered  among  the  municipia,  or  living  in  villages  by 
themselves.  The  cities  possessing  the  Latinum  Nomen  in- 
cluded most  of  the  'colonies'  sent  out  by  Rome  in  later 
times,  not  only  in  Italy,  but  even  beyond  it;  the  members 
of  which,  if  they  had  previously  possessed  the  Roman  fran- 
chise, voluntarily  surrendered  it  instead  of  an  allotment  of 
land*  But  any  \  Latin '  burgess  who  had  held  a  magistracy 
in  his  native  town  might  return  to  Rome,  be  enrolled  in 
one  of  the  tribes,  and  vote  like  any  o'her  citizen.  The 
Socii  comprised  all  the  rest  of  Italy,  as  the  Hernicans,  the 
Lucauians,  the  Bruttians,  the  Greek  cities,  etc.  All  national 
or  cantonal  confederacies  and  alliances  among  the  Italians 
were  broken  up,  and  no  means  were  left  unemployed  by 
the  victors  to  prevent  theii  restoration. 

The  Punic  Wars. — For  the  origin  of  Carthage,  and  the 
steps  by  which  she  rose  to  power,  see  Carthage.  At  the 
time  when  Carthage  came  into  collision  with  Rome,  she 
was  indisputably  the  first  maritime  e  nip' re  in  the  world, 
ruling  as  absolutely  in  the  central  and  western  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  as  Rome  in  the  Italian  peninsula.  Between 
the  Carthaginians  and  the  Romans  there  had  long  existed 
a  nominal  alliance — the  oldest  treaty  dating  as  far  back  as 
B.C.  6th  c.  But  this  alliance  had  never  had  any  real  signif- 
icance, and  latterly  the  two  uations  had  come  to  regard 
each  other  with  distrust.  The  incident  that  occasioned 
the  outbreak  was  trivial:  suffice  it  to  say  that  B.C.  264  war 
was  formally  declared  between  the  two  nations,  and  in- 
comparably the  most  terrible  contest  in  which  Rome  was 
ever  engaged  began. 

Not  following  minutely  the  course  of  the  famous  Puuic 
*wars  (for  whose  details — see  Carthage:  Hamilcar:  Han- 
nibal: Hasdrubal:  Hiero:  Regulus:  Metellus: 
Fabius:  Marcellijs:  Scipio:  Numidia),  we  briefly  in- 
dicate their  character  and  result.  The  wars  with  Carthage, 
like  those  with  Samnium,  were  three  in  number.  The  first 
lasted  ye  ns  (b.c.  264-241),  and  was  waged  mainly  for 
the  possession  of  Sicily.    Its  leading  feature  was  the  crea- 


ROME. 


tion  of  a  Roman  navy,  which,  after  repeated  and  tremen- 
dous misfortune,  finally  wrested  from  Carthage  th-e  sov- 
ereignty of  the  seas.  Rome  indeed  had  never  fcssn  a 
merely  agricultural  state,  as  may  be  inferred  from  a  variety 
of  particulars— e.g. ,  the  antiquity  of  the  galley  In  the  city 
arms,  of  the  port-dues  on  the  exports  and  imports  of  Ostia, 
and  of  commercial  treaties  with  transmarine  states — but 
events  had  hindered  it  from  engaging  largely  in  maritime 
enterprise;  and  its  shipping,  at  least  its  fleet,  was  still  in- 
significant, though  it  had  become  master  of  nearly  all  the 
Italian  seaboard.  The  necessity  for  a  navy  now  began  to 
show  itself.  Not  only  was  there  a  difficulty  felt  in  trans- 
porting troops  to  Sicily,  but  the  shores  of  the  mainland 
were  coiPyletely  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  Carthaginian 
squadr^raa.  So  energetically  did  the  senate  set  to  work, 
that  (we  are  told)  in  60  days  from  the  time  the  trees  were 
felled,  120  ships  were  launched;  and  soon  afterward  the 
consul  Caius  Duilius  gained  a  brilliant  success  B.C.  260 
over  the  Carthaginians  off  Mylse,  on  the  n.e.  coast  of  Sicily. 
The  exultation  of  the  Romans  knew  no  bounds;  and  the 
'  triumph '  which  Duilius  received,  on  his  return  to  the  city, 
had  the  aspect  more  of  a  carnival  than  of  a  noble  cere- 
mony. The  Columna  Rostrata  ('  Beaked  Column  ?)  in  the 
Forum  preserved  for  ages  the  memory  of  the  'glorious  vic- 
tory.' Subsequent  events,  however,  were  less  favorable. 
An  invasion  of  Africa  by  Regulus  (q.v.)  ended  in  disaster, 
and  the  war,  thenceforth  confined  to  Sicily,  miserably  lan- 
guished. Thrice  was  the  Roman  navy  annihilated  by 
storms  at  sea  (b.c.  255,  253,  and  249);  and  in  spite  of  a 
series  of  unimportant  successes  by  land,  the  Romans  long 
found  it  impossible  to  make  any  impression  on  the  great 
Carthaginian  strongholds  of  Lilybaeum  and  Drepanum, 
mainly  because  of  the  brilliant  strategy  with  which  they 
were  held  in  check  by  Hamilcar  Barca,  father  of  Hannibal. 
At  last,  however,  in  a  great  sea-fight  off  the  iEgates 
Isles  (b.c.  242),  a  Roman  fleet  commanded  by  the  consul 
Lutatius  Catulus  obtained  a  magnificent  victory.  The  Car- 
thaginian government,  whose  treasury  was  empty,  and  who 
bad  in  vain  tried  to  raise  a  state-loan  in  Egypt,  could—for 
the  present — continue  the  struggle  no  longer,  and  the  whole 
of  Sicily,  except  the  territory  of  Hiero  of  Syracuse,  who 
had  been  a  firm  ally  of  the  Romans,  passed  into  the  hands 
Df  the  victors,  who  conslituted  it  a  Roman  province,  and 
placed  it  under  the  government  of  a  pretor. — A  lapse  of 
23  years  occurred  before  the  second  Punic  war  began,  but 
during  that  interval  neither  Romans  nor  Carthaginians  had 
been  idle.  Rome,  with  worse  than  4  Punic  faith/  had 
bullied  its  weak  and  exhausted  rival  into  surrendering 
Sardinia  and  Corsica,  which,  like  Sicily,  were  transformed 
into  a  Roman  province.  In  addition,  the  Romans  had 
carried  on  a  series  of  Gallic  wars  in  n.  Italy  (b.c.  281-222), 
whose  result  was  the  complete  humiliation  of  the  bar- 
barian Boii,  Insubres,  etc.,  and  the  extension  of  Italy  to 
its  natural  boundary — the  Alps  On  the  e.  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  also,  the  Romans  made  their  power  felt,  by  the 
.yigor  with  which  they  suppressed  Illyriau  piracy  (b.c, 


ROME. 


219).  Meanwhile,  the  descent  of  Hamilcar  on  the  Spanish 
coast  was  followed,  after  some  ineffectual  opposition  from 
the  natives,  by  the  establishment  of  a  new  Carthaginian 
empire,  or  at  least  a  protectorate,  in  the  West;  and  thus, 
almost  before  the  Romans  were  aware  of  it,  their  hated 
rival  had  made  good  her  losses  again,  and  was  even  able  to 
renew  the  struggle  in  more  daring  fashion  than  before.  How 
confident  the  bearing  of  the  Carthaginians  had  become, 
maybe  seen  from  the  fearless  spirit  in  which  they  accepted 
the  Roman  challenge,  and  entered  on  the  second  Punic 
—or  (as  the  Romans  called  it)  the  Hannibalic — war,  whose 
^raud  events  were  the  crossing  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal, 
the  terrible  disasters  of  the  Romans  at  Lake  Trasimene 
Sq  v.)  and  Cannae  (q.v.),  and  the  final  overthrow  of  Han- 
nibal at  Zama  (q.v.),  b.c.  202,  by  Scipio,  which  once  more 
compelled  the  Carthaginians  to  sue  for  peace.  It  was 
with  Carthage  as  with  Samnium.  The  second  war  virtual- 
ly sealed  her  fate,  and  the  third  displayed  only  the  frantic 
heroism  of  despair.  Her  Spanish  possessions,  like  her 
Sicilian,  passed  to  the  Romans  (who  foimed  out  of  them 
the  provinces  Hispania  Ciierior  and  Hispa?iia  Ulterior); 
so  did  her  protectorate  over  the  Numidian  sheiks.  She 
was  forced  to  surrender  her  whole  navy  (excepting  ten 
triremes),  and  all  her  elephants,  and  to  solemnly  swear 
never  to  make  war  either  in  Africa  or  abroad,  except 
with  consent  of  her  vanquisher.  In  a  word,  the  imperial 
supremacy  of  Rome  was  now  as  unconditional  in  the  w. 
Mediterranean  as  on  the  mainland  of  Italy.  Her  rela- 
tions, indeed,  to  the  conquered  Italian  nationalities  be- 
came much  harsher  than  they  had  formerly  been;  for, 
after  the  first  victories  of  Hannibal,  these  had  risen  against 
her.  The  Picentes,  Bruttii,  Apulians,  and  Samnites  were 
deprived  either  of  the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  their 
lands — some  communities  were  actually  turned  into  serfs — 
the  Greek  cities  in  Lower  Italy,  most  of  which  also  had 
sided  with  Hannibal,  became  the  seats  of  burgess-colonies. 
But  the  loss  of  life  and  of  vital  prosperity  was  frightful. 
*  Numbers  of  flourishing  townships/  says  Mommseu,  '400, 
it  was  reckoned,  were  destroyed  and  ruined/  Slaves  and 
desperadoes  associated  themselves  in  robber-bands,  of  the 
dangers  of  which  an  idea  may  be  formed  from  the  fact 
that  in  a  single  year,  B.C.  185,  7,000  men  had  to  be  con- 
iemned  for  robbery  in  Apulia  alone;  the  extension  of  the 
pastures,  with  their  half  savage  slave-herdsmen,  favoied 
this  mischievous  barbarizing  of  the  land.  But  the  exulta- 
tion of  victory  closed  the  eyes  and  the  ears  of  the  Romans 
against  every  omen,  and  the  perilous  work  of  conquest  and 
subjugation  went  on.  B.C.  201-196,  the  Celts  in  the  valley 
of  the  Po,  who,  with  the  fiery  unwisdom  of  their  race, 
had  recommenced  hostilities  at  the  very  moment  Rome 
was  freed  from  her  embarrassments,  were  thoroughly  sub- 
jugated; their  territory  was  Latinized,  but  the}r  themselves 
were  declared  incapable  of  ever  acquiring  Roman  citizen- 
ship; and  so  rapidly  did  their  nationality  dissolve,  that 
when  Polybius,  only  30  years  later,  visited  the  country, 
.learly  all  traces  of  Celtic  characteristics  had  disappeared. 


ROME. 

The  Boii  were  finally  extirpated  about  b.c  193;  the  Ligu- 
rians  were  subdued  b.c  180-177;  and  the  interior  of 
Corsica  and  Sardinia  about  the  same  time.  The  wars  in 
Spain  were  troublesome  and  of  longer  duration,  but  they 
were  not  serious.  The  natives  were  indeed  perpetually  in 
arms,  and  the  Romans  suffered  frequent  defeats  from  their 
sudden  and  impetuous  insurrections;  but  in  the  end  the 
superior  discipline  of  the  legions  always  prevailed,  and 
the  fiery  and  chivalrous  tribes  had  to  make  ignominious 
submission.  So  little  reliance,  however,  could  be  placed 
on  these  forced  submissions,  that  the  Romans  felt  it  nec- 
essary to  hold  Spain  by  military  occupation;  hence  arose 
the  first  Roman  standing  armies,  and  40,000  troops  were 
maintained  in  the  Spanish  peninsula  year  after  year.  The 
most  distinguished  successes  were  those  achieved  by  Scipio 
himself,  by  Quintus  Minucius  b.c,  197-196,  by  Marcus 
OatoB.c.  195,  by  Lucius  ^Emilius  Paul  us  B.C.  189,  by  Caius 
Calpurnius  B.C.  185,  by  Quintus  Fulvius  Flaccus  b.c 
181,  and  by  Tiberius  Gracchus  b.c  179-178. 

Macedonian  and  Greek  Wars. — The  causes  that  led  to 
the  interference  of  R.  in  the  politics  of  tbe  East  are  too 
complicated  to  be  given  here,  but  the  Macedonian  wars  re- 
sulted immediately  from  the  alliance  formed  by  Philip  V. 
of  Macedon  with  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Canme. 
Like  the  Samnite  and  Punic,  the  Macedonian  wars  were 
three  in  number.  The  first,  b.c.  214-205,  wa.-j  barren  of 
results,  mainly  because  the  whole  energies  of  Rome  were 
directed  to  Spain  and  lower  Italy;  but  the  second,  b.c  200 
-197,  though  it  lasted  only  a  third  of  the  time  occupied  by 
the  first,  taught  Philip  that  another,  and  not  he,  must  rule 
in  Greece.  The  battle  of  Cynoscephalce  ('Dogs'  Heads' 
Hills,  a  range  in  Thessaiy)  was  followed  by  a  treaty  which 
compelled  him  to  withdraw  his  garrisons  from  the  Greek 
cities,  to  surrender  his  fleet,  and  to  pay  1,000  talents  toward 
the  expenses  of  the  war.  Philip  was  thoroughly  quelled, 
and,  during  the  remaining  18  years  of  his  life,  he  adhered 
(like  old  Hiero  of  Syracuse,  though  less  sincerely)  to  his 
Roman  alliance.  But  the  miserable  ./Etolians,  who  had 
formed  an  alliance  with  Rome  against  Philip,  with  even 
more  stupidity  than  insolence,  quarrelled  in  wanton  jeal- 
ousy with  their  powerful  '  friends/  and  persuaded  Antio- 
chus  (q.v.)  of  Syria  to  come  over  seas  to  Thessaiy,  and  fight 
them.  A  similar  fate  befell  him  to  what  had  befallen 
Philip.  After  a  war  of  three  years,  he  found  himself 
compelled  to  surrender  all  his  possessions  in  Europe  and 
Asia  Minor,  all  his  elephants  and  ships,  and  to  pay  15,000 
Euboic  talents  ($18,300,000)  within  12  years.  Next  year 
the  ^Etolians  were  crushed,  and,  a  little  later,  the  despi- 
cable quarrels  between  the  Achaians  and  Spartans  led  to  a 
general  Roman  protectorate  over  the  whole  of  Greece. 

Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  dying  b.c.  179,  was  succeeded  on 
the  throne  by  his  eldest  son,  Perseus  (q.v.),  who  resolved 
once  more  to  try  the  fortune  of  war  with  the  Romans;  and 
b.c  172  the  third  and  last  Macedonian  war  began,  whose 
uh  atrer  tour  years  of  fighting  was  the  utter  destruction 
«  I  the  Macedonian  army  at  Pydna  b_^c  168,  by  Hip  Roman 


ROME. 

consul  Lucius  ^Emilius  Paulus  (q.v.),  the  cap  hire  of  the 
king,  who  adorned  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror,  and  the 
dismemberment  of  the  Macedonian  empire,  which  was 
broken  up  into  four  oligarchic  republics,  the  members  of 
which  were  subjected  to  severe  disqualifications;  while  in 
Greece  itself,  trials  and  executions  for  implication  in  the 
war  of  Perseus  spread  terror  everywhere;  the  conspicuous 
'  patriots  ' — i.e.,  all  who  had  made  themselves  notorious 
by  their  anti-Roman  and  Macedonian  policy — were  de- 
ported to  Italy;  further,  the  imperial  republic  stopped  Au 
tiochus  Epiphaues  in  his  career  of  Egytian  conquest,  or 
dered  him  instantly  to  abandon  his  acquisitions,  and  ac- 
cepted the  protectorate  of  Egypt,  which  the  grateful  and 
frightened  monarch  offered  to  Home  B.C.  168.  Even  the 
allies  of  Home — the  Pergamese,  the  Rhodians,  etc. — were 
treated  with  shocking  harshness  and  injustice.  We  may 
here,  for  the  sake  of  connection,"  anticipate  the  course  of 
history,  and  mention  the  last  Greek  and  Punic  wars.  Both  of 
these  came  to  an  end  in  the  same  year,  B.C.  146.  The  former 
was  caused  by  an  expiring  outburst  of  pseudo-patriotism  in 
the  Achaian  League,  consequent  on  the  return  of  the  exiles 
from  Rome,  and  was  virtually  closed  on  the  siege  and  de- 
struction of  Corinth  (q.v.)  by  the  consul  Mummius.  The 
latter  was  not  so  much  a  war  as  a  bloody  sacrifice  to  the 
genius  of  Roman  ambition.  After  Hannibal's  death,  his 
party  in  Carthage  seems  to  have  recovered  the  ascendency, 
and  as,  coincident  therewith,  the  commercial  prosperity  cf 
the  city  began  to  revive,  a  bolder  front  was  shown  in 
resisting  the  encroachments  of  Masinissa,  the  Numidian 
ruler,  whom  the  Romau  senate  protected  and  encouraged 
in  his  aggressions.  This  was  enough.  Fierce  old  Cato  only 
expressed  the  instinctive  sentiment  of  the  Roman  bur- 
gesses when  he  came  to  utter  incessantly  Belenda  est  Car- 
thago, and  B.C.  149  the  senate  adopted  his  barbarous  con- 
viction. After  a  siege  of  three  years,  in  which  the  in- 
habitants showed  superhuman  energy  and  heroism,  Car- 
thage was  stormed  by  Scipio  Africanus  Minor,  and  the 
Carthaginian  empire  vanished  forever  from  the  earth. 

Position  of  Rome  at  the  Close  of  the  Punic  Wars,  and 
Sketch  of  Its  Subsequent  Social  Condition  to  the  Termination  oj 
the  Republic.—'  Polybius  dates  from  the  battle  of  Pydn& 
the  full  establishment  of  the  universal  empire  of  Rome= 
It  was  in  fact  the  last  battle  in  which  a  civilized  state  con- 
fronted Rome  in  the  field  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  her 
as  a  great  power;  all  subsequent  struggles  were  rebellions 
or  wars  with  peoples  beyond  the  pale  of  the  Romano-Greek 
civilization --the  barbarians,  as  they  were  called.  The 
whole  civilized  world  thenceforth  recognized  in  the  Roman 
senate  the  supreme  tribunal,  whose  commissioners  decided 
in  the  last  resort  between  kings  and  nations;  and,  to  ac- 
quire its  language  and  manners,  foreign  princes  and  noble 
youths  resided  in  Rome/  But  contemporaneous  with  this 
enormous  extension  of  power  and  authority  in  foreign 
lands,  the  national  character  underwent  complete  and  fatal 
alteration.  The  simplicity  and  stern  integrity  of  life,  the 
religious  gravity  of  d^oortnient,  and  the  fidelity  with 


ROME. 

which  common  civic  and  household  dulieswere  discharged 
— well  expressed  in  the  saying  of  C'ato,  that  it  was  'better 
to  be  a  good  husband  than  a  great  senator '—which  in  early 
times  nobly  distinguished  the  Roman  burgess,  had  now 
nearly  disappeared.  Those  hardy  virtues — frugality,  tem- 
perance, justice,  and  rectitude — which,  combined  with  cour- 
age and  energy,  had  given  the  strength  to  the  nation  that 
made  it  great,  required  for  their  permanence  the  social  con 
ditions  out  of  which  they  sprang.  But  the  class  of  peasant 
proprietors  who  had  laid  the  foundations  of  Roman  greatness 
were  either  extinct  or  no  longer  what  they  had  been.  The 
original  causes  of  their  social  degradation  have  been  already 
noticed,  and  here  it  is  necessary  to  say  only  that  the  victo- 
ries of  R.  abroad  furthered  rather  than  retarded  that  degra- 
dation. The  long  and  distant  wars  made  it  more  and 
more  impossible  for  the  soldier  to  be  a  good  citizen  or  a 
successful  farmer.  The  freedom  and  licentiousness  of 
camp-life,  the  sweets  of  pillage  and  rapine,  ever  grew  more 
pleasant  to  the  Italian  burgess  and  colonist;  thus  indo- 
lence, inaptitude,  and  spendthrift  habits  aided  the  greedy 
designs  of  the  capitalists,  and  in  most  cases  the  paternal 
acres  gradually  slipped  into  the  possession  of  the  great  land- 
lords, who  found  it  more  profitable  to  turn  them  into  past- 
ure or  cultivate  them  by  gangs  of  slaves.  The  rise  of  the 
slave-system— -though  an  inevitable  result  of  foreign  con- 
quest—was, indeed,  the  most  horrible  curse  that  ever  fell 
on  ancient  Rome,  and  the  atrocities  inflicted  on  its  un- 
happy victims  are  far  beyond  the  possibility  of  description; 
!Mommsen  does  not  exaggerate  when  he  considers  it  prob- 
able that  'compared  with  the  sufferings  of  the  R<  man 
slaves,  the  sum  of  all  negro  suffering  is  but  a  drop.'  If 
the  Italian  farmer  honorably  strove  to  retain  his  small 
farm,  he  was  exposed  to  the  competition  of  the  capitalists 
who  shipped  immense  quantities  of  corn  from  Egypt  and 
other  granaries,  where  slave-labor  rendered  its  production 
cheap,  and  of  course  he  failed  in  the  unequal  struggle. 
Not  less  pernicious  was  the  change  that  passed  over  the 
character  of  the  rich.  We  have  already  shown  how  the 
old  Roman  patricians  lost  their  exclusive  privileges,  how 
the  plebeians  gradually  acquired  full  equality  with  them, 
and  how  the  germs  of  a  new  social  aristocracy  originated, 
based  on  wealth  rather  than  pedigree,  and  comprising  both 
plebeians  and  patricians.  During  the  4th  and  3d  c.  b.c, 
the  political  power  of  this  order  immensely  increased:  in 
fact,  the  whole  government  of  the  state  passed  into  their 
hands.  They  became  an  oligarchy,  and,  while  it  is  not  to 
be  denied  that  they  displayed  extraordinary  ability  in  the 
conduct  of  foreign  affairs,  the  vices  inseparable  from  oli- 
garchic rule — selfishness,  nepotism,  and  arrogance,  of 
which  Scipio  is  a  striking  example— gradually  became 
rampant.  Regarding  themselves  as  the  Roman  community 
far  excellence,  and  the  poor  burgesses  as  a  mere  canaille, 
whose  wishes  and  interests  were  unworthy  of  a  moment's 
consideration,  they  virtually  relapsed  into  the  exchisiveness 
of  the  ancient  populvs,  with  this  difference  for  the  worse, 
that  then  wealth,  influence,  and  pride  were  a  thousand 


ROMlLi. 

fold  greater  than  those  of  Coriolanus  or  Camillus.  But 
far  worse  than  even  the  nepotism  and  selfishness  of  the  no- 
bles was  their  ever  increasing  luxury  and  immorality. 
When  Rome  had  conquered  Greece,  and  Syria,  and  Asia 
Minor,  the  days  of  her  true  greatness  were  ended.  The 
wealth  that  poured  into  the  state  coffers,  thence  to  be  (really, 
if  not  formally)  distributed  among  the  clique  of  nobles, 
the  treasures  which  victorious  generals  acquired,  enabled 
them  to  gratify  to  the  full  the  morbid  appetites  for  pleasure 
engendered  by  exposure  to  the  voluptuousness  of  the  East. 
Such  results  were,  it  is  true,  not  brought  about  in  a  day, 
nor  without  resolute  protest  on  the  part  of  individual  Ro- 
mans. The  attitude  of  Cato  Major  toward  the  Helleniz- 
ing  tendencies  of  his  brother  nobles  was  doubtless  patriotic; 
and  posterity  has  been  generous  in  its  laudation  of  his  an 
tique  virtue;  but  Cato  Major  was  nevertheless  only  a  polit- 
ical fanatic  and  incarnate  anachronism.  So  long  as  Rome 
chose  to  subdue  foreign  nations,  and  to  hold  them  by  the 
demoralizing  tenure  of  conquest — i.e.,  as  mere  provinces, 
whose  inhabitants,  held  in  check  by  a  fierce  and  unscrupu- 
lous soldiery  (like  theKab}  lesof  Algeria  by  the  French, 
or,  until  recently,  the  Hindus  by  the  British),  neither  pos- 
sessed political  privileges  nor  dared  cherish  the  hope  of 
them — it  was  morally  impossible  for  the  citizens,  either  at 
home  or  abroad,  to  resume  the  simple  and  frugal  habits  of 
their  forefathers.  After  Cato's  time,  things  grew  worse 
instead  of  better;  nor  from  that  period,  down  to  the  final  dis- 
solution of  the  empire,  was  a  single  radical  reform  ever 
permanently  effected.  The  momentary  success  of  Tiberius, 
uud  of  his  far  abler  brother,  Caius  Gracchus  (q.v.),  in 
their  desperate  and  revolutionary  attempts  to  prevent  the 
social  ruin  of  the  state,  by  breaking  down  the  powers  of 
the  senate,  redistributing  the  domain  lands,  reorganizing 
the  administration,  and  partially  restoring  the  legislative 
authority  of  the  popular  assemblies,  hardly  survived  their 
death;  and  the  reaction  that  ensued  proved  that  the  sen- 
ate, like  the  Bourbons,  could  learn  nothing  from  adver- 
sity, and  that  the  rabble  of  the  city  were  incapable  of  ele- 
vation or  generosity  of  political  sentiment.  Henceforth,  the 
malversation  of  the  public  money  by  pretors  and  quaestors 
became  chronic,  and  the  moral  debauchery  of  the  mob  of 
the  capital,  by  the  largesses  of  ambitious  politicians  and  the 
vile  flattery  of  demagogues,  complete.  The  old  Roman 
faith,  so  strong  and  stern,  disappeared  from  the  heart. 
The  priests  became  Pharisees,  the  nobles  'philosophers' 
(i.e., unbelievers),  their  wives  practicers  of  oriental  abomina- 
tions under  the  name  of  '  mysteries;'  while  the  poor  looked 
on  with  unmeaning  yet  superstitious  wonder  at  the  hollow 
but  pompous  ceremonies  of  religion.  It  would  serve  no 
useful  purpose  to  dwell  longer  on  these  aspects  of  Roman 
society,  and  we  turn  to  sketch  in  a  few  words  the  course  of 
outward  events  to  the  close  of  the  republic. 

From  the  Destruction  of  Carthage  to  the  Termination  oj 
the  Republic. — We  have  already  alluded  to  the  wars  waged 
in  Spain  during  the  first  half  of  the  2d  c.  B.C.  Theuu- 
v\:\\u>.  and.  e(>nn]i;:!orv  policy  pursued  toward  1 110  JWtiW 


ROME. 

by  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus,  father  of  the  ill-fated 
tribunes,  brought  about  a  peace  B.C.  .179  that  lasted  25 
years;  but  B.C.  153  a  general  rising  of  the  Celtiberians 
took  place,  followed  by  another  on  the  part  of  the  Lusita- 
nians  of  Portugal.  The  struggle  maintained  by  these  gal- 
lant barbarians  against  their  mighty  oppressor  lasted,  with 
intervals  of  peace,  for  20  years;  "but  ended,  in  spite  of 
gleams  of  brilliant  success,  as  such  contests  invariably  do, 
in  the  final  overthrow  of  the  undisciplined  and  uncivilized 
combatant.  All  the  valor  of  the  shepherd-warrior  Viria- 
thus(q.v.),  even  if  the  assassin's  steel  had  spared  his  life, 
would  not  have  prevented  the  annexation  of  Lusitania  to 
the  Roman  empire,  nor  did  the  unsurpassable  heroism  of 
the  besieged  Numantines  avail  to  baffle  the  military  skill 
of  the  younger  Scipio. 

Toward  the  conclusion  of  the  Numantine  war  occurred 
the  first  of  those  horrible  social  outbreaks  known  as  'serv- 
ile '  or  '  slave '  wars,  which  marked  the  later  ages  of  the 
republic.  The  condition  of  the  slaves  has  been  already 
referred  to;  but  what  aggravated  the  wretchedness  of  their 
lot  was  the  fact  that  most  of  them  had  been  originally  free- 
men— not  inferior  in  knowledge,  skill  or  accomplishments 
to  their  masters,  but  only  in  force  of  character  and  military 
prowess.  The  first  slave  insurrection  broke  out  in  Sicily 
B.C.  134,  where  the  system  was  seen  at  its  worst.  Its 
leader  was  one  Eunus,  ' a  Syrian,  who,  mimicking  his 
native  monarch,  took  the  title  of  King  Antiochus.  The 
suddenness  and  barbaric  fury  of  the  revolt  for  a  time  ren- 
dered all  opposition  impossible.  The  slaves  overran  the 
island,  like  demoniacs  let  loose;  and  routed  one  Roman 
army  after  another.  But  a  slave  insurrection  has  no  aim 
beyond  immediate  revenge,  and  when  the  first  wild 
paroxysms  of  ferocity  are  over,  it  becomes  powerless,  more 
even  from  a  moral  than  a  physical  exhaustion,  and  can  be 
quelled  with  ease.  B.C.  132  the  consul  Publius  Rupilius 
restored  '  order'  in  the  island.  In  the  East,  fortune  con- 
tinued to  smile  upon  the  Roman  arms.  Attains  III.,  Philo- 
inetor,  a  villainous  despot  of  the  true  oriental  stamp,  who 
massacred  or  poisoned  every  one  that  ventured  to  give  him 
advice,  dying  b.c.  133,  bequeathed  his  client-kingdom  of 
Pergamus  to  its  protector — Rome;  and  after  a  fierce 
struggle  with  an  ambitious  pretender  called  Aristonicus, 
the  Romans  obtained  possession  of  vhe  splendid  bequest* 
and  formed  it  into  the  province  of  Asia,  B.C.  129. 

We  may  here  enumerate  the  different  provinces  into 
which  the  Roman  senate  divided  its  foreign  conquests,  in 
the  order  of  their  organization:  1.  Sicily,  B.C.  241;  2. 
Sardinia  and  Corsica,  B.C.  238;  3.  Hispania  Citerior,  and  4. 
Hispania  Ulterior,  b.c.  205;  5.  Gallia  Cisalpina,  B.C.  191; 
6.  Macedonia,  b.c.  146;  7.  Illyrieum,  about  B.C.  146;  8. 
Achaia  (or  southern  Greece),  about  b.c.  146;  9.  Africa 
(i.e.,  the  Carthaginian  territory),  B.C.  146;  10.  Asia  (king- 
dom of  Pergamus),  b  c.  129.  A  few  years  later,  B.C.  118, 
an  11th  was  added  by  the  conquest  of  the  southern  part 
of  Tnms&lmue  Gaul,  mid  was  commonly  ca%],  to  distin- 


ROME. 

guish  it  from  the  rest  of  the  country,  '  the  Province; r 
hence  the  modern  Provence. 

In  Africa  the  overthrow  of  Jugurtha  (q.v.),  b.c  104,  by 
{he  consul  Marius,  added  yet  further  to  the  military 
renown  and  strength  of  the  republic.  Meanwhile,  from  a 
new  quarter  of  the  world  a  gigantic  and  un^reseen  danger 
threatened  the  Roman  state.  North  of  ^he  Alps  there  had 
long  been  roaming  in  the  region  of  the  middle  Danube  an 
unsettled  people  called  the  Cimbki  (q.v.),  whose  original 
home  was  probably  n.w\  Germany.  They  came  into  col- 
lision with  the  Romans  first  in  Noricum,  b.c.  113;  after 
which  they  turned  westward,  and  poured  through  the 
Helvetian  valleys  into  Gaul,  where  they  overwhelmed 
alike  the  native  tribes  and  the  Roman  armies  At  Arausio 
(Orange),  on  the  Rhone,  B.C.  105,  a  Roman  army  of  80,000 
was  annihilated;  but  instead  of  invading  Italy,  tie  barba- 
rians blindly  rushed  through  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees, 
wasted  precious  months  in  contests  with  natives  tribes  of 
{Spain  as  valiant  and  hardy  as  themselves,  and  gave  the 
Romans  time  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  their  terrible 
defeat.  Marius,  who  had  just  returned  from  his  Numid- 
ian  victories,  was  reappointed  consul;  and  at  Aquee 
Sextise  (Aix,  in  Dauphine),  he  literally  exterminated  the 
dreaded  foe,  b.c  102.  Next  year,  near  Milan,  the  same 
doom  befell  another  northern  horde — the  Teutones,  who 
had  accompanied  the  Cimbri  in  their  irruption  into  Spain, 
but  on  their  withdrawal  had  parted  from  their  associates 
in  Gaul,  forced  their  way  back  through  Switzerland,  and 
descended  into  Italy  by  the  Tyrolese  valleys.  In  the  same 
year  a  second  insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  Sicily,  which 
had  reached  an  alarming  height,  was  suppressed  by  the 
consul  Marcius  Aquillius. 

For  the  nexf,  10  years  the  internal  history  of  Rome  is  a 
scene  of  wild  confusion  and  discord.  Marius,  an  admir- 
able soldier,  but  otherwise  a  man  of  mediocre  talents,  and 
utterly  unfit  to  act  the  part  of  a  statesman,  was  the  idol 
of  the  poor  citizens,  who  urged  him  to  save  the  state  from 
the  rapacious  misgovernment  of  the  rich.  His  attempts 
were  pitiable  failures;  the  brave,  honest  soldier  fell  into 
the  hands  of  unscrupulous  demagogues  like  Glaucia  and 
Saturninus,  and  sullied  the  laurels  that  he  liad  won  in  war 
by  associating  with  men  who  did  not  hesitate  to  assassi- 
nate a  political  opponent.  Not  less  fruitless  was  the  wise 
md  patriotic  effort  of  Livius  Drusus — '  the  Gracchus  of 
the  aristocracy ' — to  effect  a  compromise  between  the  privi- 
leges of  the  rich  and  the  claims  of  the  poor.  The  oli- 
garchic party  among  the  former,  i.e.,  the  senate,  were  en- 
raged by  his  proposition  to  double  their  numbers  by  the 
introduction  of  300  equites;  the  latter  by  his  offer  to  the 
'Latins'  and  'Allied  Italians'  of  the  Roman  franchise. 
Drusus  fell  B.C.  91  by  the  steel  of  a  hired  bravo.  Hardly 
a  year  elapsed  before  all  the  subject  *  Italians  ' — i.e.,  the 
Marsians,  Pelignians,  Marrucinians,  Vestinians,  Picen- 
tiiK's,  Samnites.  Apulians,  and  Lucanians — were  up  in  wild 
and  furious  revolt  against  Rome;  and,  though  the  rebel- 
lion  was  crushed  in  less  than  two  years  by  the  superior 


ROME, 

generalship  of  Marius,  Sulla,  and  Pompeius  Strabo  (father 
of  the  'great,'  Pompey),  the  insurgents  virtually  tri- 
umphed; for  the  promise  which  Drusus  had  held  out  to 
them  of  the  '  Roman  franchise  '  was  made  good  by  the 
Lex  Plautia  Papiria,  b.c.  89.  Yet  the  cost  was  terrible. 
It  is  calculated  that  300,000  men — the  flower  of  Rome  and 
Italy — perished  in  the  struggle;  nor  was  even  this  tremen- 
dous holocaust  sufficient.  The  jealousy  that  had  long 
existed  on  the  part  of  Marius  toward  his  younger  and 
more  gifted  rival,  Sulla  (q  v.),  kindled  into  a  flame  of  hate 
when  the  latter  was  elected  consul  b  c.  88,  and  received 
the  command  of  the  Mithridatic  war — an  honor  which 
Marius  coveted  for  himself.  Then  followed  the  fearful 
years  of  the  *  civil  wars '  between  the  two  chiefs,  B.C.  88-82 ; 
when  blood  was  spilled  like  water;  and  proscriptions  and 
massacres  were  the  order  of  the  day.  It  was  a  1  Reign  of 
Terror  ' — surpassing  even  the  excesses  of  the  French  revo- 
lutionists. Sulla,  leader  of  the  aristocracy,  which  was 
nominally  the  party  of  order,  triumphed;  but  the  ferocious 
energy  displayed  by  the  revolutionists  convinced  him  that 
the  'Roman  franchise  '  could  never  again  be  safely  with- 
drawn from  the  'Italians;'  and  Roman  citizens,  therefore, 
they  remained  till  the  dissolution  of  the  empire;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  his  whole  legislation  was  directed  toward 
the  destruction  of  the  political  power  of  the  burgesses,  and 
to  the  restoration  to  the  senatorial  aristocracy  and  priest- 
hood of  the  authority  and  influence  that  they  had  possessed 
in  the  times  of  the  Punic  wars.  That  his  design  was  to 
build  up  a  strong  and  vigorous  executive  admits  of  no 
doubt,  but  the  rottenness  of  Romau  society  was  beyond 
the  reach  of  cure  by  any  human  policy.  It  would  be  hope- 
less in  our  limits  to  attempt  even  the  most  superficial 
sketch  of  the  complicated  history  of  this  period  (see,  how- 
ever, for  considerable  fulness  of  detail,  its  leading  person- 
ages— Sertorius:  Lucullus:  Crassus:  Pomiey:  Mitii- 
ridates:  Cesar:  Cicero:  Catiline:  Mark  Antony: 
Lepidus:  Cleopatra:  Clodius:  Brutus:  Cassius:  Cato: 
Augustus).  The  utmost  we  here  attempt  is  to  enumerate 
results. 

Abroad  the  Roman  army  continued  irresistible.  About 
13  years  after  the  extermination  of  the  northern  barbarians, 
the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  (b.c.88),  broke  out  in  the  far  East 
the  first  of  the  'Mithridatic  wars,'  which,  like  the  Samnite, 
Punic,  and  Macedonian  wars,  were  three  in  number. 
Begun  by  Sulla  b.c.  88,  they  were  brought  to  a  successful 
close  by  Pompey  b.c.  65,  though  the  general  that  had 
really  broken  the  power  of  Mithridates  was  Lucullus.  The 
result  was  the  annexation  of  the  sultanate  of  Pontus,  as  a 
new  province  of  the  Roman  republic.  Next  year,  Pompey 
marched  southward  with  his  army,  deposed  Antiochus 
Asiaticus,  King  of  Syria,  and  transformed  his  kingdom  also 
into  a  Roman  province,  while  in  the  following  year,  B.C. 
63,  he  reduced  to  a  state  of  dependence  Phoenicia,  Coele- 
Syria,  and  Palestine,  storming  Jerusalem,  and,  to  the 
horror  of  the  Jews,  violating  their  Holy  of  Holies.  But 
What  a  terrible  commentary  it  is  upon  these  glittering 


ROME. 

triumphs  to  remember  that  during  the  same  year  there  was 
hatched  at  Rome  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  (q.v.),  which, 
if  il  had  not  been  crashed  by  an  extraordinary  display  of  de- 
cision by  the  consul  Cicero,  would  have  placed  at  least  the 
city  of  Rome  at  the  mercy  of  a  crew  of  aristocratic  desper- 
adoes and  cut-throats.  One  thing  now  becomes  particu- 
larly noticeable — viz.,  the  paralysis  of  the  senate — that 
'governing  board,'  as  Mommsen  calls  it,  once  the  mightiest 
power  in  the  world.  In  spite  of  all  that  Sulla  did  to  make 
it  once  more  the  governing  body  in  the  state,  the  power 
jmssed  out  of  its  hands.  Torn  by  wretched  jealousies, 
spites,  piques  (personal  and  partizan),  it  could  do  nothing 
but  squabble  or  feebly  attempt  to  frustrate  the  purpose 
of  men  whom  it  considered  formidable.  Thenceforth  the 
interest  as  well  as  the  importance  of  Roman  history 
attaches  to  individuals,  and  the  senate  sinks  deeper  and 
deeper  into  insignificance,  until  at  last  it  becomes  merely 
the  obsequious  council  of  the  emperors.  The  famous 
coalition  of  Crassus,  Pompey,  and  Caesar  (known  as  the 
First  Triumvirate),  which  dates  from  B.C.  60,  proves  how 
weak  the  government  and  how  powerful  individuals  had 
become;  and  the  same  fact  is  even  more  dismally  brought 
out  by  the  lawless  and  bloody  tribunates  of  Clodius  and 
Milo,  B.C.  58  -57,  when  R.  was  for  a  while  at  the  mercy  of 
bravos  and  gladiators.  The  campaigns  of  Caesar  in  Gaul, 
B.C.  58-50,  by  which  the  whole  of  that  country  was  re- 
duced to  subjection;  his  rupture  with  Pompey;  his  defiance 
of  the  senate;  the  civil  wars;  his  victory,  dictatorship,  and 
assassination;  the  restoration  of  the  senatorial  oligarchy; 
the- second  triumvirate,  composed  of  Antony,  Lepidus,  and 
Octavian;  the  overthrow  of  the  oligarchy  at  Philippi;  the 
struggle  between  Antony  and  Octavian;  the  triuinoh  of  the 
latter,  and  his  investment  with  absolute  power  for  life  B.C. 
29,  which  put*an  end  at  least  to  the  civil  dissensions  that 
had  raged  so  long  (and  was  therefore  so  far  a  blessing  to 
the  state) — for  these,  see  the  titles  last  referred  to,  above. 

The  Roman  Empire. — When  Augustus  had  gathered 
up  into  himself  all  the  civil  and  military  powers  of  the 
state,  its  political  life  was  at  an  end;  henceforth  the  voices 
of  the  citizens  are  dumb,  and  only  the  rude  clamor  of  the 
legions  or  the  Pretorians  (q.v.)  is  heard,  as  emperors  rise 
and  fall.  It  is,  indeed,  amazing  to  consider  how  long 
brute  force  managed  to  keep  down  the  elements  of  anarchy 
and  dissolution  in  the  empire;  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  it  was  the  East  that  ruined  Rome,  and  not  Rome  the 
East.  Even  in  the  worst  days  of  the  republic,  the  Roman 
administrators  of  the  provinces  were  acknowledged  to  be 
less  unjust,  ravenous,  tyrannical,  and  cruel  than  the  native 
princes  and  sultans;  and  the  servile  myriads  of  Asia  Mi  nor 
and  Syria  witnessed  the  deposition  of  their  dynasts  without 
a  shadow  of  regret — sometimes  even  with  a  cry  of  joy. 
The  Romans  had  therefore  comparatively  little  difficulty 
in  retaining  and  even  increasing  their  eastern  conquests, 
while  the  superior  discipline  of  their  well-trained  soldiery 
enabled  them  to  repel  and  subdue  even  the  intrepid  barba- 
rians of  tilt1  north,  though  singly  these  were  probably  more 


ROME. 


gallant  men  than  the  rank  and  file  of  the  imperial  legions. 
But  no  military  prowess,  however  great,  will,  beyond  a 
certain  time,  serve  to  keep  a  nation  alive  that  is  otherwise 
moribund;  and  even  Christianity,  with  all  its  antiseptic  and 
revivifying  influences,  came  too  late  to  reanimate  the 
national  life  of  the  empire.  When  Augustus  died,  a.d.  14, 
the  Roman  empire  was  separated  in  the  north  from  Ger- 
many by  the  Rhine,  but  it  included  both  Holland  and 
Friesland;  from  about  "the  Lake  of  Constance  it  extended 
along  the  Danube  to  lower  Mcesia,  though  the  imperial 
authority  was  far  from  being  firmly  established  there.  In 
the  east,  the  boundary-line  was,  in  general,  the  Euphrates. 
In  the  south,  Egypt,  Libya,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  of  n. 
Africa,  as  far  w.  as  Morocco,  and  as  far  inland  as  Fezzan 
and  the  Sahara,  acknowledged  Roman  authority.  The 
Roman  franchise  was  extended  to  transmarine  communities, 
and  in  the  w.  provinces  especially  it  became  quite  common. 
To  keep  this  enormous  territory,  containing  so  many 
different  races,  quiet,  an  army  of  47  legions  and  as  many 
cohorts  was  maintained,  most  of  whom  were  levied  among 
the  newly  admitted  burgesses  of  "the  w.  provinces.  The 
reigns  of  Tiberius  (q.v.),  Caligula  (q.v.),  Claudius  (q.v.), 
Nero  (q.v.),  Galba  (q.v.),  Otho(q.v.),  and  Vitellius  (q  v.), 
present  little  of  moment  in  a  general  survey  of  the  exter- 
nal history  of  the  empire,  though  the  chronicle  of  their 
lives — those  of  Galba  and  Otho  perhaps  excepted — has  all 
the  horrible  and  revolting  interest  that  attaches  to  records 
of  conspiracy,  assassinations,  poisonings,  massacres,  lust, 
debauchery,  and  delirious  madness.  The  most  notable  in- 
cident of  this  period  is  probably  the  concentration  of  the 
Pretorian  Guards  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome  during  the  reign 
of  Tiberius,  which  Niebuhr  even  pronounces  '  the  most 
momentous  event  in  the  history  of  the  emperors;'  and  not 
without  reason,  for,  until  their  dissolution  by  Diocletian, 
they  were  the  real  sovereigns  of  the  empire.  In  Nero's 
time,  Armenia  was  wresfed  from  the  Parthians,  and 
restored  to  them  only  on  condition  of  their  holding  it  as  a 
'  fief  of  the  empire;  the  Roman  authority  in  England  was 
likewise  extended  as  far  north  as  the  Trent;  and  a  great 
rebellion  in  Gaul  (not,  however,  against  Rome,  but  only 
against  Nero),  headed  by  Julius  Vindex,  a  noble  Aquita- 
nian  and  a  Roman  senator,  was  crushed  by  T.  Virginius 
Rufus,  commander  of  the  Germanic  legions.  During  the 
profound  peace  that  the  empire  had  enjoyed  everywhere, 
except  on  its  frontiers — since  the  usurpation  of  the  impe- 
rial authority — its  material  prosperity  had  greatly  increased. 
The  population  was  more  than  doubled;  the  towns  became 
filled  with  inhabitants,  and  the  wastes  were  peopled, 
wherever,  at  least,  the  Publicani  (q.v.),  or  farmers-general, 
had  not  got  the  land  into  their  rapacious  hands;  but  the 
immorality  of  the  rich,  especially  among  the  women,  be- 
came yet  worse  than  before,  and  virtuous  men  actually 
preferred  concubinage  with  a  slave,  to  marriage  with  a 
free-born  Roman  lady. 

With  the  accession*  of  Vespasian  (q.v.)  a  better  era  com- 
merced, which,  if  we  except  ihc  rqtrn  of  ppmftian,  OOP- 


ROME. 

tinned  uninterrupted  for  100  years,  comprising  the  reigns, 
besides  those  mentioned,  of  Titus  (q.v.),  Nerva  (q.v.),  Tra- 
jan (q. v.),  Hadrian  (q.v.),  Antoninus  Pius  (q.v.),  andMarcus 
Aurelius  (q.v.).  These  all  were  men  of  fine  and  honorable 
character — some,  e.g.,  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Marcus  Aure- 
lius, were  really  illustrious  rulers,  worthy  of  the  best  days 
of  Rome.  Under  all  of  them  the  provinces  were  better 
governed,  the  finances  better  administered,  and  public 
morals  wonderfully  improved.  Nothing,  indeed,  is  more 
clear  than  that,  after  the  time  of  Vespasian,  that  restaura- 
tor  rei publicce,  as  he  has  been  justly  called,  the  worst  days 
of  Rome  (in  a  moral  point  of  view)  were  over.  Never 
again  did  she  give  way  to  the  horrible  sensuality,  gluttony, 
and  profligacy  of  the  1st  c.  Bad  emperors  she  had,  as  well 
as  good,  but  they  did  not  again  succeed  in  corrupting 
their  age.  Blood,  indeed,  was  shed  freely  enough,  hostili- 
ties on  the  frontiers  were  as  frequent  as  ever,  and  the  vio- 
lence and  selfishness  of  military  ambition  were  things  that 
paganism  had  neither  the  care  nor  the  power  to  quell;  but 
the  wild  abyss  of  anarchy  into  which  the  empire  latterly 
fell  is  less  dreadful  than  the  saturnalia  of  vice  that  filled  the 
soul  of  Juvenal  with  indignation  in  the  days  of  Domitian. 
How  far  the  change  was  due  to  the  influence  of  the  ever- 
extending  Christian  religion,  it  is  impossible  to  tell;  but 
that  Christianity  did  send  a  reinvigorating  breath  of  new 
life  through  the  old  decaying  body  of  the  state  is  beyond 
dispute,  and  is  written  on  the  very  face  of  the  history  of 
the  first  Christian  centuries.  The  chief  military  events, 
from  the  days  of  Vespasian  to  those  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
are  the  final  conquest  of  Britain  by  Agricola  (q.v.),  the 
final  conquest  of  the  Dacian  monarchy,  the  victorious 
invasion  of  Parthia  and  of  n.  Arabia;  and  the  conquest  of 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  as  far  south  as  Upper  Nubia,  by 
Trajan;  the  chastisement  of  the  Marcomanni,  Quadi, 
Chatti,  etc.,  by  Marcus  Aurelius.  Hadrian's  long  rule  of 
21  years  was  peaceful,  and  is  memorable  as  the  most 
splendid  era  of  Roman  architecture.  The  reigns  of  Corn- 
modus  (q.v.),  Pertinax  (q.v.),  and  Didius  Julianus  (q.v.) 
were  insignificant,  except  so  far  as  they  show  the  wretched 
confusion  into  which  the  administration  of  affairs  inevi- 
tably fell  when  bad,  or  hated,  or  feeble  rulers  were 
invested  with  the  purple.  Able  generals,  respectable 
jurists,  honorable  senators,  are  not  lacking,  but  their  influ- 
ence is  personal  and  local.  The  reign  of  Septimius 
Severus,  a.d.  193-211,  is  memorable  as  marking  the  first 
real  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  emperors  toward  Chris- 
tianity. The  new  religion  was  beginning  to  make  itself  felt 
in  the  state;  and  Severus,  who  was  a  Carthaginian,  while 
his  wife  was  a  Syrian,  may  have  felt  special  interest  in  a 
faith  that,  like  themselves,  was  of  Semitic  origin.  At  all 
events,  it  was  taken  under  imperial  protection,  and  began  to 
make  rapid  way.  Caracalla  (q.v.)  and  Elagabalus  (q;v.) 
are  perhaps  the  worst  of  all  the  emperors  in  criminality; 
but  the  mad  brutality  of  the  one  and  the  monstrous  debauch- 
ery of  the  other  were  purely  personal  affairs,  and  were 
regarded  with  horror  by  the  citizens  of  tjie  empire.  The 


HOME. 


reign  of  Alexander  Severus  is  marked  by  the  dawnfall  of 
the  Parthian  dynasty  of  Persian  kings,  and  the  rise  of  the 
native  Sassanidse  (q.v.),  which,  as  Niebuhr  observes,  'was 
one  of  the  unluckiest  things  that  could  have  happened  to 
the  Roman  empire,'  for  the  latter  proved  far  more  formid- 
able enemies  than  the  Parthian  rulers.  After  the  assas- 
sination of  Sevecus  (235)  followed  a  period  of  confusion, 
bloodshed,  and  general  mismanagement.  The  names  of 
Maximin  (q.v.),  Maximus  (q.v.),  Balbinus  (q.v.),  Gordianus 
(q.v.),  and  Philip  (q.v.),  recall  nothing  but  wretched  quar- 
rels, often  ending  in  assassination.  Then  followed  '  the 
beginning  of  the  end.'  The  whole  of  Europe  beyond  the 
Roman  frontier — the  mysterious  North — began  to  ferment. 
The  Franks  showed  themselves  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  the 
Swabians  on  the  Maine;  while  the  Goths  burst  through 
Dacia,  routed  the  forces  of  Decius  (q.v.),  and  slew  the 
emperor  himself  at  Mount  Hsemus,  crossed  the  Euxine, 
and  ravaged  the  whole  northern  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  A 
little  later — during  the  reigns  of  Valerian  (q.v.),  Gallienusv 
and  the  so-calk  d  Thirty  Tyrants — the  empire  was  nothing 
but  a  wild  distracted  chaos,  Franks,  Alemanni,  Goths, 
and  Persians  rushing  in  from  their  respective  quar- 
ters, like  vultures  scenting  prey.  The  Goths  swept 
over  the  whole  of  Achaia,  pillaging  and  burning 
the  most  famous  cities — Athens,  Corinth.  Argos,  etc. , 
while  the  Asiatic  hordes  of  Sapor  committed  even  greater 
havoc  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor;  and  but  for  the  courage 
and  skill  of  Odenathus,  husband  of  Zenobia  (q.v.),  who 
had  built  up  a  strong  independent  kingdom  in  the  Syrian 
desert,  with  Palmyra  for  its  capital,  might  have  perma- 
nently possessed  themselves  of  the  regions  which  they 
merely  devastated.  With  Claudius  Gothicus  (268-270), 
the  fortunes  of  the  empire  once  more  brightened.  By  him, 
and  his  successors  Aurelian  (q.v.),  Probus  (q.v.),  and 
Cams,  the  barbarians  of  the  north  and  northwest,  as  well 
as  the  Persians  in  the  east,  were  severely  chastised.  Nay, 
when  Diocletian  obtained  the  purple  (284),  it  seemed  as  if 
the  worst  were  over,  and  the  empire  might  still  be  rescued 
from  destruction;  but  his  division  of  the  empire  into  East 
and  West,  with  separate  Augusti  and  assistant  Casars — 
though  it  sprang  from  a  clear  perception  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  one  man  administering  successfully  the  affairs  of 
so  vast  a  state — led  to  those  labyrinthine  confusions  and 
civil  wars  in  which  figure  the  names  of  Maximian  (q.v.), 
Constantius  (see  Const  an  tine),  Galerius  (q.v.),  Maxen- 
tius  (q.v.),  Maximin  (q.v.),  Licinius  (q.v.),  and  Constan- 
tine,  and  which  were  brought  to  a  close  only  by  the  sur- 
passing genius  of  the  last-mentioned.  Under  Constantine 
(324-337)  occurred  the  great  revolution  in  Roman  history 
— the  establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the 
state.  He  also  transferred  the  seat  of  government  from  R. 
t©  Byzantium,  on  the  Bosporus,  where  he  founded  a  new 
city,  and  named  it  Constantinople,  after  himself.  But  no 
sooner  was  the  great  statesman  dead  than  the  mutinous 
discords  that  he  had  kept  down  by  the  vigor  of  his  rule 
broke  loose;  the  empire  underwent  a  triple  division  among 


HOME. 

his  sods;  and  though  Constantius,  the  youngest,  ere  long 
became  sole  ruler,  he  lacked  the  genius  of  his  father,  and 
in  his  repeated  campaigns  against  the-  Persians  reaped 
nothing  but  disaster  and  disgrace.  But  the  political  for- 
tunes of  the  empire  now  possess  only  a  secondary  interest; 
it  is  the  struggles  of  the  Christian  sects  and  the  rise  of  the 
Catholic  Church  that  mainly  attract  the  attention  of  the 
historian.  There,  at  least,  we  behold  the  signs  of  new  life 
—a  zeal,  enthusiasm,  and  inward  strength  of  soul  that  no 
barbarism  could  destroy.  Christianity  came  too  late  to 
save  the  ancient  civilization,  but  it  enabled  the  Roman 
world  to  endure  three  centuries  of  utter  barbarism,  and 
afterward  to  recover  a  portion  of  the  inheritance  of  culture 
that  it  once  seemed  to  have  lost  forever.  Julian's  attempt 
to  revive  paganism  was  a  lamentable  anachronism,  but 
his  efforts,  when  governor  of  Gaul  under  his  kinsman 
Constantius,  to  repel  the  incessant  incursions  of  the  Franks 
and  Alemanui,  showed  a  fine  valor  and  generalship,  and 
were  successful.  The  judgment  of  the  poet  Prudentius 
on  *  the  apostate  '  is  that  of  posterity: 

Perfidus  ille  Deo,  sed  non  et  perfidus  orbi. 
But  after  the  death  of  Julian,  the  signs  of  the  ap- 
proaching dissolution  of  the  empire  became  more  un- 
mistakable. Yet  the  great  state  seemed  loath  to  die; 
and  again  and  again  in  her  death-agony,  she  put  forth 
a  momentary  strength  that  amazed  her  foes,  and  taught 
them  that  even  the  expiring  struggles  of  a  giant  were 
to  be  feared.  Valentinian  (q.v.),  Gratian  (q.v.),  and 
Theodosius  (q.v.),  were  rulers  worthy  of  better  times. 
The  last-mentioned  is  even  known  to  history  as  '  the  Great.' 
But  they  fought  against  destiny,  and  their  labor  was  in 
vain.  Already  swarms  of  ferocious  Huns  (q.v.)  from  the 
east  had  driven  the  Goths  out  of  Dacia,  where  they  had 
long  been  settled,  and  forced  them  to  cross  the  Danube 
into  the  Roman  territory,  where  the  cruelty  and  oppression 
of  the  imperial  officers  goaded  the  refugees  into  insurrec- 
tion; and  in  their  fury  they  devastated  the  whole  east  from 
the  Adriatic  to  the  Euxine.  Theodosius  indeed  subdued 
and  even  disarmed  them;  but  he  could  not  prevent  them 
from  drawing  nearer  to  the  heart  of  the  empire,  and  al- 
ready they  are  found  scattered  over  all  Mcesia,  Servia,  and 
northern  Illyricum.  Hardly  was  Theodosius  dead  when 
they  rose  again,  under  their  chief,  Alaric  (q.v.),  against 
Honorius,  Emperor  of  the  West.  '  Rome  was  saved  (for  the 
moment)  only  by  the  splendid  bravery  and  skill  of  Stilicho 
(q.v.),  the  imperial  general;  but  after  his  assassination,  the 
barbarians  returned,  sacked  the  city  (410),  and  ravaged 
the  peninsula.  Three  years  earlier,  hordes  of  Suovi,  Bur- 
gundians,  Alemanni,  Vandals,  and  Alans  burst  Into  Gaul 
(where  the  native  Celts  had  long  been  largely  i 'organized 
in  language  and  habits),  overran  the  whob,  one.  Lhon  pen- 
etrated into  Spain,  where  a  Vandal  empire  war;  rapidly  set 
up.  It  is  utterly  impossible  (within  our  limits)  to  explain 
the  chaotic  imbroglio  that  followed  in  the  Vest — the 
struggles  between  Visigoths  and  Vandals  in  Spain,  be- 
tween Romans  and  both,  between  usurpers  of  the  purple 


St.  Jeter's.  Atouie— Interior* 


ROME. 

and  loyal  generals  in  Gaul— the  fatal  rivalries  of  those 
otherwise  noble  and  gifted  men — Boniface,  governor 
{comes)  of  Africa,  and  ^Etius,  governor  of  Gaul— which  led 
to  the  invasion  of  Africa  by  Genseric  (q.v.),  and  its  devas- 
tation from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Carthage  (429). 
While  this  was  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  West,  that  in  the 
East  was  no  better.  There  the  Huns,  from  mere  love  of 
havoc,  had  reduced  vast  regions  to  an  utter  desert;  for 
nearly  50  years,  indeed,  the  little  ferocious  demons  had 
rioted  in  destruction.  At  last,  a  trivial  quarrel  sent 
them  into  Gaul;  but  somewhere  in  Champagne,  they  were 
routed  with  great  slaughter  (451)  by  a  combined  force  of 
Visigoths,  Burgundians,  Franks,  and  Roman  mercenaries, 
under  iEtius  and  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Goths;  and  in 
spite  of  their  successful  invasion  of  Italy  in  the  following 
year,  their  strength  was  permanently  broken,  and  thence- 
forth they  bore  an  insignificant  part  in  history.  But 
iEtius,  the  only  man^who  could  have  decently  propped  up 
the  wretched  ruin  called  the  Western  Empire,  was  assassi- 
nated by  his  contemptible  sovereign  Valentinian,  whose 
own  outrages  led  to  his  murder  too;  while  his  widow, 
Eudoxia,  to  be  revenged  on  his  murderer  and  successor, 
Petronius  Maximus,  invited  Genseric,  the  '  scourge  of  God/ 
over  from  Africa,  and  exposed  Rome  to  the  horrors  of 
pillage  for  14  days.  Ricimer  (q.v.),  a  Sueve,  next  figures 
as  a  sort  of  governor  of  the  city,  and  what  relics  of  empire 
it  still  possessed;  for  Gaul,  Britain,  Spain,  w.  Africa,  and 
the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  all  had  been  wrested  from 
it.  While  Majorian — the  last  able  emperor — lived,  Rici- 
mer's  position  was  a  subordinate  one,  but,  thenceforth,  the 
western  emperor  was  an  emperor  merely  in  name — a  roi 
faineant — while  the  real  sovereignty  was  exercised  by  this 
Suevic  Maire  du  Palais,  who  was  succeeded  in  his  func- 
tions by  the  Burgundian  king  Eunobald,  and  the  latter 
again  by  Orestes,  in  whose  time  the  final  catastrophe  hap- 
pened, when  Odoacer  (q.v.),  placing  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  barbarian  mercenaries  of  the  empire,  overthrew  the 
last,  and  the  most  ridiculous,  occupant  of  the  throne  of  the 
Caesars  (476),  who,  by  a  curious  coincidence,  bore  the  same 
name  as  the  mythical  founder  of  the  city— Romulus. — See 
besides  the  ancient  histories  of  Polybius,  Livy,  Sallust, 
Tacitus,  etc  ,  the  modern  histories  of  Gibbon,  Niebuhr, 
Arnold,  Meiivale,  Duruy,  Mommsen,  and  Ihne. 

ROME:  city,  capital  of  ancient  Italy;  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tiber,  about  16  m.  from  the  Mediterranean.  The 
legend  of  its  origin  belongs  to  Roman  history:  see  Rome 
— '  general  term  for  the  territory/  etc.  Romulus.  It  was 
built  at  first  in  the  form  of  a  square  (Roma  Quadrata),  and 
gradually  extended,  until,  in  the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius, 
it  embraced  one  after  another  the  famous  seven  hills — the 
Palatine,  Capitoline,  Quirinal,  Cielian,  Aventine,  Yiminal, 
and  Esquiline.  Servius  Tullius  (according  to  the  legend) 
so  extended  the  Pornairiam  as  to  make  the  sacred  inclosure 
of  the  city  identical  with  its  walls.  After  its  first  destruc- 
tion, B.C.  390,  by  the  Gauls,  it  was  hastily  rebuilt  without 
respect  to  order,  and  w  ith  narrow  irregular  streets.    At  the 


ROME. 

close  of  the  wars  against  Carthage,  Macedonia,  and  Syria, 
public  buildings  and  private  houses  of  great  architectural 
beauty  were  added;  and  under  Augustus,  similar  im- 
provements were  made,  while  the  mean  and  narrow  streets 
were  allowed  to  stand.  In  the  reign  of  JNero,  a.d.  64, 
two-thirds  of  the  city  were  destroyed  by  fire,  a  catastrophe 
which  furnished  that  emperor  with  the  opportunity  of 
gratifying  his  architectural  predilections,  in  widening  and 
straightening  the  streets,  and  in  restricting  the  height  of 
the  houses,  of  which  a  certain  part  was  built  of  fireproof 
stone  from  Gabii  and  Alba— which  achievement  has  been 
made  the  basis  of  recent  futile  attempts  to  rehabilitate  his 
reputation.  Although  it  had  long  outgrown  the  limits 
prescribed  by  Servius  Tullius,  still  the  walls  of  that  king 
marked  the  extent  of  Rome,  properly  so  called,  till  the  3d 
c.  after  Christ.  Under  Aurelian,  however,  the  need  of 
fortifications  led  to  the  construction  of  new  walls,  which 
took  in  the  city  of  Servius  Tullius  with  all  the  suburbs, 
such  as  the  Mous  Janiculus  on  the  right  of  the  Tiber,  and 
the  Pincian  on  the  left.  These  walls,  begun  271,  were 
completed  by  the  next  emperor,  Probus,  were  11  m.  in  cir- 
cumference, and  were  afterward  restored  by  Honorius,  and 
partially  rebuilt  by  Belisarius. 

Extent  and  Population  of  Home. — Under  Servius  Tullius, 
the  walls  were  seveu  m.  in  circumference,  but  the  space 
which  they  comprised  was  not  entirely  occupied  by  build- 
ings. Under  Aurelian,  the  new  walls  were  11  m.  in  cir- 
cumference, and  the  city  went  on  extending  until  it 
reached  a  circumference  of  13  m.  under  Vespasian.  The 
population  at  any  given  period  cannot  be  exactly  deter- 
mined. According  to  the  Monumentum  Ancyranum,  the 
plebs  urbana  under  Augustus  amounted  to  320,000;  with 
the  addition  of  women,  senators,  and  knights,  the  inhabi- 
tants must  have  numbered  about  650,000;  while  the  slaves, 
who  cannot  have  been  less  numerous  than  the  free  popu- 
lation, must  have  given  an  aggregate  of  at  least  1,300,000. 
Considering  the  enlargement  of  the  city  under  Vespasian, 
we  may  safely  consider  its  population  as  not  less  than  two 
millions  in  his  reign. 

The  Walls  and  Gates. — The  first  wall,  that  attributed  to 
Romulus,  embraced  merely  the  Palatine,  and  was  pierced 
by  three  gates.  The  larger  wall  of  Servius  Tullius  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  continuous,  but  only  to  have  con- 
nected the  seven  hills  by  fortifications  drawn  across  the 
narrow  valleys  intervening:  according  to  Pliny,  there  Were 
37  gates  in  this  wall.  Subsequent  to  the  walls  of  Servius 
were  those  of  Aurelian,  which,  except  the  part  beyond  the 
Tiber,  are  the  same  as  those  which  surround  the  modern 
city.  They  were  divided  by  14  gates.  The  Tiber  was 
crossed  by  eight  bridges. 

In  the  interior  of  the  city  were  several  open  spaces  of 
ground  paved  with  stones,  which  were  used  as  places  of 
business  or  as  market-places,  and  were  called  for  a  (see 
Forum).  Besides  these,  there  were  other  open  spaces  of 
much  larger  extent,  which  were  grass-grown,  and  set  with 
trees  and  works  of  art.    Of  these,  called  campi,  and  used 


ROME. 

by  the  people  in  their  exercises  and  amusements,  the  chief 
was  the  Campus  Martius.  Surrounding  these  fora  and 
campi  were  the  private  and  public  buildings  of  Rome, 
which  were  arranged  in  streets  and  districts.  The  chief 
street  was  the  celebrated  Via  Sacra,  remains  of  which  are 
still  seen  in  the  Forum  of  modern  Rome. — Rome  contained 
no  fewer  than  400  temples,  -the  oldest  being  the  temple  of 
the  Feretrian  Jupiter,  on  the  Capitoline,  built,  according 
to  tradition,  by  Romulus,  and  restored  by  Augustus.  The 
most  famous  in  history,  and  the  most  magnificent  in 
architecture,  was  the  Capitolium,  on  the  summit  of  the 
Capitoline  (see  Capitol).  The  only  other  temple  requir- 
ing special  mention  was  the  Pantheon  (q. v.),  built  by 
Agrippa  b.c.  27:  it  is  stiil  standing. — For  other  striking 
features  of  the  ancient  city,  see  Circus:  Amphitheatre; 
Bath:  Basilica. 

Rome  abounded  in  covered  walks,  supported  by  columns, 
and  open  on  one  side.  These  were  known  as  porticus,  and 
were  frequented  for  recreation,  or  transaction  of  business. 
They  were  in  many  cases  adorned  with  paintings  and 
other  works  of  art,  and  furnished  with  libraries. — More 
peculiar  to  ancient  Rome,  however,  were  the  triumphal 
arches:  see  Arch,  Triumphal. — The  great  prison  of  R 
was  the  Career  Mamertinus,  built  by  Ancus  Martius  on 
the  slope  of  the  Capitoline,  winch  overhangs  the  Forum. 
Servius  Tullius  added  to  it  a  subterranean  dungeon,  12  ft 
underground,  walled  and  arched  over  with  masonry.— 
There  were  also  the  barracks  {castra),  such  as  the  Castra 
Pretoria,  built  by  Emperor  Tiberius  for  the  imperial 
guards;  and  the  Castra  Peregrina,  where  the  foreign 
troops  were  quartered;  the  aqueducts  (see  Aqueduct);  and 
the  sewers  (see  Cloaca  Maxima). 

Rome  abounded  also  in  palaces  (palatia).  Of  these,  the 
Palatium,  or  imperial  palace,  fronting  the  Forum,  was  so 
enlarged  by  Augustus,  that,  from  being  the  private  house 
of  Hortensius  the  orator,  it  became  the  imperial  residence. 
Nero  built  two  still  more  splendid  palaces,  one  which  cov- 
ered the  whole  Palatine  Hill  and  part  of  the  Esquiline,  and 
was  burned  down  in  the  great  fire;  and  one  which  replaced 
the  other.  Many  of  the  private  palaces  also  were  on  a 
magnificent  scale. — On  the  hills  around  the  city  were  laid 
out  horti,  or  parks  and  gardens,  adorned  with  handsome 
buildings  and  works  of  art. — The  city  was  rich  also  in 
sepulchral  monuments.  See  Roman  Architecture.— In 
addition  to  these  imperial  or  private  mausolea,  columns 
were  erected  to  the  more  illustrious  of  the  Romans,  e.g., 
the  CoUimna  Rostrata,  in  honor  of  the  consul  C.  Duilius 
for  his  victory  over  the  Carthaginian  fleet;  the  Columna 
Trajani,  in  the  Forum;  and  the  Columna  Antonini  Pii,  in 
the  Campus  Martius. — Obelisks  (q.v.),  mostly  transported 
from  Egypt,  occupied  prominent  parts  of  the  city.  Since 
R.  has  again  become  the  capital  of  Italy,  extensive  exca- 
vations among  the  ruins  have  been  made  on  a  systematic 
plan,  and  with  interesting  results. 


"Rome,  the  modern  city,  cap.  of  Italy,  occupies  the  plain 


ROME. 

on  each  side  of  the  Tiber,  and  the  slopes  of  the  seven  hills. 
Its  geographical  position  at  the  Observatory  of  the  Collegio 
Romano  is  lat.  41°  53'  52"  n.,  long.  12°  28'  40"  e. ;  its  height 
above  sea- level  on  the  Tiber,  under  the  ^Elian  Bridge,  Is 
20  feet. 

The  city  is  built  on  marshy  ground,  and  is  divided  by 
the  Tiber  into  two  very  unequal  parts,  that  on  the  left 
bank  being  Rome  proper,  and  that  on  the  right  bank  being 
the  Leonine  city,  or  Trastevere.  Its  walls,  12  m.  in  cir- 
cuit, with  16  gates,  of  which  four  are  built  up,  inclose  a 
space  of  which  little  more  than  one-third  is  inhabited,  the 
greater  part  to  the  s.  of  the  Capitol  being  cultivated  as 
gardens  or  vineyards.  The  site  of  the  ancient  Campus 
Martius  constitutes  the  lower  and  most  densely  populated 
part  of  the  town,  in  which  all  the  trade  is  carried  on.  Its 
central  part  is  crossed  by  the  Corso,  a  street  about  one  mile 
long,  running  from  the  Piazza  del  Popolo,  or  great  north- 
ern entrance  of  the  city,  to  the  Palazzo  di  Venezia,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Capitol.  From  the  Piazza  del  Popolo— a  hand- 
some open  space,  with  an  obelisk  from  the  Temple  of  the 
Sun  at  Heliopolis  in  the  middle— branch  out,  to  the  right 
and  left  of  the  Corso,  the  Piazza  di  Spagua,  favorite  quarter 
of  foreigners,  and  the  Ripetta.  More  than  half-way  up 
the  Corso,  and  to  the  right,  runs  the  wide  street  or  Strada 
del  Gesu,  leading  to  the  noble  church  and  convent  of  that 
name,  chief  residence  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits.  On 
either  side  of  the  Corso,  the  buildings  are  regular  and  sub- 
stantial, and  consist  of  palaces,  such  as  the  Borghese,  the 
Ruspoli,  the  Ghigi,  and  others,  besides  many  churches. 
Between  the  Corso  and  the  Tiber,  to  the  w.,  the  streets  are 
irregular,  densely  peopled  with  inferior  tradesmen,  and 
consisting  mainly  of  market-places,  shops,  and  dwellings 
of  a  i.ow  class.  In  this  quarter  is  the  University  La  Sapi- 
enza.  between  which  and  the  Corso  is  the  Rotunda  or 
Pantheon.  South  of  Ponte  Sisto,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  and  winding  round  the  w.  base  of  the  Capitol  to 
the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  is  the  Ghetto,  or  Jews'  Quarter, 
consisting  of  narrow  dirty  alleys,  with  rows  of  high  old 
houses.  Still  further  s.,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber, 
runs  a  series  of  narrow  streets  as  far  as  the  Palatine,  con- 
taining some  of  the  oldest  churches  in  Rome — e.g.,  Santa 
Maria  in  Cosmedin,  built  in  the  3d  c.  Beyond  this  extend 
s  e.  the  Aveutine,  Palatine,  and  Caeliau  hills,  covered  witl* 
gardens,  vineyards,  and  orchards,  besides  churches,  con 
vents,  and  ruins.  At  the  e.  extremity  of  the  Coeliau  stand* 
the  magnificent  Basilica  of  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano. 
South  of  the  Aventine,  and  between  it,  the  river,  and  the 
walls,  are  the  Prati  del  Popolo  Romano,  forming  part  of  a 
large  low-lying  cultivated  tract.  Near  the  Prati  is  the 
Protestant  Cemetery. 

On  the  slope  of  the  Pincian  and  Quirinal  hills,  and  cov- 
ering part  of  the  plateau  which  joins  all  the  e.  hills  of  Rome, 
lies  the  upper  town,  consisting  mainly  of  palaces,  villas, 
churches,  convents,  and  other  buildings  on  a  large  scale. 
It  abounds  with  ample  courts  and  gardens,  and  is  crossed 
by  two  long  streets,  which  intersect  each  other  at  right 


ROME. 

angles  on  the  crest  of  the  Quirinal.  The  Pincian  is  laid 
out  in  line  walks,  the  favorite  promenade  of  the  Romans; 
while  between  the  Pincian  and  the  Quirinal  stands  the 
great  Barberini  Palace.  On  the  summit  of  the  Quirinal  is 
the  famous  pontifical  palace  and  garden;  and  in  the  square 
before  the  palace  are  the  two  colossal  statues  of  Castor  and 
Pollux,  with  their  horses,  whence  the  hill  receives  its  other 
name  of  Monte  Cavallo.  On  the  Esquiline,  which  here 
joins  the  Quirinal,  and  forms  the  e.  extremity  of  the  city, 
stands  the  magnificent  church  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore;  be- 
3^ond  it  to  then.,  e.,  and  s.,  the  Esquiline  is  entirely  cov- 
ered with  gardens,  villas,  and  fields,  with  here  and  there  a 
church.  The  principal  buildings  on  the  Capitol  are  three 
palaces,  the  work  of  Michael  Angelo,  which  form  three 
sides  of  a  square,  in  the  centre  of  which  stands  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus.  One  of  the  palaces 
is  the  Capitoline  Museum,  one  of  the  finest  collections  of 
statuary  and  sculpture  in  Italy. 

The  third  great  division  of  the  modern  city  lies  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river,  and  is  sub-divided  into  two  parts — 
the  Vatican  (otherwise  called  II  Borgo)  and  the  Traste* 
vere.  Divided  from  the  latter  by  an  inner  wall,  the  Borgo 
or  Leonine  city  occupies  the  space  between  the  bridge  of 
San  Angelo  and  the  Piazza  of  St.  Peter's.  Its  chief  build- 
ings are  the  palace  of  the  Vatican  (q.v.)  and  the  Basilica 
of  St.  Peter's  (q.v.).  Besides  the  Vatican  and  St.  Peter's, 
the  Leonine  city  contains  the  great  hospital  of  the  Santo 
Spirito,  which  accommodates  annually  13,500  patients, 
suffering  under  diseases  mental  or  bodily.  The  castle  of 
San  Angelo,  with  massive  circular  tower,  called  from  its 
founder  the  'Mole  of  Hadrian/  is  surrounded  with  ram- 
parts, ditches,  and  bastions,  mounted  with  cannon,  and 
forms  the  citadel  of  Rome. 

To  the  south  of  the  Borgo,  and  between  the  Janiculum 
and  the  Tiber,  is  the  Trastevere,  property  so  called.  The 
Janiculum,  a  straight  ridge,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  long 
from  n.  to  s.,  rises  .about  300  ft.  above  the  river.  The 
northern  half  of  its  length  is  occupied  by  the  long  street 
called  the  Lungara,  running  closely  parallel  to  the  Tiber, 
which,  at  the  s.  extremity  of  the  Lungara,  makes  a  bend 
to  the  e.,  and  bounds  the  greater  part  of  the  Trastevere 
district.  On  the  Janiculum  is  the  Villa  Spada,  near  the 
gate,  outside  of  which  is  the  Villa  Pamfili,  favorite  prom- 
enade of  the  Roman  youth.  On  the  same  hill,  the  foun- 
tain called  L'Aqua  Paola,  the  largest  in  Rome,  occupies 
a  commanding  site,  and,  as  seen  from  a  distance,  resembles 
a  triple  triumphal  arch,  through  which  streams  of  water 
rush. 

The  churches,  of  which  there  are  more  than  300,  form  a 
notable  feature  in  the  city,  from  their  architecture,  their 
paintings,  and  other  decorations.  So  also  are  the  palaces 
of  the  aristocracy,  often  of  great  magnitude,  with  vast 
courts  and  spacious  apartments.  Of  even  better  style  as 
residences  are  the  villas,  within  and  without  the  walls; 
while  the  handsome  fountains,  or  which  there  are  at  least 
12  principal  ones,  impart  a  cheerful  and  refreshing  aspect 


ROME. 


to  the  city.  There  are  three  modern  aqueducts,  which 
keep  the  city  supplied  with  abundance  of  water:  the 
Aqua  Vergine,  the  Aqua  Felice  (anc.  Aqua  Marcia  and 
Claudia),  and  the  Aqua  Paola  (anc.  Alsietina). 

Rome  is,  on  the  whole,  a  healthful  city,  except  at  the 
close  of  summer  and  the  beginning  of  autumn,  when  the 
malaria  is  prevalent,  and  fevers  are  often  fatal,  es- 
pecially to  strangers.  The  Trastevere  is  its  most  uni- 
formly healthful  district,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are 
superior  in  physical  development  to  those  of  the  other 
parts.  The  neighborhoods  of  the  Pincian  and  the  Quir- 
inal,  particularly  the  former,  are  most  frequented  by 
Englishmen.  The  trade  of  the  city  is  insignificant,  con- 
sisting of  a  few  small  manufactures  of  hats,  silk  scarfs, 
gloves,  artificial  feathers,  false  pearls,  mosaic  trinkets, 
etc.,  and  of  such  articles  as  artists  need  and  visitors 
fancy.  The  only  great  manufacture,  if  it  can  be  called 
so,  is  that  of  pictures,  original  and  copied;  for  the 
painting  of  these,  Rome  offers  not  only  the  advantages 
of  numerous  galleries  of  art,  but  also  purity  of  sky. 
The  worst  feature  of  R.  is  its  dirtiness. 

1870,  Oct.,  Rome,  with  the  rest  of  the  papal  territory, 
was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  is  now  the 
capital.  The  pope  retains  the  rights  of  a  sovereign 
within  the  Vatican.    Pop.  (1901)  462,783. 

ROME :  city,  cap.  of  Floyd  co.,  Ga. ;  on  the  Coosa  river, 
here  formed  by  the  Etowah  and  Oostenaula  rivers,  and 
on  the  East  Tennessee,  the  Virginia  and  Georgia,  the 
Rome  and  Carrollton,  the  Rome  and  Decatur,  and  the 
Rome  and  Northeastern  railroads;  65  m.  n.w.  of  Atlanta. 
The  city  has  a  picturesque  location,  numerous  public 
parks,  fine  driving- roads,  good  drainage,  excellent  water- 
supply,  and  large  grain,  grass,  lumber,  and  cotton  trade. 
The  manufacturing  industries  are  numerous  and  varied, 
the  annual  value  of  the  aggregate  products  being  about 
$2,000,000;  these  include  planing  mill  products,  manu- 
factured cotton,  hosiery,  leather,  stoves,  iron,  machinery, 
farming  implements,  scales,  furniture,  fertilizers,  brick, 
lime,  crates,  braces,  etc.  The  Etowah  and  Oostenaula 
rivers  are  spanned  by  several  fine  bridges,  and  are  navi- 
gable to  R.  The  educational  institutions  include  Shorter 
College  for  women  (cost  and  endowment  $170,000), 
Rome  Female  College  (founded  1845),  Young  Men's 
Library,  public  grammar  and  high  schools;  there  are 
also  a  Gynecological  Infirmary,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building, 
numerous  churches,  city  hall,  co.  court  house,  fine  post- 
office  building,  opera  house,  Masonic  temple,  banks,  etc. 
Pop.  (1900)  7,291. 


ROME— ROMFORD. 

ROME:  city  in  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y.;  at  junction  of  the 
Mohawk  and  Black  rivers,  on  the  Erie  canal,  and  on  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River,  the  New  York 
Ontario  and  Western,  and  the  Rome  Watertown  and  Og- 
densburg  railroads;  15  m.  n.w.  of  Utica,  110  m.  w.  of 
Albany.  It  is  a  noted  dairy  region,  427  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  is  laid  out  with  principal  streets  100  ft.  wide  and 
road-beds  65  ft.  wide,  is  ornamented  with  choice  elm  and 
maple  trees,  and  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Mo- 
hawk by  a  combined  system  of  reservoir  and  direct 
pumping.  The  system  of  associated  dairying,  now  usual 
in  extensive  cheese-making,  originated  here.  The  city 
contains  churches,  public  library,  free  acad.,  Central  N. 
Y.  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  with 
reading-room,  excellent  public  schools,  national,  savings, 
and  other  banking  institutions,  various  newspapers  and 
other  periodicals;  electric  street  railroads  connect  with 
the  rural  suburbs.  Besides  cheese,  the  manufactures 
include  railroad  and  puddled  iron,  mercantile  iron,  loco- 
motives, railroad  rolling-stock,  agricultural  implements, 
knit  goods,  lumber,  soap,  and  builders'  woodwork.  R. 
occupies  the  site  of  Fort  Stanwix,  built  1758,  during 
the  French  war,  at  a  cost  of  £60,000,  and  the  scene  of 
active  movements  during  the  revolutionary  war.  The 
locality  was  long  known  as  the  '  carrying  place,'  because, 
as  it  was  the  only  strip  of  land  that  prevented  a  contin- 
uous water-communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
great  lakes,  merchandise  had  to  be  carried  over  it.  The 
town  was  incorporated  1819,  the  city  chartered  1870. 
Pop.  (1900)  15,343. 

ROMEYN,  ro'mm,  John  Brodhead,  d.d.  :  1777,  Nov. 
8—1825,  Feb.  22;  b.  Marbletown,  N.  Y.  He  graduated 
from  Columbia  College  1795;  studied  theology;  was  pas- 
tor of  a  Dutch  Reformed  church  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y., 
1799;  of  one  at  Schenectady  1800-04;  and  of  a  Presb. 
church  at  Albany  1804-08.  In  the  latter  year  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Cedar  street,  New  York,  with 
which  he  remained  till  his  death.  He  was  prominent  in 
founding  the  theol.  seminary  at  Princeton,  was  a  popu- 
lar preacher,  and  declined  numerous  positions  of  honor. 
His  Sermons,  2  vols.,  were  pub.  1816. 

ROMFORD,  rum'ferd:  old  market-town,  county  of 
Essex,  England;  on  the  river  Bourne,  or  Rom,  12  m. 
e.n.e.  from  London,  on  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  The 
annual  horse-fair  commences  on  Midsummer  Day,  and 
lasts  three  days.  There  are  extensive  breweries  of  the 
famous  6  Romford  ale.'  Agricultural  implements  are 
largely  manufactured.    Pop.  13,650. 


HOMILLY. 


ROMILLY,  rmn'il-i,  Sir  Samuel:  English  lawyer  and 
law  reformer:  1757,  Mar.  1—1818,  Nov.  2;  descended  from 
a  family  of  French  Protestants,  who,  after  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  emigrated  to  England.  At  the  age 
of  16,  R.  was  articled  to  one  of  the  sworn  clerks  in  chan- 
cery; but  at  21  he  determined  to  go  to  the  bar,  and  entered 
himself  at  Gray  £  Inn.  At  first  he  made  little  progress; 
but  applied  himself  to  +he  study  of  criminal  law;  and  in 
1789,  hopeful,  like  man^  other  English  liberals,  of  the 
happy  effects  of  the  Frencii  Revolution,  he  published  a 
short  pamphlet  on  the  subject.  In  1792  and  95  he  de- 
clined a  seat  in  parliament.  In  1806  he  was  appointed 
solicitor-gen.  in  the  Greuville  administration.  He  unwill- 
ingly received  the  honor  of  knighthood;  but  the  king  hav- 
ing for  20  years  previously  knighted  all  his  attorneys  and 
solicitors-general  on  their  appointment,  would  take  no 
refusal.  He  was  afterward  returned  for  Queenborough, 
and  1807  for  Wareham.  He  then  gave  his  earnest  efforts 
to  ameliorate  the  barbarity  of  the  criminal  law,  proposed 
abolition  of  the  punishment  of  death  in  various  cases  of 
theft,  and  published  a  pamphlet  On  the  Criminal  Law  as 
It  Relates  to  Capital  Punishments.  His  bills  were,  session 
after  session,  opposed  by  the  government  of  the  day,  the 
judges,  and  many  of  the  bishops,  as  dangerous  innovations; 
but  R.  persevered,  and  lost  no  opportunity  of  protesting 
against  the  illogical  as  well  as  shocking  frequency  of  capi- 
tal punishments.  The  measures  that  he  proposed  for  miti- 
gating the  severity  of  the  criminal  law  were  mostly  carried 
by  others;  though  he  framed  two  or  three  acts  of  great 
importance.  He  was  active  in  the  anti-slavery  agitation, 
and  in  opposing  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act, 
the  spy  system,  and  the  despotic  acts  of  the  government. 
In  1818  he  was  spontaneously  chosen  by  the  electors  of 
Westminster  as  their  representative.  The  death  of  his 
wife  caused  him  a  grief  so  intense  that  it  preyed  upon  his 
mind — occurring  after  a  period  of  his  own  prolonged  men- 
tal exertion — and  three  clays  afterward  he  died  by  his  own 
hand.  He  had  at  this  time  attained  the  foremost  rank  at 
the  chancery  bar,  and  his  professional  gains  were  said  to 
average  £14,000  a  year.  His  death  excited  profound  sym- 
pathy, and  was  considered  a  public  calamity.  His  Speeches 
in  Parliament  have  been  published  in  two  vols.;  also  his 
Autobiography,  with  a  selection  from  his  Correspondence, 
admirably  edited  by  his  sons,  in  2  vols.  —  His  second  son, 
John,  Lord  Romilly  (d.  1874),  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, and  called  to  the  bar  at  Gray's  Inn  1827,  was  made 
solicitor-gen.  1848,  atty.gen.  1850,  master  of  the  rolls 
1851,  and  baron  1866.  As  master  of  the  rolls,  he  superin- 
tended the  publication  of  public  records  throwing  much 
Jight  on  English  history. 


ROMNEY— ROMULUS. 

ROMiV&Y,  rbm'ni,  George:  painter:  1784,  Tec.  15  — 
1802,  Nov.  5;  b.  England.  He  began  learning  the  trade 
ct  cabinet-maker,  but  was  so  successful  in  drawing  that  he 
was  allowed  to  study  portrait-painting.  In  1758  he  estab- 
lished himself  at  York;  went  to  London  4  years  later,  and 
soon  secured  a  prize  of  50  guineas  for  a  painting  of  the 
Death  of  Wolfe;  became  remarkably  successful  in  portrait- 
work;  studied  at  Roir  3and  other  art  centres;  and  reluming 
to  London,  became  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of  his 
time.  On  the  weakening  of  his  powers  by  age,  he  returned 
to  his  family  which  he  had  left  37  years  before,  and  had 
meanwhile  neglected.  His  mind  utterly  failed,  but  he 
lived  about  three  years.  Ill-feeling  toward  his  principal 
rival,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  prevented  him  from  ever  ex 
hibiting  his  works  at  the  Royal  Academy. 

ROMORANTIN,  ro-mo-rdng  taag :  small  town  of 
France,  dept.  of  Loir  et-Oher,  25  m.  s.e.  of  Blois.  At  the 
siege  of  this  town  by  the  Black  Prince  1 856,  artillery  is  said 
to  have  been  first  used.  Various  woolen  fabrics  arc  mauu 
factured.    Pop  (1881)  7,317. 

ROMP,  n.  romp  [another  spelling  of  Ramp,  which  gee: 
Ger.  rammeln,  to  sport  in  an  excited  manner:  Dut.  ram- 
melen,  to  rattle,  to  romp]:  a  young  person  of  unrestrained 
spirits;  a  girl  noisy  and  boisterous  in  play:  V.  to  play  in  a 
rude  and  boisterous  manner.  Romp 'ing,  imp. :  N.  act  of 
one  who  romps;  Adj.  boisterously  playful.  Romped,  pp. 
rompt.  Romp'ish,  a.  -ish,  given  to  boisterous  play;  inclined 
to  romp.  Romp  ishly,  ad.  -II.  Romp  ishness,  n.  -?ies, 
fut  quality  of  being  rompish;  disposition  to  rude  sport; 
rudeness. 

ROMPTJ,  rdm'pu,  in  Heraldry:  terra 
applied  to  a  chevron  when  the  upper  part 
is  taken  off,  and  remains  above  it  in  the 
held 

R  OMUL  U  S,  rom'il-lus:  mythical 
founder  of  the  eity  of  Rome;  appear- 
ing in  legend  as  the  son  of  Mars.  His 
name  is  only  a  lengthened  form  of 
Bompu.  Ron  his,  and  he  is  therefore  to  be  re- 
garded rather  as  a  symbolical  representation  of  the 
Roman  people  than  as  an  actual  individual,  like  ^Eolus, 
Dorus,  and  Ion,  eponymous  ancestors  respectively  of  the 
jEolians,  Dorians,  and  Ionians.  But  though  the  legend  of 
R  cannot  be  accepted  as  history  in  its  details  or  its  outlines. 
It  is  nevertheless  interesting  as  showing  how,  after  the 
lapse  of  years,  when  Rome  had  become  a  place  of  impor- 
tance, its  inhabitants  tried  to  conceive  a  probable  origin  for 
it.  The  usual  form  of  the  legend  of  R.  is  in  outline  as  fol- 
lows* At  Alba  Longa,  in  Latium,  there  had  ruled  for  cen- 
turies a  line  of  kings  descended  from  the  Trojan  prince 
^Eneas.  One  of  the  latest  of  these,  at  his  deaf  u.  left  the 
kingdom  to  his  eldest  son,  Numitor.  A  younger  son, 
Amulius,  dispossessed  Numitor,  murdered  his  only  son, 
and  compelled  his  only  daughter,  Silvia,  to  become  a  vestal 
virgin.  But  Silvia  having  become  the  mother  of  twins  by 
t£e  god  Mars,  his  fears  were  aroused,  and  he  placed  the 


BOMULUS. 

babes  in  a  trough,  which  he  cast  into  the  Anio,  whence  it 
was  carried  into  the  Tiber,  then  in  flood,  and  overspreading 
its  banks  far  and  wide.  The  trough  was  stranded  in  the 
marshes  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  where  Rome  afterward 
stood;  and  the  infants  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf  which 
carried  them  into  her  den,  near  at  hand;  also  a  woodpeckei 
brought  them  food.  Faustulus,  the  king's  shepherd,  hav- 
ing at  length  seen  this  marvellous  thing,  took  the  infant? 
home  to  his  wife,  Acca  Larentia,  and  brought  them  up 
with  his  own  children.  Growing  up,  the  two  boys  became 
chiefs  of  a  warlike  band  of  shepherds  on  the  Palatine;  and 
Remus,  one  of  the  twins,  was  taken  prisoner  in  a  strife 
with  his  grandfather  Numitor's  herdsmen.  Numitor  rec- 
ognized him  as  the  son  of  his  daughter  Silvia;  and  the 
twins  avenged  the  family  wrongs  by  slaying  Amulius,  and 
placing  their  grandfather  on  the  throne.  But  R.  and  his 
brother  removed  from  Alba  Longa  to  their  old  abode  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  and  resolved  to  build  a  city  there. 
The  Palatine  was  chosen  (by  augury)  for  the  site,  and  R., 
yoking  a  bullock  and  a  heifer  to  a  plowshare,  marked 
out  the  pomwrium,  or  boundary,  on  which  he  proceeded  to 
build  a  wall.  Remus,  despising  the  construction,  scorn- 
fully leaped  over  it  to  show  its  inadequacy  for  protection 
against  attack;  whereupon  R.  slew  him,  but  was  immedi- 
ately struck  with  remorse,  and  instituted  the  Lemuria,  or 
festival  for  the  souls  of  the  departed.  R.  then  erected  a 
4  sanctuary '  or  refuge  on  the  Capitoline  for  runaway  slaves 
and  homicides,  and  thus  he  soon  increased  the  number  of 
his  followers;  but  as  wives  were  much  wanted,  and  the 
neighboring  tribes  refused  to  supply  them,  R.  resorted  to 
stratagem:  this  led  to  the  celebrated  Rape  of  the  Sabine 
Women ,  which  wholesale  abduction  of  virgins  led  to  a  series 
of  wars,  in  which  R.  was  invariably  victorious,  until  Titus 
Tatius,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army  of  Sabines,  drove  him 
from  the  open  fields,  and  forced  him  to  take  refuge  in  his 
city  on  the  Palatine.  R.  had  garrisoned  the  Capitoline 
also,  but  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia,  daughter  of  the  lieuten- 
ant of  the  fort,  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  his  adversaries. 
Next  day,  in  a  fierce  battle  in  the  valley,  Sabines  and  Ro- 
mans fought  till  they  were  exhausted,  when  the  Sabine 
women  rushed  in  between  their  husbands  and  their  fathers, 
ind  implored  them  to  be  reconciled.  This  was  agreed  to; 
ind  they  resolved  to  unite  and  to  form  only  one  people — the 
followers  of  R.  dwelling  on  the  Palatine,  those  of  Titus 
Tatius  on  the  Capitoline  and  Quirinal.  On  the  death  of 
Titus  Tatius,  R.  became  sole  sovereign.  See  Rome— 
4  general  term  for  the  territory,'  etc.  The  legend  continues 
with  the  statement  that,  after  a  reign  or  37  years,  R. 
was  miraculously  removed  from  earth.  While  he  was 
standing  in  the  Campus  Martius,  reviewing  his  militia,  the 
sun  was  eclipsed,  and  a  dark  storm  swept  over  the  plain 
and  hills:  when  it  had  passed,  the  people  looked  round  for 
their  king,  but  he  was  gone:  his  father,  Mars,  had  carried 
him  into  the  sky  in  a  chariot  of  fire.  Afterward  R.  reap- 
peared to  Proculus  Julius,  and  predicted  a  great  future  for 
the  Roman  people,  whose  guardian  god,  under  the  name  of 
Vol.  32  —  15 


ROMULUB-AUGUSTULUS— RONCIGLIONE. 

Quirinus,  he  promised  to  be.  The  festival  of  the  Quiriualia 
(Feb.  17)  was  instituted  in  his  honor;  but  the  nones  ot 
Quintilis  (July  7)  was  the  day  on  which  he  was  believed  to 
have  departed  from  earth. 

ROM  ULUS  AUGUS  TULUS  :  see  Odoacer. 

RONALDSHAY,  rbn'ald-sha,  North  and  South:  two 
of  the  Orkney  Islands  (q. v.).  North  R.,  at  the  n.  extremity 
of  the  Orkneys,  has  3|  sq.  m.,  partly  under  tillage,  partly 
in  pasture.  Sea-birds  in  great  variety  frequent  the  coasts, 
and  lobsters  and  cod  are  fished.  Pop.  about  600. — South 
11 ,  washed  on  the  south  by  the  Pentland  Firth,  has  an  area 
of  about  20-J  sq.  m.  St.  Margaret's  Hope,  on  the  n.  coast, 
is  a  safe  and  convenient  harbor.  The  inhabitants  subsist 
mostly  by  fishing  for  cod  and  herrings.  Fop.  2,500. 

RONCESVALLES,  ron-se-vdl'les,  Sp.  ron-thes-vdl'yes : 
one  of  the  valleys  in  Navarre,  on  the  s.  side  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, about  20  m.  n.n.e.  of  Pamplona;  famous  in  song  and 
story  as  the  scene  of  a  defeat  of  Charlemagne's  army  by  a 
combined  force  of  Arabs,  Navarrese,  and  French  Gascons 
778.  Charlemagne,  allured  by  the  promise  of  the  feudal 
supremacy  of  Catalonia,  opened  a  campaign  in  aid  of  the 
viceroy  of  that  province,  against  the  Mohammedans.  With 
a  powerful  army  he  passed  the  Pyrenees,  penetrated  Na- 
varre, took  Pamplona,  the  capital,  and  levelled  the  walls  of 
the  city  with  the  ground.  Clearly  this  was  not  part  of  his 
programme  as  champion  of  the  Christian  religion  in  Spain; 
for  Pamplona  was  the  cap.  of  a  Christian  state,  and  it  is 
even  asserted  that  prior  to  870  Moors  had  not  been  ad- 
mitted within  its  walls.  Pressing  onward,  Ch&rlemagne 
subdued  a  great  part  of  the  country  between  the  Pyrenees 
and  the  Ebro;  but  on  his  return  northward,  while  threading 
the  defiles  of  the  mountains  near  R.,  his  rear-guard  was 
furiously  assailed  and  annihilated  by  a  mixed  force,  of 
which  a  body  of  Navarrese,  enraged  at  the  destruction  of 
their  capital,  formed  an  important  section.  Eginhard,  sec. 
of  the  emperor,  tells  us  that  the  rear-guard,  including 
many  generals  and  chief  nobles,  was  totally  destroyed,  and 
that  the  spoil  of  the  campaign,  with  the  whole  baggage  of 
the  army,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  "victors.  In  this  action 
fell  Roland,  the  famous  Paladin,  hero  of  a  hundred  ro- 
mances (for  the  legend,  see  Roland,  Legend  of). 

RONCIGLIONE,  rdn-chel-yd'nd:  city  of  central  Italy, 
province  of  Rome,  12  m.  s.s.e.  of  the  city  of  Viterbo.  It 
has  an  impressive  cathedral,  a  Gothic  castle,  and  several 
fine  old  palaces.  Hats,  cloth,  and  cotton  goods  are  manu- 
factured, and  there  are  iron,  brass,  and  copper  works.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city  are  sepulchral  vaults,  hollowed 
out  in  the  porous  rock  (tufo),  and  several  sulphureous  springs. 
Pop.  6,084. 


RONDA-RONGE. 

RONDA,  rdrida,  Sp.  rdn'fha:  picturesque  Moorish  town 
of  Spain,  modern  province  of  Malaga,  on  the  Guadiaro,  50 
m  n.n.e.  of  Gibraltar,  at  considerable  elevation  above  sea- 
level.  Its  climate  is  unusually  salubrious,  and  the  town  is 
a  favorite  summer  retreat.  The  great  annual  fair  is  in  May, 
when  the  small  but  active  horses  of  the  town  are  sold  to 
officers,  from  Gibraltar;  also,  there  is  extensive  sale  of 
leather  saddlery,  embroidered  gaiters,  garters,  and  man- 
tuas.    Pop.  20,822. 

RONDEAU,  n.  rondo  [F.  rondeau,  a  rondeau — from 
rond,  round  (see  Round)]:  originally  (with  the  French)  a  little 
poem  of  13  lines,  divided  into  three  unequal  strophes;  the 
two  or  three  first  words  of  the  first  line  serve  as  the  burden* 
and  recur  after  the  8th  and  13th  lines. — Thence,  in  music, 
the  term  (but  properly  in  music  Rondo)  has  come  to  denote 
a  light  air,  consisting  of  three  or  more  strains,  the  first  ter- 
minating in  the  original  key,  and  each  of  the  others  so 
constructed  as  to  conduct  the  ear  back  to  a  repetition  of  the 
first  strain.  In  a  more  general  sense,  the  name  rondo  is 
also  often  applied  to  any  light  lively  tune  which  ends  with 
the  first  strain  repeated. — The  laws  of  the  R.  as  a  poem 
have  varied  so  greatly  that  the  term  must  be  considered 
extremely  elastic:  in  all  its  forms,  however,  the  characteris- 
tic metrical  feature  lies  in  a  peculiar  use  of  the  refrain.  In 
recent  years  English  poets  have  successfully  essayed  this 
form  of  poetry,  notable  among  whom  is  Swinburne. — Bon- 
del  is  a  somewhat  similar  form  of  poem. 

RONDE  BOSSE,  n.  rongd'  bos  [F.— from  rond,  round, 
spherical;  bosse,  a  bunch,  a  swelling]:  in  arch.,  a  term 
applied  to  sculptured  objects  in  their  full  forms,  in  contra- 
distinction to  those  which  are  in  relief,  or  attached  more  or 
less  to  a  plane  or  ground. 

RON'DEL:  see  Rondeau. 

RONDELET,  rongd-ld' or  rong-deh-la' ,  "William:  French 
naturalist:  1507-66;  b.  Montpellier.  He  became  a  medi- 
cal practitioner  in  Montpellier,  and  prof,  in  the  medical 
■school;  and  was  a  zealous  student  of  nat.  history,  particu- 
larly ichthyology.  His  Histoire  entiere  des  Poisso?is  (Lyon 
1558)  was  one  of  the  first  works  which  contributed  much 
%o  that  branch  of  science. 

RON'DO  [It.]:  musical  term:  see  Rondeau. 

RON'DOUT  (N.  Y.):  see  Kingston  (N.  Y  ). 

RONDURE,  n.  ron'dur  [F.  rondeur,  roundness;  rond, 
round  (see  Round)]:  in  OE.,  a  circle;  a  round. 

RONE,  n.  ran  [Icel.  renna,  to  flow:  Sw.  rmnr,a,  a  rain- 
spout:  Dan.  rende,  a  canal]:  in  Scot,  and  prot .  Eng.,  a 
spout  for  carrying  rain-water  from  the  roof  to  th<  ground; 
a  run  of  ice. 

RONG,  n.  rong:  OE.  for  Rung,  the  round  o'  v  ladder 
see  Rung  2. 

RONGE,  Johann:  see  German  Catholics 


RONION-— RON  SARD. 

r  RONTON,  or  Ron  yon,  n.  ron'yun  [F.  rogr*e;  OF.  roigne, 
itch,  scab,  scurf— from  L.  roblgo  or  roblginem,  rust]:  in 
OE.,  one  much  diseased  with  itch  and  scurf— applied  in 
contempt  to  a  woman;  a  drab:  see  also  Roymsh. 

RONSARD,  rdng-sdr\  Pierlie  de:  celebrated  French 
poet,  and  reformer  of  French  poetry;  'Prince  of  Poets,'  as 
he  was  called  in  his  time  and  country:  1524,  Sep.  11 — 1585, 
Dec;  b.  at  the  Chateau  dela  Poisonniere  in  Ytndomois.  At 
the  age  of  nine,  he  was  sent  to  the  College  de  Navarre,  but 
was  soon  removed;  and  entered  the  service  ot  the  Dauphin 
as  page.  Handsome,  and  excelling  in  all  bodily  accom- 
plishments, he  soon  became  a  general  favorite.  When  his 
master  died  (1536),  he  became  attached  to  the  household  of 
the  Due  d'Orleans,  second  son  of  the  king;  accompanied 
James  V.  of  Scotland  back  to  his  kingdom,  with  his  bride, 
Marguerite  of  France,  1538;  and  after  nearly  three  years  at 
the  Scottish,  and  six  months  at  the  English  court,  he  re- 
turned to  France,  and  to  the  service  of  the  duke.  A  little 
later,  recovering  from  a  serious  illness,  he  found  himself 
afflicted  with  deafness,  which  led  him  to  resign  the  pursuits 
of  arms  for  those  of  letters.  With  this  view,  he  studied 
five  years  in  the  College  de  Coqueret,  having  previously 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  Latin  and  of  several  European 
languages.  His  own  language,  as  a  literary  vehicle,  was 
much  considered  by  him.  Familiar  now  with  the  master- 
pieces of  Greece  and  Rome,  he  wished  (true  child  of  the 
Renaissance,  as  he  was)  to  invest  the  national  poetry  with 
classic  dignity  and  grace.  Several  of  his  fellow-students 
shared  his  opinions  and  enthusiasm;  and  1549  one  of  these, 
Joachim  du  Bellay,  published  what  may  be  called  the  first 
manifesto  of  the  new  school — which  became  known  as  the 
PUiade,  from  its  seven  leading  writers — the  Illustration  de  la 
Langue  Frangoise.  Doubtless  some  change  in  French  liter- 
ature was  necessary,  and  R.'s  movement  was  not  without  its 
benefits;  but  the  most  intelligent  French  critics  now  admit 
that  it  was  too  radical,  too  absolute:  it  broke  abruptly  with 
the  national  traditions  and  tendencies,  and  tended  to  fix 
that  pseudo-classicism  of  style  subsequently  brought  to  dis- 
astrous perfection  in  the  splendida  mtia  of  Corneille  and 
Racine.  In  1550  R.  himself  appeared  in  the  field  with  his 
Amours  and  Quatre  Livres  d'Odes,  which  called  forth  bit- 
ter, violent  opposition,  and  equally  unreasonable  praise. 
Rabelais  (q.v.)  was  conspicuous  among  the  adversaries  of 
the  new  school;  but  on  the  whole,  the  classic  party  had  the 
best  of  the  contest,  as  its  efforts  were  in  harmony  with  the 
general  intellectual  tendencies  of  the  time.  Resides,  R.  was 
a  man  to  make  powerful  frieuds:  Marguerite,  sister  of 
Henry  II..  granted  him  a  pension;  the  illustrious  Chancel- 
lor De  THopital  encouraged  him;  and  both  Plenry  II.  and 
Francois  II.  covered  him  with  honors  and  pensions.  Such 
admiration  produced  in  R.  an  extreme  elation.  In  1553  a 
new  ed.  of  Amours  was  published;  1555  the  first,  and  1556 
the  second,  vol.  of  his  Hymnes;  and  1560  an  ed.  of  all  bis 
works  to  that  time.  During  the  religious  wars  that  devas- 
tated France,  R.  made  himself  noted  by  violent  attacks  on 
the  Huguenots.   Twenty  days  after  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 


ROOD. 

thoioinew,  he  published  La  Franciade,  an  epic  fragment  ot  a 
work  to  comprise  24  books  ;  but  after  finishing  4,  be  discon- 
tinued bis  efforts  in  the  epic-line.  Yet  such  was  the  belief 
in  his  genius,  that  his  attempt  called  forth  new  expressions 
of  delight:  Charles  IX.  gave  R.  the  abbeys  of  Croix- Val 
and  Bellozaue,  and  the  priories  of  Saint-Cosine,  of  Evailles, 
etc.  But  afflicted  with  premature  infirmities,  he  retired  to 
the  abbey  of  Croix- Val,  where  he  spent  most  of  his  remain- 
ing years  in  lettered  ease.  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England  sent 
him  a  set  of  diamonds,  and  Mary  Stuart,  from  her  prison, 
a  set  of  plate  worth  2,000  crowns,  with  the  inscription: 

A  Bonsard,  VApollon  de  la  Source  des  Muses. 

The  best  ed.  of  his  works  is  Blanc hemaiu's  (8  vols.  Pa*. 
1857-67).    See  also  Sainte-Beuve's  (Euvres  Choisies  de  It. 
;Paris  1828). 

ROOD,  n.  rod  [from  Eng.  Rod,  which  see :  Dut.  roede: 
a  measure  of  ten  feet  in  land-surveying]:  measure  of  sur- 
face, the  fourth  part  of  an  acre,  and  containing  40  square 
poles  or  perches.  It  is  quite  different  from  the  rood  used 
in  estimating  mason-work,  called  sometimes  the  square 
rod,  which  contains  16Jx  16|  ft.,  or  272£  sq.  feet. 

ROOD,  n.  rod  [AS.  rod,  the  cross :  Fris.  rode,  gallows, 
cross:  Ger.  ruthe,  a  rod]:  a  cross;  an  ancient  instrument 
of  punishment,  consisting  of  one  rod  laid  at  right  angles 
over  another.  Specially,  it  denotes  the  figure  of  Christ's 
cross,  and  generally  of  the  crucifix.  The  word  is  applied 
also  to  the  actual  cross  on  which  the  Lord  Jesus  suffered, 
though,  when  used  to  signify  the  relics  of  the  true  cross, 
it  is  commonly  found  with  the  prefix  Holy,  from  which 
Holyrood  at  Edinburgh  derives  its  name;  but  in  its  usual 
signification  it  denotes  the  large  crucifix  placed  at  the 
entrance  of  the  chancel  in  most  mediaeval  churches.  On 
either  side  of  the  cross  were  commonly  placed  figures  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  John,  in  allusion  to  John  xix. 
26.  The  manner  of  placing  the  rood  differed  in  different 
churches  ;  it  stood  usually  on  a  gallery  or  over  the  screen 
at  the  entrance  of  the  chancel,  which  was  called  the  Rood- 
loft  or  Rood-screen.  In  England,  after  the  Reformation, 
the  rood  was,  as  a  rule,  removed  from  all  churches;  but 
in  a  few  country  churches  it  still  remains  in  more  or  less 
perfect  form.  A  very  perfect  example  of  the  rood  is  in  the 
great  church  of  Lou  vain.  By  the  rood,  by  the  cross,  a 
form  of  words  formerly  U3ed  in  swearing. 


ROOF. 

ROOF,  n.  rof  [AS.  hrof;  O.Dut.  roef;  Russ.  krov\  a 
\^&f  :  Serv.  Jcrovnat,  thatched]:  top  or  cover  of  a  house  or 
other  building;  inner  side  of  a  vault  or  arch;  interior 
upper  part;  ahouse  or  dwelling:  V.  to  cover  or  furnish  with 
a  roof  ;  to  shelter.  Roof  ing,  imp. :  N.  the  materials  of  a 
roof.  Roofed,  pp.  raft.  Roofy,  a.  rofi,  having  roofs. 
Roof  less,  n.  -les,  having  no  house  or  home.  Gable 
roof,  roof  like  an  inverted  V.  Roof-tree,  the  beam  in 
the  angle  of  a  roof:  the  roof:  familiar  term  applied  to 
one's  home.  King-post  roof,  roof  which  is  tied  to  the 
tie-beam  by  a  king-post  or  piece  to  prevent  the  beam 
bending.  Hip  roof,  roof  with  a  slant  on  all  four  sides. 
M  roof,  double  roof,  such  as  is  seen  covering  factories  in 
the  form  of  an  inverted  W.  Shed  roof,  roof  with  one 
slope,  as  in  a  lean-to  shed.  Roof  of  the  mouth,  upper 
part  of  the  mouth ;  the  palate. — The  Roof,  in  building, 
varies  in  every  climate  and  every  age.  In  warm  countries, 
such  as  India,  flat  roofs,  covered  with  cement,  are  almost 
invariably  used.  The  frequent  allusions  in  the  Bible  to 
the  house-top  show  that  the  roofs  of  Palestine  were  flat  in 
ancient  times,  as  they  are  now.  Those  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria  (q.v.)  also  were  flat,  composed  of  wooden  beams 
covered  with  thick  layers  of  earth,  forming  an  impene- 
trable protection  from  the  fierce  heat  of  the  sun.  In 
countries  where  the  climate  is  milder,  and  rain  more 
abundant,  roofs  sloping  from  a  central  ridge  are  the  usual 
form  :  the  Greeks  and  Romans  constructed  their  roofs 
thus.  Those  of  Greece  were,  in  important  works,  covered 
with  marble  slabs,  carefully  grooved  together,  effectually 
to  protect  the  interior  from  rain.  In  the  common  build- 
ings  of  Greece  and  Rome,  roofing-tiles  are  used. 

In  the  rainy  climate  n.  of  the  Alps,  and  largely  in  n. 
Europe  and  N.  America,  roofs  of  much  steeper  pitch  are 
employed,  more  readily  to  throw  off  rain  and  snow.  The 
angle  at  the  ridge  is  commonly  a  right  angle  ;  and  roofs 
slated  in  the  usual  way  should  never  be  less  than  \ 
of  the  span  (or  width  between  supports)  in  height.  When 
large  slates  are  used,  £  of  the  span  in  height  will  suffice. 


Fig.  1 

Rocfs  well  constructed  bind  the  walls  together,  and  thus 
strengthen  the  building.  To  do  this  effectually,  they 
must  not  be  of  too  great  weight,  lest  they  crush  the  walls. 
The  actual  covering  of  the  roof  and  its  supports  are  there- 
fore made  as  light  as  possible,  and  the  strength  is  concen- 
trated in  principals  or  trusses.    The  following  are  the  com- 


KOOF. 

modest  iorms  of  these  trusses :  fig.  1  represents  a  king- 
post roof  (A  being  the  king-post);  fig.  2  a  queen-posi  roof 
(B,  B,  being  the  queen-posts).   The  ^tter  is  used  tor  wider 


spans  than  the  former,  and  has  the  advantage  of  leaving 
the  centre  of  the  roof  clear  of  timbers,  so  that  attic  rooms 
may  be  introduced.  The  other  members  of  the  truss  are 
named  as  follows:  C,  C,  C,  C,  braces  or  struts  ;  D,  D,  tie 
beams ;  E,  E,  E,  E,  principal  rafters  ;  F,  F,  ridge-pieces  ; 
G,  G,  etc.,  purlins;  these  and  the  ridge-pieces  are  laid  acrQss 
from  truss  to  truss,  and  carry  the  common  rafters,  J,  J. 
H  is  a  collar.  K,  K,  the  pole-plates,  and  L,  L,  the  wall- 
plates,  are  laid  along  at  the  wall-head,  to  bind  the  wall  and 
the  feet  of  rafters  together. 
The  above  system  of  construction  has  been  used  from  a 
very  early  time  to  the  present 
day.  The  early  Christian,  and 
probably  the  old  Roman  ba- 
silicas, had  exactly  such  roofs. 
In  early  Gothic  times,  roofs 
of  this  kind  were  made  orna- 
mental by  carving  the  king- 

Eost  and  molding  the  tie- 
earn.  During  the  Decorated 
style,  an  arch,  or  a  series  of 
cants  (A,  A),  was  introduced, 
as  shown  in  figs.  3,  4,  and  5. 
As  the  style  advanced,  curved 
braces  w7ere  placed  under  the 
tie-beam,  to  support  it ;  these  were  carved,  and  rested  on 
elegant  corbels,  the  spandrels 
between  the  braces  and  the 
wall  being  filled  with  tracery. 
In  the  Perpendicular  style, 
the  central  part  of  the  tie- 
beam  is  cut  away,  and  the 
beautiful  Hammer-beam 
(q.v.)  roofs  of  the  period 
become  usual  (see  fig.  6):  the 
roof  of  Westminster  Hall, 
London,  is  one  of  the  finest 
examples.  These  open  tim- 
ber-roofs are  used  both  in 
churches  and  in  halls,  but 
chiefly  in  hr.lls.  the  church 
roofs  being  frequently  vaulted  :  see  Vault  :  also  Dome. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Jvei!^  «>  oe  rootec 


over,  combinations  similar  fc^^^l^^ 


(q  v.)  are  required.  Recently,  iron  has  been  introduced 
and,  by  means  of  it,  spaces  of  great  width  can  be  roofed 

over. 


HOOK. 

BOOK,  n.  j'ii'fc  [It.  rocco;  F.  roc,  the  rook— from  Pens. 
rokh,  the  tower  in  chess] :  the  castle  in  the  game  of  chess, 
ROOK,  v. :  for  Ruck  2,  which  see. 

ROOK,  n.  ruk  [AS.  hroc;  Dan.  range;  Sw.  roka;  Dut. 
roek,  a  rook:  comp.  Gael,  roc,  to  cry  hoarsely;  rbcas,  a  rook: 
L.  raucus,  hoarse]:  bird  of  the  crow  family,  having  the 
base  of  the  bill  bare  of  feathers,  and  noted  for  its  thievish 
propensities:  a  cheat;  a  sharper;  a  thief:  V.  to  cheat.  Rook- 
ing, imp.  Rooked,  pp.  rukt.  Rookery,  n.  ruk'er-%,  a 
place  where  rooks  congregate  and  build  their  nests:  close 
assemblage  of  poor  mean  buildings  inhabited  by  the  lowest 
poor:  a  haunt  of  thieves,  etc.  Rooky,  a.  ruk 'i,  inhabited 
by  rooKs. — The  Book  (Corvus  frugilegus)  is  a  species  of 
Crow  (q, v.)  very  common  ins.  parts  of  Britain,  and  found 
in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  even  to  Japan;  about  the 
same  size  with  the  common  crow,  but  easily  distinguished 
from  it  by  the  naked  warty  skin  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  ex- 
tending back  rather  beyond  the  eyes,  «nd  far  down  on  the 
throat.  Still  more  different  are  the  habits  of  the  birds,  the 
common  crow  frequenting  lonely  situations;  the  R.  choos- 
ing rather  the  neighborhood  of  human  habitations.  More- 
over, while  the  common  crow  is  solitary,  the  R.  is  gregari- 
ous; and  very  large  companies  often  assemble  in  rookeries, 
making  their  nests  in  close  proximity,  generally  in  tall 
trees,  the  same  tree  often  sustaining  many  nests.  So  far 
are  they  from  disliking  the  companionship  of  man,  that  it 
is  common  for  rooks  to  build  their  nests  in  trees  that  grow 
in  the  midst  of  great  cities.  A  tree  even  in  Cheapside, 
London,  has  been  occupied  by  rooks'  nests.  Few  cities  or 
large  towns  in  Britain  are  without  rookeries,  sometimes  of 
considerable  magnitude,  one  near  Edinburgh  having  been 
computed  to  number  2,600  nests  and  30,000  birds.  The 
smoke  seems  disregarded  by  the  birds.  The  R.  is  nowhere 
more  abundant  than  in  England  and  s.  Scotland,  but  is 
rare  in  n.  Scotland.  Sometimes  rooks  make  their  nests  in 
steeples,  on  vanes,  etc.,  but  rarely.  They  have  been  ob- 
served to  avoid  trees  which  are  decaying  and  likely  soon  to 
be  blown  over— perhaps,  however,  on  account  of  the  state 
of  their  twigs — also  trees  that  are  marked  on  the  trunk  for 
cutting  down.  It  is  believed  in  some  districts  that  they 
know  Sunday,  and  are  less  timid  of  the  approach  of  man 
on  that  day  than  on  other  days  of  the  week.  The  nests  of 
rooks  are  formed  of  twigs,  lined  with  grass  and  fibrous  roots; 
generally  containing  four  or  five  eggs,  of  pale-greenish 
color,  blotched  with  dark  greenish  brown.  During  the 
nest-making  time,  rooks  rob  each  other  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  and  prodigious  quarrels  arise  in  rookeries  on  this 
account.  Any  pair  attempting  to  found  a  separate  colony 
on  a  tree  far  apart  are  apt  to  be  assailed  by  the  whole  force 
of  the  rookery,  and  the  nest  pulled  to  pieces,  its  materials 
of  course  being  carried  off. 

Farmers  very  often  complain  of  them  for  rooting  up 
grass  and  young  corn,  and  for  injury  to  young  potatoes, 
turnips,  etc.;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  that  they 
are  of  great  use  by  eating  up  wire-worms,  cockchafer 


ROOKE— ROOSEVELT. 

jrubs,  and  other  insect  larvae,  slugs,  etc.,  and  that  the  grass 
pulled  by  them  is  often  that  whose  roots  larvae  have  already 
devoured.  The  truth  appears  to  be  that  rooks  in  moderate 
numbers  are  very  useful;  but  that  it  is  possible  to  protect 
them  too  much. 

The  same  rooks  seem  to  take  possession  of  their  old  nests 
year  after  year,  repairing  them,  and  not  building  new  ones. 
The  time  of  building  and  repairing  nests,  beginning  in 
early  spring,  is  one  of  prodigious  clamor  in  the  rookery. 
The  male  11.  feeds  the  female  assiduously  during  incu- 
bation, and  sometimes  takes  her  place  on  the  nest.  Both 
parents  bring  food  to  their  young  ones.  The  R.  is  capable 
of  being  tamed,  and  tame  rooks  have  the  imitative  power 
of  voice  possessed  by  other  birds  of  the  same  family.* 
White,  cream-colored,  and  pied  rooks  are  occasionally  seen: 
these  peculiarities  of  plumage  are  due  probably  to  disease. 

ROOKE,  rok,  Sir  George:  British  admiral:  1650-1709, 
Jan.  24;  b.  near  Canterbury.  He  entered  the  navy;  was, 
at  the  age  of  30,  a  post-capt. ;  and  1689  was  promoted  to 
rear-admiral.  In  1692,  in  the  memorable  battle  off  Cape 
La  Hogue,  between  the  French  fleet  and  the  combined 
English  and  Dutch  force  under  Admiral  Russell,  his  serv- 
ices were  most  brilliant  and  dashing;  and  in  acknowledg- 
ment he  received  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the  red,  the 
tionor  of  knighthood,  and  a  pension  of  £1,000  a  year.  His 
next  important  service  was  the  destruction  of  a  Spanish 
plate-fleet  in  the  port  of  Vigo;  and  1794,  July,  with  Sir 
Cloudesley  Shovel,  he  captured  Gibraltar. 

ROOM,  n.  rom  [AS.  rum;  Ger.  raum;  Goth,  rums; 
Gael,  rum,  space:  Icel.  ryma;  Ger.  raumen;  Dut.  ruimen, 
to  clear  a  space,  to  make  room]:  space;  place  or  space  un- 
occupied; an  apartment  of  a  house;  station;  place  of  am 
other;  stead;  scope;  opportunity;  possible  admission  or 
mode,  latitude  ;  compass.  Room'ftjl,  n.  -ful,  as  many  as 
a  room  will  hold.  Room'y,  a.  4,  having  ample  room; 
spacious.  Roomily,  ad.  -II.  Roominess,  n.  -nes,  the 
state  of  being  roomy;  large  extent  of  space;  spaciousness. 
To  give  room,  to  withdraw,  to  allow  others  to  pass  or  be 
seated.    To  make  room,  to  open  a  space,  way,  or  passage. 

ROORRACH,  n.  rdr'bak  [from  a  fictitious  extract  from 
Roorback's  Tour,  1836,  published  for  political  purposes  by 
an  Amer.  paper  1844]:  falsehood;  mis-statement;  sensa- 
tional article  without  any  foundation,  published,  especially 
for  political  purposes,  in  a  newspaper. 

ROOSEVELT,  ros'relt,  Robert  Barnwell  :  born  New 
York,  1829,  Aug.  7.  He  studied  law,  began  practice  1850, 
secured  the  establishment  of  the  State  Fishery  Commis- 
sion of  N.  Y.  1867,  and  was  one  of  its  members  for  21 
years,  was  active  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Tweed  ring  in 
New  York,  was  elected  to  congress  as  a  democrat  1870, 
and  appointed  U.  S.  minister  to  the  Netherlands  1888.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  Amer.  Association  for  Advancement  of 
Science.  Among  other  works,  he  has  published  The 
Game  Fish  of  North  America  (1860)  ;  The  Game  Birds  of 
the  North  (1866)  ;  and  Five  Acres  Too  Much  (1869).  D.  1906. 


ROOSEVELT. 


ROOSEVELT,  rdz'velt,  Theodore,  ll.d.  :  twenty- 
sixth  president  of  the  United  States;  b.  New  York  City* 
1858,  Oct.  27.  He  is  descended  from  an  early  Dutch  set- 
ter of  Manhattan  Island.  His  paternal  grandfather  was  a 
wealthy  merchant.  His  father,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  a 
banker,  was  distinguished  as  a  philanthropist.  One  of 
his  uncles,  Robert  Barnwell  Roosevelt,  was  prominent  as 
a  member  of  Congress  and  as  a  leader  of  "reform  poli- 
tics" in  New  York;  was  minister  to  the  Netherlands; 
and  was  an  enthusiastic  sportsman.  Others  of  the  name 
distinguished  themselves,  and  Roosevelt  Hospital  in  New 
York  stands  as  a  memorial  of  the  philanthropic  spirit 
that  has  ever  distinguished  the  family.  One  of  his  ma- 
ternal uncles  served  in  the  Confederate  navy  and  fired 
the  last  shot  from  the  ill-fated  Alabama,  sunk  by  the 
guns  of  the  Kearsarge  off  Cherbourg.  His  mother  was 
descended  from  Archibald  Bulloch,  member  of  .the  conti- 
nental congress,  and  the  first  Republican  governor  of 
Georgia.  Theodore  Roosevelt  was  sickly  in  his  youth, 
but  by  systematic  training  and  out-of-door  life  built  up 
a  rugged  constitution.  He  was  prepared  for  college  in 
private  schools;  graduated  from  Harvard  1880;  traveled 
in  Europe  and  did  some  mountain  climbing,  and  on  his 
return  began  the  study  of  law,  but  gave  it  up  for  politics ; 
joined  the  Republican  association  of  the  21st  district, 
and  in  the  fall  of  1881  was  elected  to  the  state  assembly. 
In  1883  he  was  re-elected,  became  the  leader  of  the  minor- 
ity and  was  largely  instrumental  in  carrying  through  the 
state  civil  service  law  and  an  act  for  the  regulation  of 
primary  elections.  In  1884  he  was  made  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  cities;  proposed  an  investigation  of  the 
government  of  New  York;  and  carried  through  several 
reform  measures,  one  of  which  made  the  mayor  responsi- 
ble for  the  administration  of  municipal  affairs.  In  the 
same  year  he  wTas  chairman  of  the  New  York  delegation 
to  the  national  Republican  convention,  where  he  advo- 
cated Edmunds  as  a  presidential  candidate,  but  finally 
supported  Blaine.  On  retiring  from  the  legislature  he 
bought  a  ranch  in  North  Dakota,  and  for  a  number  of 
years  he  spent  his  summers  in  hunting  in  the  far  West. 
For  four  years  (1884-88)  he  was  a  member  of  the  8th 
regiment  N.  Y.  N.  G.,  becoming  captain.  In  1886  he  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  mayor  of  New  York,  Henry 
George  (Labor)  and  Abram  S.  Hewitt  (Dem.)  being  his 
opponents,  and  the  last  named  winning.  For  six  years 
(1889-95)  he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Civil 
Service  Commission,  and  for  two  (1895-97)  president  of 
the  Board  of  Police  Commissioners,  New  York  City,  re- 
signing to  become  assistant  secretary  of  the  navy.  It 
was  due  to  his  foresight  and  management  that  the  navy 
was  in  such  admirable  condition  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  with  Spain.   After  war  was  declared  he  resigned  his 


ROOSEVELT. 

portfolio,  and  with  Dr.  Leonard  Wood,  of  the  regular 

army,  organized  a  regiment  officially  designated  the  1st 
U.  S.  Volunteer  Cavalry,  but  popularly  known  as ''Roose- 
velt's Rough  Riders,"  of  which  Wood  became  colonel, 
with  Roosevelt  second  in  command.  It  comprised  men 
of  all  nationalities;  college  graduates,  many  of  them 
noted  athletes,  ex-policemen,  cowboys,  frontier  hunters, 
Indians,  and  New  York  club  men,  and  it  led  the  first 
fight  at  Siboney  or  Las  Guasimas,  1898,  June  24,  and 
distinguished  itself  in  the  fighting  at  Santiago  (July 
1-3).  On  July  8  Col.  Wood  was  promoted  brigadier- 
general  and  Lieuntenant-colonel  Roosevelt  colonel.  After 
the  surrender  he  wrote  a  letter  to  General  Shafter  urg- 
ing the  immediate  removal  North  of  the  troops,  and  later 
signed  a  "round  robin"  to  the  Secretary  of  War  in- 
sisting that  the  army  must  be  moved  at  once  or  perish. 
Upon  his  return  to  New  York  he  was  nominated  for 
governor  against  the  wishes  of  the  "machine''  Repub- 
licans and  was  elected,  his  plurality  over  Augustus 
Van  Wyck  (Dem.)  being  17,786.  As  governor  he  re- 
formed the  administration  of  the  canals,  provided  civil 
service  reform,  and  established  the  principle  of  street- 
franchise  taxation.  He  desired  to  serve  a  second  term, 
but  the  Republican  leaders  of  the  State  joined  with 
western  delegates  in  forcing  upon  him  the  vice-presi- 
dency (1900,  June  21).  Previous  to  the  election  he 
made  an  extended  tour  of  the  Western  states.  He 
received  292  electoral  votes  to  Adlia  E.  Stevenson's  155, 
and  in  1901,  March  4,  assumed  official  duties.  Upon 
the  death  of  Pres.  McKinley,  Sept.  14,  Vice-President 
Roosevelt  took  the  oath  as  president,  pledging  himself 
to  carry  out  the  policy  of  his  predecessor.  In  his  first 
message  to  congress  (Dec.  3)  he  urged  publicity  as  a 
remedy  for  the  evils  of  trusts;  advised  the  supervision 
and  regulation  by  the  nation  of  corporations  doing  an 
interstate  business,  and  if  congress  lacked  the  constitu- 
tional power  to  pass  such  an  act,  the  submission  of  a 
constitutional  amendment  to  that  end.  On  1902,  Feb. 
18,  he  replied  to  the  appeal  of  Admiral  Schley;  censur- 
ing that  officer,  and  declaring  that  on  the  whole  the 
court  did  substantial  justice.  In  a  special  message  to 
congress  June  13,  he  urged  the  passage  of  a  Cuban 
reciprocity  bill.  The  president  made  an  extended  toui 
of  the  United  States  in  the  summer  and  fall,  being  re- 
ceived  with  enthusiasm  everywhere.  In  his  annual  mes- 
sage (Dec.  2)  he  urged  the  need  of  keeping  the  army 
at  the  highest  point  of  efficiency  and  of  building  up  the 
navy;  observed:  "No  independent  nation  in  America 
need  have  the  slightest  fear  of  aggression  from  the 
United  States,"  and  asserted,  "no  policy  ever  entered  into 
by  the  American  people  has  vindicated  itself  in  more 
signal  manner  than  the  policy  of  holding  the  Philip. 


i 


ROOSEVELT— ROOT. 

pines.'  He  brought  about  a  settlement  of  the  anthra- 
cite coal  strike  in  Pennsylvania  in  1902  through  a  com- 
mission suggested  and  appointed  by  him.  In  1903  he 
declined  to  serve  as  arbitrator  between  foreign  powers 
and  Venezuela,  caused  a  thorough  investigation  of  the 
frauds  in  the  post-office  department;  in  a  special  mes- 
sage ( Feb.  27 )  urged  the  passage  of  the  Philippine 
tariff  bill,  and  in  another  (June  13)  the  passage  of  the 
Cuban  reciprocity  bill.  Following  the  publication  of  the 
details  of  the  massacre  of  Jews  at  Kishineff,  Russia,  in 
May,  a  petition  to  the  Czar  was  prepared  by  representa- 
tive Jews  of  the  United  States,  and  this  the  president 
decided  to  forward.  It  having  been  learned,  however, 
that  the  paper  would  not  be  received,  it  was  filed  Kmong 
the  archives  of  the  State  Department.  President  Roose- 
velt has  been  made  a  doctor  of  laws  by  Columbia,  Har- 
vard, and  Yale  Universities.  He  is  the  author  of  Lives 
of  Thomas  H.  Benton   (1886)  and  Gouverneur  Morris 

(1887);  Naval  War  of  1812  (1882);  The  Winning  of 
the  West  (1899);  Oliver  Cromwell  (1900);  Essays  in 
Practical  Politics  (1888)  ;  American  Ideals  (1897)  ;  The 
Strenuous  Life  (1900);  Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman 

(1885);  Ranch  Life  and  the  Hunting  Trail  (1888); 
The  Wilderness  Hunter  (1893),  etc.  He  collaborated 
with  Henry  Cabot  Lodge  in  Hero  Tales  from  American 
History,  and  aided  William  L.  Clowes  in  preparing  The 
Royal  Navy, 

ROOST,  n.  rost  [AS.  hrost;  O.  Dut.  roest,  the  seat  or 
perch  of  a  bird,  so  called  from  the  rod  or  perch]  :  the 
pole  or  perch  on  which  a  bird  settles  itself  to  rest:  V. 
to  sit  or  sleep  on  the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  on  any  other 
thing,  as  a  bird  at  night.  Roost'ing,  imp.  Roost'ed, 
pp.  Roost'er,  n.  -er,  a  cock.  At  roost,  in  a  state  of 
rest  or  sleep. 

ROOT,  n.  rot  [Icel.  rot,  a  root;  rota,  to  grub  up:  AS. 
ivrotan;  Dut.  wroeten;  Dan.  rode,  to  root,  as  a  pig  or  a 
mole:  Norw.  rota,  to  dig,  to  dabble]  :  that  part  of  a  plant 
which  enters  into  and  (in  most  cases)  fixes  itself  in  the 
earth  or  other  source  of  nutriment,  and  through  which  the 
plant  is  nourished  ( see  Root,  in  Botany )  :  a  plant  whose 
root  is  esculent ;  the  part  of  anything  resembling  a  root  in 
manner  of  growth ;  the  lower  part  of  a  thing :  the  original 
or  cause  of  anything ;  first  ancestor ;  impression ;  durable 
effect :  in  a  language,  that  element  which  serves  as  a  com- 
mon basis  to  one  or  more  words,  the  root  being  contained 
in  the  language  itself,  or  in  its  older  forms  derived  from  a 
foreign  language  (see  Root,  in  Philology)  :  in  alg.,  the 
value  of  an  unknown  quantity  in  an  equation  ( see  Root,  in 
Algebra)  :  in  arith., any  number  which  multiplied  by  itself 
produces  a  square  or  other  power — that  number  is  the  root 
of  the  square  or  power :  V.  to  plant  or  fix  in  the  earth ;  to 


ROOT. 

enter  tbe  earth;  to  take  root;  to  impress  deeply;  to  tear  up 
from  the  ground;  to  tear  up  the  earth  with  the  snout,  as 
swine;  to  extirpate,  with  up.  Root  ingv  imp.  taking  root; 
turning  up  the  earth  with  the  snout,  as  swine.  Root  ed, 
pp.:  Adj.  fixed  and  grown  by  roots;  deep;  radical.  Root  - 
edly,  ad.  -II,  in  a  rooted  maimer;  strongly.  Root'edness, 
n.  -ed-nes,  the  state  or  condition  of  being  rooted.  Root  y, 
a.  4,  full  of  roots.  Rootiness,  n.  -i-nes,  the  state  of  being 
full  of  roots.  Root  less,  a.  -les,  without  a  root.  Root  - 
let, n.  -let,  a  little  root;  a  radicle.  Root-leaf,  in  hot.,  a 
leaf  growing  immediately  from  the  root.  Root-stock,  or 
Rhizome  (Rhizoma),  in  hot.,  a  stem  prostra  e  along  the 
ground,  partially  covered  with  soil;  sending  out  roots  from 
its  lower  side,  and  leaf -buds  from  its  upper.  The  common 
yellow  iris  affords  a  perfect  example  of  it.  Many  ferns 
have  root- stocks.  The  root-stock,  often  regarded  as  a 
creeping  root,  is  really  not  a  root,  but  a  stem.  Root  crop, 
a  crop  of  esculent  roots,  as  the  potato  or  turnip,  etc.  To 
take  root,  to  become  planted  or  fixed;  to  increase  and 
spread.    To  tear  up  by  the  root,  to  eradicate. 

ROOT,  in  Algebra:  any  value  of  the  unknown  quantity 
in  an  equation,  which  will  render  both  sides  of  it 
identical:  see  Equation:  Indeterminate  Problems: 
Irreducible  Case:  etc.  The  determination  of  the  roots 
of  equations,  either  formally  or  actually,  constitutes  the 
greater  portion  of  the  science  of  algebra,  while  the  ap- 
proximation to  roots  of  those  equations  whose  degree  is 
still  beyond  a  general  solution  (4th  and  upward)  forms 
almost  a  separate  branch  of  itself.  Roots  are  divided  into 
various  classes;  they  are  real  when  they  consist  of  numeri- 
cal quantities  positive  or  negative;  and  imaginary  when 
they  assume  the  form  a  -|-  b 

ROOT,  in  Botany;  sometimes  designated  as  the  descend- 
ing axis  of  a  plant:  that  part  by  which  a  plant  enters 
for  sustenance  into  its  original  nutrient  medium,  and 
by  which  in  most  cases  it  is  anchored  in  the  soil.  The 
root  is  developed  in  the  germination  of  the  seed,  at  or  about 
the  same  lime  with  the  stem,  and  forces  its  way  downward 
as  the  stem  grows  upward.  The  root  differs  from  the  stem 
in  the  irregularity  of  its  ramifications,  in  the  lack  of  a 
central  pith,  of  buds,  of  scales,  or  of  scars  to  indicate  theif 
former  presence,  and  in  the  lack  of  stomata.  The  axis  of 
the  root  giving  off  branches,  these  finally  sub-divide  into 
fibrils,  which  are  little  bundles  of  auuular  ducts,  or  some- 
times of  spiral  vessels,  incased  in  woody  fibre,  and  covered 
with  a  lax  cellular  integument.  The  apex  of  each  fibril  is 
called  sometimes  the  spongiole:  it  consists  of  extremely  lax 
cellular  \ issue,  and  has  the  property  of  absorbing  fluids 
with  great  rapidiiy,  thus  subserving  the  nourishment  of 
the  plant:  see  Endosmosk. — Aerial  roots  occur  in  some 
plants,  as  in  some  Epiphytes,  the  Banyan.  Mangroves,  etc.; 
by  which  nourishment  is  derived  from  the  air,  in  addition 
to  that  obtained  through  the  leaves  and  bark,  or  by  which 
the  branches  seek  to  connect  themselves  anew  with  the 
ground,  for  support  and  nourishment;  and  many  plants, 


xiOOT. 


as  Willows,  produce  adventitious  roots  very  readily,  wheu 
any  portion  of  the  stem  or  branch  is  embedded  in  moist 
soil,  of  which  advantage  is  taken  for  their  artificial  propa- 
gation.— The  central  axis  of  many  roots  goes  deep  into  the 
ground  in  a  tapering  manner,  forming  what  is  called  a  tap- 
root; other  roots  have  the  descending  axis  very  short,  and 
are  called  fibrous.  The  roots  of  some  plants  spread  very 
widely;  those  of  others  occupy  a  very  limited  space.  The 
roots  of  coniferous  trees  and  palms  are  very  small  when 
compared  with  the  appearance  of  the  tree  above  ground. — 
Tap  roots  sometimes  assume  a  conical  form,  as  in  the  carrot; 
others  are  variously  developed  in  thickness  at  the  upper 
part,  as  in  the  turnip  and  radish.  Tubers  (q.v.),  Bulbs 
(q.v.),  and  Corms  (q.v.)  are  peculiar  developments,  evi~ 
dently  intended  to  secure  a  store  of  nourishment  for  the 
plant,  but  which  also  are  available  for  the  use  of  man. — 
Esculent  roots  are  numerous,  and  many  roots  also  contain 
secretions  either  peculiar  to  themselves,  or  more  abundant 
than  in  the  other  parts  of  the  plant,  and  become  therefore 
useful  in  medicine  or  in  the  arts;  while  some  are  very 
poisonous.  The  roots  used  for  food,  besides  the  tubers, 
bulbs,  and  corms  above  mentioned,  are  generally  those 
which  are  thick  and  fleshy.  The  plants  to  which  they 
belong  are  of  very  different  genera  and  orders — some  of  nat. 
order  Gruciferm,  e.g.,  Turnip  and  others  of  the  genus 
Brassica — some  of  order  Chenopodiacem,  e.g.,  Beet  and 
Mangel-wurzel — some  of  order  Umbelliferm,  e.g.,  Carrot, 
Parsnip,  etc.- — some  of  order Leguminosm,  e.g.,  Pachyrhizos 
angulatus,  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  E.  Indies,  and  P. 
trilobus,  cultivated  in  Cochin  China.  In  many  of  the  lower 
classes  of  plants,  particularly  the  Algse,  there  is  no  root 
whatever,  though  often  the  plant  is  attached  by  a  base. 

ROOT,  in  Philology:  that  part  in  a  word  which  is  com- 
mon to  a  group  of  allied  words — the  germ  out  of  which 
they  all  have  sprung.  It  is  arrived  at  by  taking  away  the 
formative  parts — the  suffixes  and  affixes — and  reversing  any 
change  that  their  presence  may  have  caused.  Thus,  in 
eo-in-ad-ence,  the  root-syllable  is  cid,  the  primary  form  of 
which  in  Lat.  is  cad,  to  fall.  It  is  seldom  that  this  analysis 
can  be  successfully  performed  with  only  one  language;  in 
order  to  get  at  the  true  root,  the  corresponding  words  in 
all  the  languages  of  the  same  family  must  be  compared. 
Thus,  in  the  English  words  story,  history,  historical,  histori- 
cally—histor  would  seem  to  be  the  root;  but  by  comparing 
the  Greek  with  the  Lat.  and  Skr. ,  we  arrive  at  the  real 
root,  a  syllable  vid,  meaning  to  see  or  know,  of  which  the 
Eng.  (to)  wit  (wist)  is  only  another  form.  And  even  after 
such  a  process,  we  are  not  sure  that  we  have  arrived  at  the 
original  and  most  simple  form.  Thus,  Eng.  yoke,  Lat. 
jugum,  come  from  the  syllable  jug,  to  join,  seen  in  Lat. 
ju(ri)go,  Gr.  zeugo;  and  this  might  be  rested  in  as  the  root, 
were  there  not  a  simpler  form,  ju,  preserved  in  Skr.,  and 
having  the  meaning  of  mingling  or  being  together;  this, 
which  may  be  taken  as  the  primary  root,  gives  rise  to  the 
two  secondary  roots  or  modifications,  jug,  to  join,  and  yudh, 
to  tight  (i.e.,  to  join  battle). 


HOOT. 

The  roots  of  the  Aryan  languages  are  always  mono- 
syllabic, as  i,  to  go;  ga,  to  go;  ad,  to  eat;  vak,  to  speak; 
star,  to  strew.  Roots,  in  the  Aryan  languages,  never 
enter  into  speech  in  their  pure  and  simple  form;  to 
make  them  words,  they  almost  always  take  on  the  addi- 
tion of  a  pronominal  element.  Thus,  the  reduplicate 
root  da-da,  having  the  sense  of  giving,  becomes,  by  the 
addition  of  mi,  my,  the  word  da-da- mi,  I  give;  vak,  to 
speak,  by  affixing  s  (for  sa,  that),  becomes  vaks,  in 
Lat.  vox  (voks),  voice  (i.e.,  that  speaking).  See  In- 
flection; Philology;  Onomatopoeia. 

ROOT,  Elihu:  lawyer  and  statesman;  1845,  Feb.  15, 
b.  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, where  his  father,  Oren  Root,  had  been  professor  of 
mathematics  from  1849-81.  He  graduated  in  1864,  and 
in  1865  was  a  teacher  at  Rome  Academy;  he  afterwards 
studied  at  the  University  Law  School  of  the  College  of 
the  City  of  N.  Y.,  graduating  there  in  1867,  and  be- 
came a  practising  lawyer  in  the  metropolis,  soon  achiev- 
ing a  considerable  reputation  by  winning  several  cor- 
poration and  other  cases  when  opposed  to  some  of  the 
leading  members  of  the  N.  Y.  bar:  He  was  a  personal 
friend  and  counselor  of  Chester  A.  Arthur,  and  the 
latter,  when  he  became  pres.,  appointed  R.  U.  S.  attor- 
ney for  the  southern  district  of  N.  Y.,  Mar.,  1883  to 
July,  1885.  As  a  prominent  republican  he  was  ap- 
pointed delegate  at  large  of  the  N.  Y.  state  constitu- 
tional convention  in  1894,  and  was  elected  chairman  of 
the  judiciary  committee.  On  Aug.  1,  1899,  Pres.  McKin- 
ley  appointed  R.  to  succeed  Russell  A.  Alger  as  secretary 
of  war  at  a  crisis  in  the  affairs  of  his  administration, 
and  reappointed  him  Mar.  5,  1901.  R.  soon  probed  the 
disorders  in  the  army  organization,  modified  the  rules 
of  promotion  by  seniority  in  favor  of  capacity,  ability, 
and  merit,  inaugurated  a  new  War  College,  and  created 
a  general  staff.  R.  resigned  in  Aug.,  1903,  to  resume 
his  law  practice  in  N.  Y.  city,  where  he  is  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  bar,  and  was  succeeded  by  William  H. 
Taft  (q.v.).  In  Sept.,  1903,  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Alaskan  Boundary  Commission  which  met  in  London, 
and  arbitrated  on  the  boundary  line  between  Alaska  and 
Canada,  in  favor  of  the  U.  S.  In  1905,  July  19,  he  was 
appointed  Sec.  of  State.  A  tall,  athletic  and  active 
figure  with  a  strong  personality,  a  comprehensive  intel- 
lect and  capacious  memory,  R.  is  especially  noted  for 
his  mental  and  physical  discipline,  his  analytical  pre- 
cision and  incontrovertible  presentment  of  facts,  his  in- 
trepid self-confidence  and  cool  imperturbability. 

ROOT,  rot,  George  Frederick,  mus.  doc.:  born  Shef- 
field, Mass.,  1820,  Aug.  30;  d.  1895,  Aug.  6.  When  only 
17  years  of  age  he  became  a  teacher  of  music  in  Boston/ 
removed  to  N.  Y.  1844,  studied  In  Paris  1850,  and  after- 


ROOT-MILDEW— ROPE. 


ward  removed  to  Chicago.  He  wrote  largely  for  the 
musical  press,  published  various  instruction-books,  can- 
tatas, collections  for  church  choirs,  and  works  on  teach- 
ing; and  numerous  popular  songs,  including  Rosalie, 
the  Prairie  Flower;  Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp,  the  Boys 
are  Marching;  and  There's  Music  in  the  Air. 

ROOT-MIL/DEW:  term  designating  no  well-deter- 
mined species  of  fungus,  but  certain  mycelia,  which  in- 
fest the  roots  of  peaches,  apples,  roses,  currants,  etc., 
and  cause  their  death.  The  tree  or  shrub  is  often  sud- 
denly blighted,  from  apparently  perfect  health.  The 
roots  are  found  more  or  less  decayed,  and  covered  with 
filmy  white  threads.  The  mycelium  is  supposed  to  be- 
long to  species  of  Polyporus. 

ROPE,  n.  rop  [Icel.  reip,  a  rope:  Dut.  reep  or  roop,  a 
cord  or  rope:  AS.  rap,  a  rope]  :  cord  or  line  composed  of 
several  strands  twisted  together;  small  cable  (see  be- 
low) :  a  row  of  things  depending,  as  of  onions:  V.  to 
draw  out  or  extend  into  a  string  or  thread  by  means  of 
a  glutinous  or  adhesive  quality;  to  draw  in  by  trick  or 
to  inveigle  into  a  thievish  or  fraudulent  operation. 
Ro'ping,  imp. ;  N.  the  state  or  quality  of  being  glutinous 
and  adhesive.  Roped,  pp.  ropt.  Ropy,  a.  ro'pi,  stringy; 
adhesive.  Ro'piness,  n.  -nes,  aptness  to  draw  out  into 
strings  or  threads  without  breaking;  the  partial  vis- 
cosity and  roping  of  syrupy  liquors.  Ro'pery,  n.  -per-%, 
a  place  where  ropes  are  made:  in  OE.,  rogues'  tricks. 
Ro'pish,  a.  -pish,  tending  to  ropiness.  Ro'per,  n.  -per, 
a  ropemaker.  Rope-dancer,  one  who  walks  and  per- 
forms feats  on  an  extended  rope.  Rope-ladder,  a  lad- 
der made  of  ropes,  hung  over  a  ship's  side,  or  otherwise 
used,  as  being  easily  portable.  Ropemaker,  one  who 
makes  ropes.  Ropemaking,  n.  the  making  of  ropes. 
Rope  walk,  a  long  covered  walk  where  ropes  are  ex- 
tended as  they  are  spun.  Rope-yarn,  yarn  consisting 
of  single  threads  for  making  ropes.  Rope  of  sand,  a 
band  easily  broken;  anything  without  force,  as  a  tie  or 
bond  of  union.  Rope-trick,  in  OE.,  a  trick  or  deed 
which  deserves  the  rope  or  halter. — Rope,  generally  any 
cordage  having  circumference  of  an  inch  or  more,  is 
made  usually  of  vegetable  fibres,  though  in  recent  years 
wire-rope  has  come  into  extensive  use.  The  fibre  most 
used  for  rope  is  hemp;  but  large  quantities  of  plantain 
fibre,  called  Manila-hemp,  made  from  the  leaf-stalks 
of  Musa  textilis,  also  are  employed,  especially  for  large 
ropes  on  ships.  Ropes  are  made  by  hand  in  places  called 
ropewalks.  The  spinner  has  a  large  bundle  of  the  fibre 
loosely  gathered  round  his  waist,  from  which  he  pulls 
out  a  few  fibres,  and  attaches  them  to  a  hook  in  the 
turning  wheel  or  whirl,  which  is  stationary,  and  is 
worked  by  an  assistant.  Experience  teaches  him  what 
number  of  fibres  to  draw  out,  and  how  to  twist  them  so  as 


ROPE. 


to  hold  firmly  on  to  the  hook.  He  then  walks  slowly  back- 
ward down  the  rope-ground,  gradually  drawing  out  or 
regulating  the  pulling  out  of  the  fibres  so  as  to  make  an 
equal  yarn,  which  receives  the  necessary  twist  from  the 
whirl.  When  he  has  reached  the  end  of  the  walk,  another 
spinner  takes  the  yarn  fiom  the  hook  of  the  whirl,  and 
fixes  it  to  a  reel,  which  is  then  set  in  motion;  and  he 
attaches  a  second  portion  of  hemp  from  his  own  supply  to 
the  hook,  and  proceeds  down  the  walk  as  the  previous  one 
had  done.  In  the  mean  time,  the  first  spinner  gradually 
walks  up  the  ground,  carefully  guiding  his  length  of  yarn 
as  it  is  wound  on  the  reel.  When  he  reaches  the  reel,  it 
stops,  and  be  waits  until  the  second  spinner's  length  is 
completed.  He  then  in  his  turn  takes  it  otf  the  hook,  and 
twists  it  on  to  his  own;  and  the  reel,  being  again  started,  re- 
ceives the  additional  length  from  the  second  man,  and  so  on 
until  the  full  length  required  is  made  up.  The  next  opera- 
tion is  called  warping,  and  consists  in  stretching  out  the 
number  of  yarns  required  for  a  rope.  These  all  are  slightly 
twisted  again  separately,  and  stretched  to  an  equal  length. 
Then,  if  the}'  are  intended  for  tarred  ropes,  each  yarn  is 
drawn  separately,  either  lengthwise  or  in  a  hank,  through 
a  kettle  of  hot  tar.  The  superfluous  tar  is  removed  by 
drawing  it  through  a  hole  lined  with  oakum.  In  the  next 
process,  called  laying,  two  or  more  yarns  are  attached  to 
hooks  on  a  whirl,  so  that  when  it  is  turned  they  will  be 
twisted  together  the  contrary  way  of  the  original  twist  that 
they  received  in  the  first  spinning.  When  this  is  done,  it 
is  called  a  strand.  Then  as  many  of  these  strands  as  are 
required  for  the  rope  are  stretched  at  full  length,  and  are 
attached  at  each  end  to  whirls.  One  of  the  whirls  has  but 
one  hook,  to  which  all  the  strands  are  attached;  the  other 
has  as  many  hooks  as  there  are  strands,  one  always  being 
central,  and  a  strand  is  attached  to  each.  The  whirls  are 
then  put  in  motion,  but  in  opposite  directions,  and  this 
cauaes  the  outer  strands  to  be  laid  with  great  regularity  and 
firmness  around  the.  central  one.  Such  is  the  ordinary 
process  of  ropemaking;  but  machines  have  been  invented 
which  produce  ropes  with  such  mathematical  precision 
that  the  strength  of  the  rope  may  be  calculated  with  great 
exactness.  In  some  cases  there  are  three  'preparation- 
machines,'  the  first  of  which  is  a  heckling-machine;  and 
the  spinning  machine  also  coils  the  spun  rope  on  large 
bobbins.  The  yarn  is  usually  spun  with  a  right-handed 
twist.  Yarns  are  then  combined  to  make  a  left-handed 
strand;  and  three  or  more  strands  are  joined  to  make  a 
right-handed  rope.  A  rope  of  three  strands  is  stronger 
than  a  corresponding  one  of  four  strands,  as  in  the  latter 
the  strand  in  the  centre  will  break  first.  Before  breaking,  a 
rope  stretches  from  \  to  A  good  hempen  rope  should 
stand  a  strain  of  more  than  9,000  lbs.  to  the  sq.  inch. 

Large  ropes  are  either  what  is  called  cable-laid  or  hawser- 
laid.  The  former  consist  of  three  large  strands,  each  made 
up  of  three  smaller  strands.  A  cable-laid  rope  of  eight 
inches  circumference  is  made  up  in  this  way  of  nine  strands, 
each  containing  thirty-seven  original  yarns,  or  altogether 


ROQUE— RORAIMA. 

333  yarns.  A  hawser-laid  rope  consists  of  only  three 
strands,eachlcontaining  a  sufficient  number  of  yarns  to  mak' 
up  the  required  thickness.  The  numerous  lives  and  th~ 
vast  property  depending  on  the  efficiency  of  ropes  em- 
ployed in  shipping  have  brought,  great  ingenuity  and  care 
to  bear  on  the  manufacture.  One  very  great  improvement 
of  modem  times  has  been  the  introduction  of  wire-ropes, 
now  extensively  used  in  rigging  ships  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. They  are  generally  of  iron  wire^,  sometimes  but  not 
always  galvanized;  and  twisting  is  effected  in  the  same 
way  as  the  strands  of  a  hempen  rope  are  laid  together. 

BO  QUE,  rok,  Saint:  born  early  in  the  14th,  or  near  the 
end  of  the  13th  c.,  at  Montpellier;  of  noble  family;  d. 
1327:  popular  saint  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church  in  France; 
patron  especially  of  those  sick  of  the  plague.  Of  his  his- 
tory, nevertheless,  few  particulars  have  been  preserved. 
Having  undertaken  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  he  was  sur- 
prised on  his  way  through  Italy  by  an  outbreak  of  the 
plague  at  Piacenza,  where  he  devoted  himself  with  gener- 
ous zeal  to  the  care  of  the  victims.  Falling  sick  of  the 
plague  himself,  and  abandoned  by  man,  he  contrived  to 
drag  himself  to  a  neighboring  wood,  where  a  dog  used  to 
lick  his  sores;  and  it  pleased  God  to  restore  him  to  health. 

ROQUELAURE,  n.  roJc-e-lawr' 
[after  the  Duke  de  Roquelaure\.  a 
short  cloak  or  surtout,  made  to 
button  from  top  to  bottom,  much 
used  in  the  beginning  of  last  cen- 
tury also  Roquelo,  rok'e-lo. 

ROQUEPLAN,  rok-plong',  Jo- 
seph Etienne  Camille:  painter: 
1803-1855,  Sep.  29;  b.  Mallemort, 
France.  He  studied  painting  un- 
der eminent  masters,  at  the  age  of 
19  commenced  exhibiting  his  work, 
and  1827  became  widely  and  fa- 
vorably known  by  his  illustrations 
of  characters  from  the  romances 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  gave 
much  attention  to  landscape-paint- 
ing, and  reached  a  high  position 
among  the  French  artists  of  his 
da}'.  Among  his  famous  works 
were  the  Amateur  Antiquary  and  The  Well  near  the  Tall 
Fig-tree.    He  died  at  Paris. 

RORAIMA,  ro-rimd,  Mount:  wonderful  table-topped 
sandstone  mountain,  near  the  w.  border  of  British  Guiana, 
lat.  5°  9'  40"  n.,  long.  60°  48'  w.  With  its  companion, 
Kukenam,  it  constitutes  an  extraordinary  formation  of  two 
pinkish  sandstone  tables— Mt.  R.  being  12  m.  long.  First 
sloping  gradually  upward  from  4,925  to  7,759  ft.  above 
sea-level,  Mt.  R.  next  rises  2,000  ft.  more  in  a  stupendous 
perpendicular  cliff,  down  which  dash  foaming  cataracts, 
one  being  2,000  ft.  high,  prob.  highest  in  the  world.  Mt 
R  was  scaled  first  by  Mr.  E.  F.  Im  Thurn,  1884,  Dec.  18. 


Roquelaure— Time  of 
George  II. 


RORAL -RORQUAL. 

RORAL,  a.  rb'ral  [L.  roralis — from  ros,  roris,  dew]: 
pertaining  to  dew;  consisting  of  dew;  dewlike;  dewy:  also 
Rome,  a.  ro'rlk  [L.  ros  (root  ror),  dew,  and  term.  ~ic],  used 
in  the  phrase  Roric  Figures:  see  Cohesion  Figures. 

RORQUAL,  n.  rgr'kwal  [Norw.  rorqualus,s.  whale  with 
folds],  (Balcenoptera,  or  Physalus):  genus  of  Cetacea  of  the 
same  family  {Balcenidce)  to  which  the  Greenland  whale  be- 
longs; but  distinguished  by  having  a  dorsal  fin— not  large, 
and  with  its  point  directed  backward;  also  by  the  form  of 
the  head,  which,  instead  of  having  the  upper  jaw  much 
arched,  as  in  the  Greenland  whale,  has  it  in  the  skeleton 
nearly  straight,  the  plates  of  baleen  or  whalebone  being 
therefore  much  shorter,  whi'e  along  the  throat  and  belly  are 
many  longitudinal  folds,  allowing  of  the  distention  of  the 
integuments  so  as  to  form  a  great  pouch  for  reception  of 
water  and  prey,  to  be  afterward  sifted  by  the  plates  of 
baleen.  For  a  long  time  these  folds  of  the  throat  and 
belly  were  a  puzzle  to  naturalists,  but  their  use  seems  now 
ascertained.  The  form  is  more  elongated  than  in  the 
Greenland  whale,  and,  as  the  girth  of  the  largest  rorquals 
has  been  found  equal  to  that  of  the  largest  Greenland 
whales,  the  rorquals  appear  to  be  the  largest  of  the  Ceta- 
cea, and  indeed  of  all  animals  at  present  existing  in  the 
world.   The  species,  which  in  general  are  called  Firmer 


Northern  Rorqual. 


whales,  include  the  Common  R.  (B.  musculus),  60-70  ft. 
in  length;  the  Blue  R.  (B.  Sibbaldii  or  maximus),  80  ft.; 
Rudolphi's  R.  (B.  borealis),  50  ft. ;  the  Lesser  R.  (B.  ros* 
irata),  30  ft.;  all  these  inhabiting  the  north  Atlantic.  In 
the  Pacific  occurs  the  Sulphur-bottom  whale  (B  sul- 
phured). Individuals  of  one  or  another  of  the  Atlantic 
species  are  occasionally  stranded  on  our  coast,  or  towed  in 
by  vessels;  and  skeletons  may  be  seen  in  the  larger  mu- 
seums. The  Blue  R.  is  dark  bluish-gray,  whitish  beneath: 
it  is  found  in  the  arctic  seas,  visiting  also  those  of  n.  tem- 
perate regions.  When  it  comes  to  the  surface  of  the  water 
to  blow,  it  does  not  lie  motionless,  as  the  Greenland  whale 
usually  does,  but  swims  at  the  rate  of  about  five  m.  an 
hour;  and  in  blowing,  it  makes  a  prodigious  noise.  Its 
speed,  when  harpooned,  is  very  great.   Scoresby  mentions 


ROSA. 


an  instance  of  one  carrying  out  3,000  ft.  of  line  in  a  minute. 
It  is  not  easily  captured;  and  whalers  dislike  it,  because 
the  Greenland  whale  is  seldom  found  near  it,  while  its  own 
value  is  very  inferior,  owing  to  the  comparative  thinness 
of  the  blubber,  and  the  shortness  and  inferior  quality  of 
the  whalebone.  It  is,  however,  an  important  object  of 
pursuit  to  the  Laplanders  and  Greenlanders,  who  exhaust 
it  by  assailing  it  with  weapon  after  weapon,  and  finally 
divide  the  spoil.  A  large  K.  yields  4,000  gallons  of  oil. — 
The  R.  does  not  feed  so  exclusively  on  small  prey — 
acaleplue,  mollusks,  etc. — as  the  Greenland  whale.  Its 
gullet  is  much  wider,  and  it  preys  much  on  fishes,  the 
shoals  of  which  it  follows  into  bays  and  estuaries,  devour- 
ing them  in  multitudes  The  stomach  of  a  R.  has  been 
found  to  contain  600  large  cod  and  a  great  quantity  of 
pilchards.  One,  78  ft.  long,  which  frequented  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  Scotland,  for  20  years,  was  well  known  to  the 
fishermen  there,  and  much  detested  by  them:  it  was  at 
last  stranded  at  Abercorn  1692.  Other  specimens  described 
are  the  Mediterranean  R.  {B.  antiquorum),  and  the  Black 
whale  of  the  s.  Pacific  (B.  australis). 

ROSA,  voza,  Euphrosyne  Parepa  (Parepa-Rosa): 
soprano  singer;  1836-1874,  Jan.  21;  b.  Edinburgh.  Her 
father  was  a  native  of  Walachia.  Her  mother,  Elizabeth 
Seguin,  trained  R.  to  be  a  linger,  and  placed  her  under  the 
tuition  of  Crescentini,  Panseron,  and  Bordogni.  Her  debut 
was  at  Malta  1855  as  Amina  in  La  Sonnambula,  and 
she  then  took  the  stage-name  Parepa.  She  married  Capt. 
Carvell,  ex-officer  of  the  Brit.  E.  India  Co.'s  service,  1863, 
and  then  quit  the  stage;  but  was  left  a  widow  1865,  and 
having  lost  her  property  by  an  unwise  investment,  wa?< 
obliged  to  return  to  her  profession.  She  made  the  tour  of 
the  United  States  1865,  and  again  1866-7.  Having  mar- 
ried Carl  Rosa,  violinist,  during  the  latter  tour,  she  and 
her  husband  organized  an  Eng.  opera  co.  on  their  own 
account,  and  made  tours  in  this  country  1869-71.  During 
the  season  of  1872-3  she  sang  in  It.  opera  at  Cairo.  She  was 
about  to  revisit  America  with  a  company  when  she  died  in 
London.  Her  voice  was  a  soprano  of  great  power,  purity, 
and  compass,  and  had  been  thoroughly  trained.  In  ora- 
torio it  was  remarkably  effective. 

RO'SA,  Mon'te:  see  Monte  Rosa. 

RO  SA,  Saint:  saint  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  Chh. :  1580- 
1317,  Aug.  24;  b.  Lima,  Peru;  sometimes  called  St.  Rose 
of  Lima.  Her  parents,  who  were  wealthy  Spaniards,  had 
her  christened  Isabel,  but  gave  to  her  in  childhood  the  pet 
name  of  Rosa,  by  which  she  was  afterward  known.  They 
lost  their  property,  and  were  supported  by  her  labor,  while 
she  was  living  the  life  of  a  recluse,  and  she  eventually 
entered  the  third  order  of  St.  Dominic.  She  was  canonized 
by  Pope  Clement  X.  1671,  and  her  feast  is  Aug.  30.  She 
is  the  only  saint  of  American  birth.    She  died  at  Lima. 


7 


ROSA-ROSACEA. 

RO'SA,  Salvator:  renowned  painter  of  the  Neapolitan 
school:  1615,  June  or  July— 1673,  Mar.  15;  b.  Renella,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Naples.  His  first  instructor  was  Fran- 
cesco  Francaziani,  who  had  married  his  sister.  His  father 
died  when  R.  was  aged  17,  leaving  his  family  in  poverty; 
and  R/s  earliest  landscapes  were  sold  for  a  few  pence;  but 
some  of  them  attracted  the  notice  of  Lanfranco,  who,  pur- 
chasing them,  enabled  and  encouraged  the  young  artist  to 
pursue  his  studies.  He  became  a  pupil  of  Aniello  Falcone, 
painter  of  battle-pieces,  and  afterward  a  pupil  of  Spagno- 
letto.  Having  gone  to  Rome,  he  was  employed  to  paint 
an  altar-piece  and  other  works  by  the  Neapolitan  cardinal, 
Brancacci,  and  he  accompanied  Prince  Carlo  de'  Medici  to 
Florence,  and  executed  several  important  works  for  him. 
He  finally  settled  in  Rome  1638,  and  died  there.  Salvator 
has  great  reputation  as  a  painter,  due  mainly  to  his  land- 
scapes, which,  though  faulty  in  many  respects,  arrest 
attention  by  originality  in  subject  and  treatment,  being 
generally  representations  of  wild  and  savage  scenes, 
executed  with  freedom  and  decision,  and  at  times  with 
grandeur.  Salvator  executed  numerous  etchings,  highly 
characteristic  of  his  peculiar  style.  In  art,  R.  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  leaders  into  the  modern  era  of  romance  and 
picturesqueness. — In  disposition,  R.  was  gay  and  jovial, 
though  not  vicious  according  to  the  standard  of  those 
times:  he  was  generous,  though  vain  of  his  own  perform- 
ances; and  kind,  though  sharp  of  tongue.  Indeed,  he 
earned  a  rank  among  satirists  by  his  rough,  denunciatory, 
but  brilliant  Satires,  published  nearly  half  a  century  after 
his  death. 

ROSACEA,  ro-zd'se-a,  or  Gutta  Rosea,  or  Acne 
Rosacea:  disease  usually  appearing  first  at  or  near  the 
end  of  the  nose;  in  some  cases  confined  to  the  nose, 
in  others  extending  to  the  cheeks,  forehead,  chin,  or 
even  the  whole  face.  The  skin  in  the  part  arfected  as- 
sumes a  deep-red  color,  which  usually  disappears  after 
a  time,  but  returns  either  on  no  special  provocation,  or  in 
consequence,  apparently,  of  some  gastric  disturbance,  and 
after  a  time  becomes  permanent;  pustules  of  acne — a 
chronic  pustular  disease  of  the  skin — now  appear,  and 
their  yellowness  contrasts  strongly  with  the  redness  with 
which  they  are  surrounded.  The  skin  of  the  diseased  part 
becomes  irregularly  swollen,  and  is  marked  with  blue  or 
red  streaks,  caused  by  congestion  and  enlargement  of  the 
capillaries;  the  whole  surface,  in  a  severe  case,  presenting 
a  very  disagreeable  and  repulsive  appearance.  This  affec- 
tion is  no  doubt  often  a  result  of  intemperate  living,  but 
it  may  occur  in  persons  of  regular  habits.  Disorder  of 
the  digestive  system  is  so  often  associated  with  it  as  tc 
exclude  the  idea  that  the  combination  is  accidental.  The 
disease  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  persons  in  middle 
ov  advanced  life,  and  women  are  liable  to  it  about  the 
period  of  the  '  change  of  life:'  moreover  it  has  occasionally 
leen  observed  to  be  hereditary. — The  general  treatment 
consists  in  administration,  under  professional  direction,  of 
*-ae  compounds  of  iodine  and  mercury  (singly  or  con- 


ROSACEA. 

Joined)  in  alterative  doses,  and  Donovan's  Solution  has 
been  especially  recommended;  and  a  nourishing  but  bland 
and  non-stimulating  diet  is  prescribed.  In  the  early  stages 
the  local  treatment  should  be  soothing:  emollient  lotions — 
e.g.,  emulsion  of  bitter  almonds,  cream,  glycerine,  etc.,— 
may  be  occasionally  used  during  the  day,  and  in  severe 
cases  a  bread  poultice  may  be  applied  at  night.  When 
the  affection  becomes  indolent,  the  emollients  should  be 
gradually  replaced  by  stimulating  applications,  such  as 
Eau  de  Cologne,  or  others  more  powerful,  as  the  physi- 
cian may  prescribe;  and  at  a  still  later  stage,  iodide  of 
sulphur  ointment,  in  the  proportion  of  15  grains  or  a 
scruple  of  the  iodide  to  an  ounce  of  lard,  is  highly  com- 
mended. When  the  disease  is  of  long  standing,  it  some- 
times defies  all  known  remedies. 

ROSACE^E,  rd-zd'se-e:  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  many  species  of  great  usefulness,  and 
many  in  high  esteem  for  beauty.  It  contains  trees, 
shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants,  natives  chiefly  of  cold  and 
temperate  regions,  and  far  more  abundant  in  the  n.  than 
in  the  s.  hemisphere,  including  nearly  all  of  our  most  es- 
teemed fruits.  As  a  feature  in  autumn  cultivated  land- 
scape, they  are  of  interest  as  retaining  their  foliage  and  its 
greenness  very  late  in  the  season,  though  a  few,  like  wild 
briers,  change  their  color;  one,  the  Evergreen  Thorn,  is 
characterized  by  its  name.  Within  the  tropics,  they  are 
found  chiefly,  but  not  exclusively,  in  elevated  situations. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  have  stipules,  and  are  either 
simple  or  compound.  The  flowers  are  generally  hermaph- 
rodite, but  sometimes  unisexual;  the  inflorescence  is  va- 
rious. The  calyx  is  4-5-lobed,  generally  5-lobed;  the 
petals  as  many  as  the  divisions  of  the  calyx,  or  occasion- 
ally wanting,  perigynous.  The  stamens  are  few  or  many, 
arising  from  the  throat  of  the  calyx;  the  ovary  sometimes 
solitary,  sometimes  there  are  several  ovaries;  each  one- 
celled,  with  a  lateral  style;  or  a  number  of  ovaries  are 
united  into  a  many-celled  pistil;  the  ovules  generally  two 
or  more.  The  fruit  is  sometimes  a  drupe;  sometimes  a 
pome;  sometimes  follicular;  sometimes  an  acheniunr 
sometimes  a  heap  of  achenia,  or  of  one  seeded  berries; 
sometimes  a  heap  of  achenia,  covered  with  the  fleshy  tube 
of  the  calyx. — This  nat.  order  contains  at  least  1,000  known 
species;  but  in  some  of  the  genera,  as  Rosa  and  Rubies, 
ihe  determination  of  the  species  is  difficult,  and  varieties 
—sometimes  reckoned  species — are  numerous. — The  order, 
as  generally  received,  is  divided  into  a  number  of  sub- 
orders, several  of  which  have  by  some  botanists  been  ele- 
vated to  the  rank  of  distinct  orders,  as  Amygdalew,  Poma- 
cece,  Sanguisorbece.  See  also  Rose:  Rubus:  Strawberry: 
Potentilla:  Tormentil:  Agrimony:  Geum:  Spiraea: 
Cusso:  etc.:  also  Plum:  Pyrus:  etc. 


R(  )SAMOND — ROSARY. 

ROSAMOND,  ros'a-mond,  usually  Fair  Rosamond-. 
daughter  of  Sir  Walter  Clifford,  and  mistress  of  Henry 
II.,  King  of  England;  died  1177.  There  are  many  legends 
regarding  her.  Of  these,  some,  like  those  which  claim  that 
she  was  the  mother  of  Geoffrey,  who  became  abp.  of  York, 
and  of  William  Longsword,  who  was  Earl  of  Salisbury, 
had  no  foundation  in  fact;  while  those  relating  to  her  con- 
cealment by  the  king  and  her  murder  by  the  queen  are 
highly  improbable.  She  was  noted  for  her  beauty;  was 
still  in  her  girlhood  when  she  died;  and  was  buried  in  a 
church  connected  with  a  nunnery  at  Godstow;  but  1191 
her  remains  were  removed  by  order  of  the  bp.  of  Lincoln 
and  were  interred  outside  its  walls. 

ROSANILINE,  n.  rd-zan'i-liny  or  Roseine,  n.  roze-in 
[rose,  and  aniline]:  one  of  the  aniline  dyes,  prepared  by 
heating  aniline  with  arsenic  acid;  a  dye  of  a  rose  or  red 
color. 

ROSARIO,  rosare-o:  town  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Parana,  170  m.  n.w.  from  Buenos 
Ayres,  210  m.  by  river.  It  is  the  most  important  town  on 
the  Parana,  and  is  rapidly  increasing  in  population  and 
commerce  The  annual  value  of  merchandise  imported 
direct  sometimes  exceeds  $7,000,000;  the  exports,  mainly 
wool,  hides,  and  bones,  are  sent  mostly  to  the  United 
States.  R.  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  to  Cordova.  Pop. 
112,460. 

ROSARY,  n.  ro'sg-ri  [F.  rosawe,  a  rosary — from  L.  rosd- 
Yius,  pertaining  to  roses;  rosarium,  a  rose-garden — from  L. 
rosa;  Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose:  It.  rosario,  a  rosary]:  anci.;ntly, 
a  rose  garden,  or  a  rose-bush.  It  denotes  sometimes  a  gar- 
land of  roses,  or  any  chaplet;  thence  a  compendium  of  liter- 
ary '  flowers ' — an  anthology.  The  word  is  appropriated 
specially  toa  string  of  beads  used  as  aids  in  devoiion.  Ro* 
saryof  the  Blessed  Viegin,  in  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church, 
a  very  popular  form  of  devotion,  whose  characteristic  is 
the  use  of  beads  to  reckon  the  number  of  repetitions  of  a 
certain  prayer.  The  name  rosary  has  been  variously 
traced  either  to  the  title  '  Mystical  Rose,'  one  of  the  titles 
under  which  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  addressed  in  the  Litany 
(q.v.),  of  Loretto  or  to  St.  Rosalia's  wreath  of  roses,  well 
known  in  sacred  art,  or  to  the  beads  being  originally  made 
commonly  of  rosewood.  The  origin  of  the  devotion  itself 
Is  popularly  traced  to  St.  Dominic  (q.v.),  and  doubtless 
truly  as  regards  its  popularization  in  its  present  form;  but 
its  characteristic  use  of  beads  is  of  far  greater  antiquity: 
see  Bead.  A  similar  use  of  beads  exists  among  the  Mo- 
hammedans; but  it  appears  that  the  practice  existed  among 
Christians  before  the  time  of  Mohammed.  Originally  the 
prayer  so  repealed  was  the  Lord's  Prayer;  but,  in  the  11th 
and  12th  o,  the  angelical  salutation:  'Hail,  Mary  !'  etc., 
was  added  to  the  Our  Father/  The  rosary,  though 
called  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  is  a  series  of  15  prayers, 
founded  on  the  chief  mysteries  of  the  incarnation  and  pas- 
sion of  our  Lord,  interspersed  with  repetitions  of  the  '  Our 
Father/  the  'Hail,  Mary  V  and  the  ancient  doxology.  It 


ROSAS. 

consists  of  three  parts,  each  of  which  contains  five  so-called 
mysteries  (called  also  'decades/  from  the  ten  'Hail, 
Marys'),  consisting  of  (1)  a  4 meditation/ briefly  proposing 
the  mystery  which  is  to  be  meditated  upon;  (2)  one  '  Our 
Father/  (3)  two  '  Hail,  Marys/  (4)  one  doxology;  (5)  a 
prayer  begging  for  the  special  grace  or  fruit  appropriate 
to  the  particular  mystery:  thus  the  whole  rosary  comprises 
15  *  Our  Fathers  '  and  '  Doxologies/  and  150  '  Hail,  Marys/ 
The  '  Greater  Rosary '  consists  of  the  recitation  of  the 
who'ie  15  mysteries,  with  their  component  prayers:  the 
;  Lesser  Rosary  '  consists  of  one  of  the  three  parts,  or  of 
five  mysteries:  the  '  Living  Rosary'  is  recited  by  an  asso- 
ciation of  15  individuals,  each  engaging  to  say  daily  one 
mystery.  When  recited  publicly,  the  prayers  are  repeated 
alternately  by  the  priest,  or  other  person  presiding,  and  by 
the  congregation,  There  are  various  forms  of  these  devo- 
tions in  different  countries.  The  rosary  has  been  sanc- 
tioned and  recommended  by  numberless  popes  and  other 
ecclesiastical  authorities;  and  Indulgences  (q. v.)  have  been 
granted  to  persons  reciting  it  with  proper  dispositions.  It 
is  regarded  by  Rom.  Catholics  as  one  of  their  most  excel- 
lent forms  of  prayer,  and  as  placing  the  devotion  to  the 
Virgin  Mary  on  its  true  fooling — that  of  a  devotion  to  the 
incarnation  and  death  of  her  Son,  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  ex- 
pressly adapted  (as  accompanied  by  special  instructions) 
for  the  poor  and  the  ignorant. 

The  mechanical  instrument  for  this  devotion  is  also 
called  rosary.  It  consists  of  a  string  of  beads,  equal  in 
number  to  the  '  Our  Fathers'  and  '  Hail,  Marys'  which  are 
recited — the  '  Our  Father'  beads  being  of  larger  size — one 
of  which  is  passed  through  the  fingers  at  each  recitation  of 
the  prayer,  to  prevent  errors  of  memory.  The  beads  are 
of  various  material — berries,  wood,  stone,  ivory,  metal, 
etc.;  and  are  often  of  costly  workmanship,  and  of  consid- 
erable intrinsic  value.  They  are  blesse  1  for  the  use  of  the 
people  by  the  pope,  by  bishops,  and  by  others  authorized. 

ROSAS,  ro'sds,  Don  Juan  Manuel,  President  of  the 
Argentine  Confederation:  1793,  Mar.  30—1877,  Mar.  14; 
b.  Buenos  Ayres;  descended  from  an  ancient  family  of  the 
Asturias.  He  entered  the  army  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  1829 
rose  to  be  gov.  orcapt.gen.  of  his  native  province.  In  1835 
he  recommended  the  election  of  a  single  president  for  the 
whole  Argentine  Confederation,  which  was  falling  to 
pieces  through  feebleness  of  its  local  governments;  and 
the  choice  fell  upon  him.  Intestine  commotion  subsided 
under  his  rule,  industrial  resources  were  developed,  and 
foreign  commerce  rapidly  increased.  The  other  states, 
however,  became  jealous  of  the  growth  and  power  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  which  had  been  made  the  capital;  and  R. 
was  accused  of  a  design  to  advance  unduly  his  native  state 
and  city.-  In  his  attempt  to  compel  Paraguay  to  join  the 
Confederation,  R.  became  involved  in  unsuccessful  war 
with  Brazil;  also  his  policy  led  him  to  an  attack  on  Monte- 
video, for  whose  protection  England  and  France  interfered. 
His  rule  had  by  this  time  become  so  oppressive  that  the 


HOSCELIN-IiOSCOE. 
subject  states  revolted,  selected  Don  J.  J.  Urquiza  as  their 
pres.  and  gen.,  and  defeated  R.  in  a  battle  at  Monte  Ca- 
seros,  1852.    R.  fled  to  England  and  resided  there  till  his 
death. 

ROSCELIN,  ros-lang'  (or  Roscelli'nus,  or  Rousselin, 
ros-ldng'),  of  Compiegne:  b.  in  Lower  Brittany  about  the 
middle  of  the  11th  c. ;  d.  after  1121:  called  the  'founder 
of  Nominalism ;'  but  rather  its  first  clear  definer.  He 
was  strongly  opposed  by  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  and  his 
views  were  condemned  by  councils  1092-94.  See  Nomi- 
nalism. 

ROSCIUS,  rosh'i-us,  Quintus:  great  comic  actor  of 
ancient  Rome;  b.  at  Solonium,  village  near  Lanuvium;  d. 
B.C.  62.  Among  his  admiring  and  affectionate  patrons 
was  Cicero,  who  received  lessons  in  elocution  from  the 
great  comedian.  When  R.  was  sued  at  law  by  C.  Fau- 
nius  Chaerea  for  50,000  sesterces,  Cicero  defended  him  be- 
fore the  judex  Piso  (probably  B.C.  68)  in  his  extant  oration, 
Pro  Q.  Uoscio  Comozdo.  R.  attained  such  perfection  in  his 
peculiar  art,  that  to  be  a  *  Roscius  '  became  synonymous 
with  pre-eminence  ;  and  he  left  an  immense  fortune,  real- 
ized on  the  stage. 

ROSCOE,  ros'ko,  William:  eminent  historian  of  Lor- 
enzo de'  Medici  and  Leo  X.:  1753,  Mar.  8—1831,  June  30  ; 
b.  near  Liverpool,  England.  His  father  was  a  market- 
gardener,  whose  assis'  at  he  became  in  his  12th  year,  after 
receiving  the  rudiments  of  learning  at  a  common  schooL 
In  1769  he  was  articled  to  an  attorney  at  Liverpool;  and 
1774  was  admitted  an  attorney  of  the  court  of  king's 
bench,  and  began  practice.  Meanwhile  lie  had  studied 
assiduously  the  classics,  and  the  Italian  language  and  liter- 
ature. In  1773  he  appeared  in  print  as  author  of  a  poem; 
and  1777  a  collection  of  some  of  his  earlier  pieces  was 
published,  containing  his  first  protest  against  the  slave- 
trade.  In  1796  was  published  vol.  I.  of  his  Life  of  Lorenzo 
<e'  Medici,  called  the  Magnificent,  begun  many  years  before. 
Its  success  was  extraordinary,  and  it  at  once  established 
his  literary  reputation.  It  went  through  several  editions, 
and  was  translated  into  German,  French,  and  Italian.  In 
1805  appeared  his  second  great  work,  Life  and  Pontificate 
of  Leo  X,  for  which,  with  assistance  of  others,  he  had  been 
collecting  materials  for  many  years.  This  work,  which 
also  appeared  successively  in  German,  French,  and  Italian, 
maintained  R.'s  repute,  though,  as  dealing  with  a  contro- 
verted  subject,  its  tone  and  spirit  were  severely  criticised  by 
some,  and  it  was  placed  on  the  papal  Index  Expurgatorius. 

R.  about  1800,  turning  from  the  legal  profession,  became 
partner  in  a  Liverpool  bank,  a  step  which  involved  him 
eventually  in  great  pecuniary  embarrassment.  In  1806  he 
was  returned  to  parliament  for  Liverpool  in  the  whig  in- 
terest; and  had  the  gratification  of  taking  part  in  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave-trade;  but  he  did  not  find  parliamentary 
life  congenial,  and  declined  a  candidacy  the  next  year. 
He  was,  throughout,  a  consistent  opponent  of  the  war  with 
France,  against  which  he  published  several  pamphlets,  and 


ROSCOMMON. 


was  on  all  points  the  advocate  of  liberal  opinions.  He 
was  a  zealous  promoter  of  literature,  and  patron  of  the 
fine  arts.  He  died  at  Liverpool. — R.  was  of  fine 
moral  fibre,  lofty  in  principle,  punctilious  in  business 
honesty,  courageous  for  the  unpopular  righi.  His  works, 
though  not  retaining  their  former  pre-eminence,  keep  a 
place  among  valuable  historical  contributions. 

ROSCOMMON,  ros-kom'on:  inland  county  of  Ireland, 
in  the  e.  of  the  province  of  Connaught;  bounded  e.  by 
the  river  Shannon:  it  is  60  m.  long  from  n.  to  s.,  40  m. 
broad  from  e.  to  w. ;  607,691  acres,  of  which  440,522  are 
arable.  The  surface  of  R.,  which  belongs  to  the  central 
plains  of  Ireland,  is  level,  with  undulations  rising  in  the 
s.  into  the  Slieve  Bawn  range,  whose  highest  point  is 
867  ft.;  and  in  the  n.  into  the  Curlew  Mountains,  of 
which  Slieve  Curkagh  attains  a  height  of  1,098  ft.  Its 
principal  rivers  are  the  Shannon  (q.v.)  and  the  Suck. 
R.  communicates  by  means  of  the  Midland  Great  West- 
ern, the  Southern  and  Western,  and  Northwestern  rail- 
ways, with  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  In  geological 
structure,  it  belongs  to  the  central  limestone  formation, 
in  some  districts  of  which  the  sandstone  protrudes.  The 
soil  in  the  central  district  is  in  general  light,  but  fertile, 
and  affords  the  finest  sheep-pasture  in  Ireland — the 
'  Plain  of  Boyle.'  Some  portions  contain  a  rich  and 
fertile  loam;  but  the  chief  farming  industry  is  the  feed- 
ing of  sheep  and  cattle. — The  county  has  little  manu- 
facture. The  chief  towns  are  Roscommon  (q.v.),  Boyle, 
Oastlerea,  Elphin,  and  Strokestown.  R.,  in  the  ante- 
English  period,  was  the  country  of  the  septs  of  Mac- 
Dermott,  O'Daly,  O'Kelly,  and,  above  all,  O'Conor,  of 
which  there  were  two  branches,  that  of  the  O'Conor  Roe 
(red),  and  that  of  the  O'Conor  Don  or  Dhun  (brown). 
The  present  representative  of  the  O'Conors,  the  O'Conor 
Don,  is  one  of  the  very  few  Irish  princes  who  have  suc- 
ceeded to  the  hereditary  estates  of  their  ancestors.  R. 
possesses  a  vast  number  of  antiquities  of  the  Celtic 
period,  raths,  etc. ;  portion  of  a  round  tower  at  Oran, 
several  remains  of  strong  castles  of  the  English  period, 
and  some  fine  ecclesiastical  ruins,  of  which  Boyle,  Ros- 
common, Tulsk,  and  Clonshanville  are  the  principal. — 
Pop.  about  102,000. 

ROSCOM'MON:  capital  and  assize  town  of  the  county 
of  R.,  Ireland;  96  m.  w.-by-n.  from  Dublin.  It  dates 
from  the  13th  c,  when  it  arose  around  a  Dominican 
abbey,  founded  by  the  O'Conor  1257,  and  a  castle  built 
soon  afterward  by  Sir  Robert  de  Ufford,  the  remains  of 
both  of  which  are  still  seen.  R.  is  a  market-town,  in 
which  corn  is  the  principal  commodity.  It  has  scarcely 
any  manufacture,  and  little  commercial  enterprise. 
Pop.  2,000. 


ROSCREA— ROSE. 

ROSCREA,  rbs-kra:  market-town  of  the  county  of  Tip- 
perary,  Ireland;  94  m.  s.w.-by-w.  from  Dublin,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  branch  from  the  Great  Southern 
and  Western  railway.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town,  dating 
back  to  the  early  Christian  period,  when  a  monastery  was 
built  on  this  site  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  c.  The 
modern  town  is  moderately  well  built;  the  Rom.  Cath. 
church  is  a  handsome  structure;  and  there  are  consider* 
able  remains  of  the  ancient  greatness  of  the  town — a  castle, 
a  lofty  round  tower,  80  ft.  high,  and  ruins  of  two  abbeys. 
The  only  manufacture  is  coarse  woolen  cloth,  but  there  is 
a  market  for  agricultural  produce.  There  are  schools  with 
endowments  of  ancient  date.— Pop.  (1861)  3,543;  (1881) 
2,801,  more  than  400  being  Prot.  Episcopalians. 

ROSE,  n.  roz  [F.  rose— from  L.  rosa;  Gr.  rhodon,  a 
rose:  It.  rosa:  Ger.  and  Dan.  rose]:  well-known  plant,  or 
its  universally  admired  flower,  having  many  species  and 
varieties  (see  below).  Rosaceous,  a.  rb-zbbslim,  belonging 
to  the  order  of  plants  called  Rosa  cea,  -se-e;  like  a  rose; 
in  bot.,  applied  to  corollas  having  separate  sessile  petals  like 
the  rose  (see  Rosacea)  Rosacic.  a.  ro-zas'ik,  applied  to 
a  substance  (rosacic  acid)  of  a  brick-like,  rose,  or  red  color, 
deposited  by  the  urine  in  gout  and  inflammatory  fevers. 
Roseal,  a.  rb'ze  gl,  like  a  rose  in  smell  or  color  Ro  seate, 
a.  -at,  of  a  rose  color;  resembling  a  rose.  Ro  sy,  a.  ~zi, 
blooming  red;  blushing;  charming.  Ro  siness,  n.  -zi-nes, 
the  quality  of  being  rosy;  resemblance  to  the  color  of  the 
rose.  Rose  colored,  or  Rose- 
hued,  a.  having  the  color  of  a 
rose.  Rosebud,  a  rose  before  it 
expands.  Rose-bush,  the  shrub 
or  plant  which  bears  roses.  Rose- 
diamond,  a  diamond  nearly  hemi- 
spherical, cut  into  twenty  four  tri- 
angular planes  or  facets  (see  Bril- 
liant). Rose-drop,  a  confection 
or  sweetmeat;  a  ruddy  eruption 
^  ,  upon  the  nose.    Rose-engine,  an 

t  Kose*cLiamond'  •  appendage  to  the  turning-lathe,  by 
which  a  surface  of  wood  or  metal,  as  a  watch-case,  is 
engraved  with  a  variety  of  curved  lines,  presenting  some 
resemblance  to  a  full-blown  rose  (see  Turning).  Rose- 
gall,  a  curious  excrescence  on  the  dog-rose.  Rose- 
mallow,  the  hollyhock.  Rose-pink,  pigment  of  rose 
color:  Adj.  having  a  pink  color,  like  that  of  the  rose. 
Rose-t urning,  the  use  of  the  rose-engine,  or  the  pattern 
produced  thereby.  Rose-water,  a  perfume  distilled  from 
rose-leaves  (see  Perfumery).  Rose- window,  in  arch.,  a 
circular  window  with  its  compartments  branching  from  a 
centre,  forming  divisions  which  bear  a  general  resemblance 
to  the  leaves  of  a  rose.  Under  the  rose,  a  translation  of 
the  Latin  '  sub  rosa,'  which  signifies,  in  a  manner  that  for- 
bids disclosure;  in  secrecy;  privately:  Latham  connects 
this  phrase  with  the  practices  of  the  secret  sect  of  the 
Eosicrucians  of  the  17th  c,  who  were  popularly  styled  the 
Brothers  of  the  Bosy  Cross  {see  Rosicrucians).  Note.—  The 


HOSE, 

rose  is  the  emblem  of  England,  the  thistle  of  Scotland,  and 
the  shamrock  of  Ireland. 


Rose-wiDdow,  St.  David's,  Wales. 


ROSE:  pt.  of  Rise,  which  see. 

ROSE  (Rosa):  genus  of  plants  of  nat.  order  Rosacea,  cor- 
sisting  of  shrubs,  generally  with  prickly  stems  and  pinnate 
leaves,  the  leaves  terminating  in  a  single  leaflet;  stipuleb 
at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalks;  the  calyx  5-cleft,  its  tube  con- 
tracted at  the  summit,  and  finally  becoming  fleshy,  and 
forming  a  chief  part  of  the  fruit;  the  corolla  of  five  petals; 
the  stamens  numerous;  the  styles  springing  from  the  nar- 
rowed throat  of  the  calyx,  free,  or  aggregated  into  a 
column.  The  flowers  are  generally  of  the  red  tint  well 
known  as  rose  color,  but  sometimes  white,  more  rarely  yel- 
low, and  sometimes  striped.  The  fruit  {Hip  or  Hep)  con- 
sists of  the  enlarged  and  colored  tube  of  the  calyx,  within 
which  are  contained  many  Achenia  (q.v.)  amid  prickly 
hairs.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  even  after  allow- 
ance for  a  great  number  of  varieties  elevated  into  species. 
There  is  no  genus  of  plants  in  which  the  limits  of  species 
are  more  difficult  to  define,  or  in  which  varieties  are  more 
apt  to  be  regarded  as  species.  Roses  are  natives  of  all  tem- 
perate paitsof  the  n.  hemisphere,  and  of  its  colder  regions, 
even  to  Lapland  and  Hudson's  Bay.  Asia  and  Africa  have 
supplied  many  fine  sorts,  but  Australia,  which  produces 
many  remarkably  beautiful  flowers,  has  no  indigenous 
species.  Roses  have  long  been  among  the  chief  favorites 
in  flower-gardens,  for  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  their 
flowers;  and,  more  than  any  other  flower,  emblems  of 
everything  beautiful  and  delightful.  Countless  varieties 
— single  and  double— have  been  produced  by  hybridizing 
and  cultivation.  Among  the  ancients  the  R,  was  sacred 
to  Eros  or  Cupid,  and  Aphrodite  or  Venus,  and  was 
considered  the  emblem  of  joy  and  love,  and  at  the  same 
time  of  prudence.  When  a  R.  was  placed  over  the  door 
of  a  room  in  which  a  Roman  feast  was  held,  whoever 
passed  beneath  it  thereby  incurred  a  solemn  obligation 
not  to  reveal  what  was  seen  or  heard;  and  from  this 
custom  the  term  sub  rosa)  as  applied  to  anything  told 


HOSE. 

in  confidence,  is  derived.  At  a  later  period  the  H.  was 
placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  confessional  at  Rome,  as  a 
symbo!  of  secrecy.  Poets  have  long  used  the  opening 
buds  of  the  R.  as  an  image  of  purity  and  innocence.  It  is 
almost  universally  known  as  the  Queen  of  Flowers. 

Among  the  older  roses  is  the  Provence  (R  ccntifolia), 
native  of  the  e.  Caucasus,  called  also  the  Cabbage  R., 
and  probably  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Hundred-leaved 
R.,  which  is  beautiful  and  fragrant,  It  was  taken  from 
Holland  to  England  about  1567.  The  Mess  R.  (R.  centi- 
f  Ha  muscosa),  an  almost  universal  favorite,  is  probably  a 
'sport/  or  accidental  variation,  from  the  Provence.  It  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  calyx  has  the  appear- 
ance of  being  covered  with  moss.  The  French  R.  (R. 
Gallica)  is  an  old  and  numerous  family,  with  large  flowers 
and  with  many  variegated  sorts,  and  is  popular  in  gardens. 
It  is  grown  largely  in  France  for  manufacture  of  otto  of 
roses.  The  Damask  R.  (R.  Damascena)  of  Syria  is  culti- 
vated in  Damascus  for  manufacturing  purposes,  and  in  gar- 
dens in  the  western  world.  Most  of  the  perpetual  roses 
originated  from  this  stock.  The  White  R  (R.  alba)  is  from 
central  Europe.  The  Sweet-brier  R.  (R.  rubiginosa)  is  in- 
digenous to  Gt.  Britain.  The  Austrian  Brier  R  (R.  lutea) 
is  from  n.  Italy  and  is  the  source  of  the  best  hardy  yellow 
roses.  The  Alpine  R.  is  the  source  of  the  Boursault  R.  (R. 
Alpina),  originated  by  and  named  for  M.  Boursault  of 
Paris.  The Banksian  R.  (R.  Banksiana),  from  China,  named 
for  Lady  Banks,  is  a  prolific  and  beautiful  climber,  but  not 
hardy  in  cold  climates.  Of  the  hybrid  roses,  the  Hybrid 
China  (R.  Indica  hybrida)  class  contains  many  popular 
sorts.  It  is  said  that  the  first  crossing  which  produced 
these  sorts  was  accidental,  but  the  result  led  to  careful  ef- 
forts by  which  many  splendid  varieties  have  been  formed. 
The  Hybrid  Bourbon  R.  (R.  BorbonianaJiybrida)  has  many 
fine  varieties,  which  bloom  well  in  autumn.  The  original 
of  this  type  (R.  Borboniana)  is  supposed  to  have  come  from 
an  accidental  seedling  of  a  plant  in  a  hedge  on  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon.  The  Hybrid  Perpetual  class  has  many  splendid 
roses  which  are  fragrant,  hardy,  and  vigorous.  They 
yield  many  flowers  in  June,  and  some  later  in  the  season, 
but  are  not  as  continuous  bloomers  as  the  Tea  and  China 
sorts.  The  Musk  R.  (R.  moschata),  from  Persia  and  n.  Africa, 
has  a  musk- like  odor,  flowers  in  autumn,  but  is  too  tender 
for  common  cultivation.  The  China  R.  (R.  Indica)  was 
taken  to  Europe  1789,  and  the  Tea-scented  China  R.  (R.  In- 
dicaodorata),  also  from  China,  in  1810.  One  of  the  most  pe- 
culiar of  the  Tea  roses  isthe  American  Banner,  with  a  striped 
crimson  and  white  flower,  which  appeared  as  a  '  sport ' 
1877  and  has  perpetuated  its  markings.  As  a  class,  the  Tea 
roses  are  quite  tender;  and  at  the  north,  except  for  profes- 
sional cultivators,  it  is  better  to  put  out  young  plants  each 
spring  than  to  attempt  to  keep  the  old  ones  through  the 
winter.  The  Noisette  class  of  roses  (R.  Noisettiana)  was  orig- 
inated 1817,  in  S.  C,  by  Mr.  Noisette,  who  crossed  the 
China  and  the  Musk  roses.  It  contains  a  large  number  of 
tine  varieties,  but  many  of  them  do  not  thrive  far  north. 


ROSE. 

The  Polyantha  Remontant  R.  (i?.  Polyantha),  from  Japan, 
is  of  dwarf  habit,  blooms  in  clusters,  and  is  specially  useful 
for  bedding  purposes.  The  Japanese  species  (B.  rugo&a), 
brought  to  the  United  States  by  Com.  Perry,  produces  large 
crimson  flowers,  remains  long  in  bloom,  and  is  a  remarka- 
bly handsome  bush. — Many  native  N.  Amer.  species  have 
been  described,  but  not  all  well  established.  rl  he  Swamp 
R.  (B.  Carolina)  has  hooked  prickles,  and  grows  4-8  ft. 
high;  the  Dwarf  Wild  R.  (B.  lucida),  1-2  ft.,  has  the  de- 
pressed hip  nearly  smooth;  the  Early  Wild  R.  (B.  blanda) 
of  rocky  banks,  1-3  ft.,  has  a  globular  hip;  the  Prairie  or 
Wild  Climbing  R.  (B.  setigera)  of  the  west  and  south  is 
exceedingly  beautiful  (though  not  fragrant)  in  all  its  culti- 
vated varieties,  such  as  the  Queen  of  the  Prairie,  etc.  It  is 
a  great  bloomer,  and  very  hardy.  The  Cherokee  R.  (B. 
Sinica)  is  from  China,  and  often  runs  wild  at  the  south,  as 
do  there  and  elsewhere  the  Dog-rose  and  Sweet -briers, 
naturalized  from  Europe. 

Propagation  is  easily  effected  by  cuttings  and  layers. 
Roses  are  usually  grown  on  their  own  roots,  but  weak  vari- 
eties are  sometimes  worked  on  the  more  vigorous  Manetti. 
The  latter  plants  should  be  set  so  that  the  junction  of  bud 
and  stock  will  be  about  3  in.  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Plants  can  be  kept  in  pots,  but  give  better  results 
when  set  in  open  ground.  The  soil  should  be  pulverized 
to  a  depth  of  12  inches,  and  be  well  manured.  The  earth 
must  be  tightly  packed  around  the  roots  when  plants  are 
set;  and  if  the  weather  is  hot,  the  stems  should  be  shaded  for 
a  few  days.  The  ground  should  be  kept  free  from  grass 
and  weeds;  and,  to  increase  the  number  of  blossoms,  the 
flowers  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  are  fairly  open. 
Pruning  is  to  be  varied  with  the  character  of  the  variety, 
but  dead  shoots  should  be  removed  from  all  plants  before 
growth  begins  in  spring.  Climbing  roses  bloom  on  wood 
grown  the  previous  season  and  need  pruning  only  to  keep 
the  plant  within  bounds.  Ever-blooming,  hybrid  perpet- 
ual, and  moss  roses  bloom  on  new  wood,  and  early  in  spring 
need  cutting  back  about  half  of  the  growth  made  the 
previous  season.  Spring  is  the  best  season  for  planting  at 
the  north;  but  in  warm  climates,  either  autumn  or  winter 
is  more  desirable.  Many  varieties  which  are  not  quite 
hardy  at  the  north  can  be  kept  through  the  winter  by 
covering  the  ground  with  forest  leaves;  but  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  give  this  protection  too  soon  in  the  fall  or 
remove  it  too  early  in  the  spring. 

By  proper  treatment  under  glass,  the  R.  is  readily  forced 
to  bloom  in  winter,  and  immense  numbers  of  buds  and 
blossoms  are  produced  in  this  way  for  sale  in  large  cities. 

The  genus  Lowea  has  been  separated  f  rom  Bosa  byLind* 
ley,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  simple  leaves.  The  only 
known  species  is  native  of  central  Asia. 

The  fruit  of  roses  is  used  in  medicine:  see  Hip.  A  mildly 
astringent  and  agreeable  syrup,  and  other  preparations, 
are  made  from  the  rapidly  dried  petals  and  buds  of  the 
French  rose.  A  syrup  is  similarly  made  from  the  petals  of 
the  Hundred-leaved  R.;  and  water  distilled  from  them, 


HOSE— ROSE-BUG. 

Rose-water,  is  in  demand  for  its  agreeable   odor.  Rose 
Vinegar,  made  by  steeping  rose  petals  in  vinegar,  is  useful 
as  external  application  in  headaches,  for  dissipating  un- 
pleasant smells  in  apartments,  etc.    Conserve  of  Roses  is 
made  of  the  petals  of  roses  pounded  with  sugar,  and  is  use- 
ful as  an  astringent  in  diarrhoea  of  children.    Oil  or  Otto 
(q.v.)  of  Roses  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  perfumes. 
ROSE,  in  Heraldry:  a  badge;  drawn  in  a  conventional 
form  (see  illus.),  never  with  a  stalk,  except 
when  expressly  directed   by  the  words  of 
blazon.    The  rose  gules  was  the  badge  of  the 
Plantagenets  of  the  House  of  Lancaster,  and 
the  rose  argent  of  that  of  York.    The  York 
rose  was  sometimes  surrounded  with  rays  as 
of  the  sun,  and  termed  rose  en  soleil. 
ROSE,  n.  rdz%  or  Rose-rash,  n.  roz-rash 
[rose,  and  rash,  an  eruption]:  in  Scot.,  eruption  on  the  skin, 
of  small  rose-colored  patches,   very  slightly  elevated; 
Erysipelas  (q.v.),  known  also  as  St.  Anthony's  fre,  Ignis 
sacer,  etc. 
ROSE  ACA'CIA:  see  Robinia. 
ROSE  AP  PLE:  see  Eugenia. 

ROSE  BEE  TLE  (Getonia  aurata)  :  coleopterous  insect 
of  section  Pentamera,  of  tribe  Lamellicornes,  and  not  dis- 
tantly allied  to  cockchafers  and  to  the  true  beetles  or 
Scarabmi.  It  is  about  an  inch  long,  of  shining  green 
above,  coppery  red  underneath. 

ROSEBERY,  roz'ber-l,  Archibald  Philip  Primrose, 
Earl  of,  ll.d.  ,  p  c.  :  born  London,  1847,  May  7  ;  son  of 
Archibald,  Lord  Dalmeny.  On  the  death  of  his  grand- 
father, to  whose  title  he  succeeded,  he  left  Christ-Church, 
Oxford,  without  completing  his  college  course ;  spent 
some  time  in  foreign  travel,  and  appeared  in  public  life 
1871,  when  he  made  a  speech  in  the  house  of  lords  which 
won  great  favor.  In  1874  he  was  pres.  of  the  Social  Sci- 
ence Congress  at  Glasgow,  was  married  1878  to  a  daughter 
of  Baron  Mayer  de  Rothschild,  and  1880  was  elected  lord 
rector  of  the  Univ.  of  Edinburgh  ;  was  under-sec.  of  state 
for  the  home  office  1881-83  ;  became  first  commissioner  of 
works  1884,  sec.  for  foreign  affairs  1886,  and  a  member  of 
the  London  county  council  1889.  He  is  a  liberal  in  poli- 
tics, is  one  of  the  leaders  of  his  party,  and  is  interested  in 
various  philanthropic  movements.  He  became  Secretary 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  under  Gladstone  1892,  and 
succeeded  Gladstone  as  premier  1894,  holding  that  position 
until  the  Liberals  went  out  of  power  1895.  In  1896,  Oct.  6, 
he  resigned  the  leadership  of  the  Liberal  party.  His  wife 
died  1890,  Nov.  19. 

ROSE  BUG  {Macrodactylus  subspinosus)  :  small  grayish- 
yellow  beetle  ;  named  from  the  fact  that  it  appears  about 
the  time  that  roses  in  open  ground  come  into  bloom.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  destructive  beetles  known,  and  preys  upon 
leaves,  blossoms,  buds,  and  young  fruit,  and  sometimes 
destroys  whole  crops  of  grapes,  strawberries,  peaches, 
apples,  and  other  fruits,  as  well  as  vegetables  and  flowers. 


ROSECRANS — ROSELITE. 

These  beetles  come  and  go  suddenly.  The  period  of  their 
activity  ranges  from  four  to  six  weeks.  At  its  close 
the  males  perish;  the  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
earth  and  soon  die.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  3  weeks, 
and  the  larvse  feed  on  roots  till  autumn,  when  they  go 
deeper  into  the  ground.  They  remain  torpid  during  the 
winter,  come  nearer  the  surface  as  the  weather  grows 
milder,  enter  the  chrysalis  state  in  May,  and  become 
perfect  beetles  and  emerge  from  the  ground  in  June. 
The  most  efficient  remedy  seems  to  be  to  pick  or  brush 
them  from  the  bushes  or  vines  into  vessels  containing 
water,  and  afterward  destroy  them.  This  work  must  be 
done  early  in  the  morning.  Spraying  infected  plants 
with  preparations  of  kerosene,  whale-oil  soap,  etc.,  some- 
times proves  effectual. 

ROSECRANS,  ro'ze-kranss,  William  Starke  :  soldier : 
1819,  Sep.  6—1898,  Mar.  11;  b.  Kingston,  O.  He  grad- 
uated from  West  Point  1842,  was  assistant  prof,  there 
1843-47,  made  various  river  and  harbor  surveys,  re- 
signed from  the  army  1854,  and  became  an  architect 
and  civil  engineer  in  Cincinnati  1854.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  a  coal  company  in  W.  Va.  1856,  and  the  next 
year  formed  a  company  for  manufacturing  kerosene.  On 
the  opening  of  the  civil  war  he  joined  the  staff  of  Gen. 
McClellan  as  aide,  was  rapidly  promoted,  and  reached 
the  rank  of  brig.  gen.  U.  S.  army  with  commission 
dating  1861,  May  16.  He  followed  Gen.  McClellan  in 
command  of  the  dept.  of  the  Ohio,  served  in  the  Army 
of  the  Mississippi,  succeeded  Gen.  Pope  in  its  command, 
and  afterward  followed  Gen.  Buell  in  the  dept.  of  the 
Cumberland;  lost  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  largely, 
it  is  claimed,  through  the  misinterpretation  of  an  order, 
and  was  relieved  1863,  Oct.  23;  but  the  following  Jan. 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  dept.  of  the  Missouri,  and 
turned  back  the  Confederate  invaders  of  that  state 
under  Gen.  Price.  His  services  at  the  battles  of  Iuka, 
Corinth,  and  Murfreesboro  were  of  special  importance, 
and  he  was  breve tted  ma j  .gen.  U.  S.  army  for  gallantry 
at  the  battle  of  Stone  river.  He  was  mustered  out  of 
the  volunteer  service  1866,  and  1867,  Mar.  28,  resigned 
from  the  regular  army;  he  declined  the  nomination  of 
gov.  of  Cal.,  and  afterward  that  of  gov.  of  0. ;  was  U.  S. 
minister  to  Mexico  1868-9;  was  interested  in  various 
railroad,  mining,  and  manufacturing  enterprises;  was 
member  of  congress  from  Cal.  1881-85,  and  in  the  latter 
year,  June,  became  register  of  the  U.  S.  treasury,  which 
office  he  held  until  1893.  He  was  appointed  brig.gen.  U. 
S.  army  1889,  Feb.  27,  and  was  placed  on  the  retired  list 
the  same  day. 

ROSELITE,  n.  ro'zel-U  [after  G.  Rose,  the  famous 
German  naturalist] :  a  deep  rose-red-colored  variety  of 
cobalt  bloom. 

Vol.  32—16 


ROSEMARY. 

ROSEMARY,  n.  rdz'ma-ri,  or  Rosemarine',  -ma-rZri  [L. 
rosmarlnus,  rosemary — from  ros,  dew;  mdrlnus,  marine — 
from  mare,  the  sea:  It.  rosmarino:  F.  romarm],  (Rosmari- 
nu8):  genus  of  plants  of  nat.  order  Labiatm,  and  nearly  allied 
to  Sage  (Salvia),  from  which  it  differs  in  its  filaments  hav 
ing  an  awl-shaped  tooth,  directed  downward  a  little  above 
the  base.  Only  one  species  is  known,  R.  officinalis,  an 
evergreen  erect  shrab  4-8  ft.  high,  with  linear  leaves  and 
pale- bluish  flowers,  growing  in  sunny  places,  on  rocks,  old 
walls,  etc.,  in  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
ind  generally  cultivated,  as  an  ornamental  and  aromatic 


Rosemary  {Rosmarinus  officinalis). 


shrub,  throughout  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  leaves  have  a 
short  whitish-gray  clown  beneath,  a  penetrating  camphor- 
like odor,  and  a  pungent,  aromatic,  and  bitter  taste.  They 
contain  a  large  quantity  of  an  essential  oil,  Oil  of  R. 
used  as  a  stimulating  liniment  to  promote  growth  of 
the  hair,  and  as  a  perfume.  Spirit  of  R.,  made  by  dis^ 
tillation  of  sprigs  of  R.  with  rectified  spirit,  is  used  to  give 
pleasant  odor  to  lotions  and  liniments.  R.  is  to  some  ex- 
tent in  European  practice  used  internally  in  chronic  diar- 
rhoea and  a  relaxed  state  of  the  system. —Oil  of  R.  is  a 
principal  ingredient  of  the  perfume  Hungary  Water  or 
Queen  of  Hungary's  Water. — The  name  Wild  R.  is  given 
to  Ledum palustre,  a  shrub  with  narcotic  acrid  properties. 


ROSEN— ROSENMULLER. 

ROSEN,  ro'zen,  Friedrich  August:  1805,  Sep.  2— 
1837,  Sep.  12;  b.  Hanover.  He  entered  Leipzig  Univ. 
1822,  studied  the  biblico-oriental  languages,  and  went  to 
Berlin  1824,  where  he  studied  Sanskrit  under  Bopp,  and 
published  his  first  work,  Radices  Sanscritce  (Berl.  1827). 
Subsequently,  he  was  called  to  London  Univ.  as  prof,  of 
oriental  literature;  resigning  1831.  The  revision  of  the 
Sanskrit  Bengali  Dictionary  of  Houghton  (Lond.  1835) 
was  his  work;  and  he  compiled  for  the  Brit.  Museum  the 
catalogue  of  Syrian  MSS.  (Lond.  1839).  His  unfinished 
work  on  the  Vedas  was  published  by  the  Asiatic  Soc.  (of 
which  he  had  been  sec.)  under  the  title  Rigveda-Sanhita, 
liber  primus,  Sanscrite  et  Latine  (Loni.  1838).— His 
younger  brother,  Georg  R.,  also  acquired  reputation  as  an 
oriental  scholar. 

ROSENAU,  ro'zeli-now:  town  of  Hungary,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  Sajo,  105  m.  n.e.  of  Pesth.  It  has  colleges 
and  a  Franciscan  convent.  There  is  mining  in  the  neigh- 
borhood; and  there  are  manufactures  of  woolen  cloth  and 
linen,  of  stoneware,  leather,  and  paper.    Pop.  5,000. 

ROSENDALE,  rd'zen-ddl:  township  in  Ulster  co., 
N.  Y.;  bounded  e.  by  Wallkill,  n.w.  by  Esopus  creeks.  The 
Wallkill  Valley  branch  of  the  Erie  railroad  and  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  canal  pass  through  it;  and  within  it  is  a 
group  of  small  lakes  called  Binnewaters.  R.  has  excellent 
limestone  quarries,  and  the  villages  of  Rosendale  and 
Binne water  manufacture  large  quantities  of  hydraulic 
cement,  which  finds  a  market  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
Pop.  (1880)  4,720;  (1890)  6,063;  (1900)  6,278. 

RO'SENMULLER,  Ernst  Friedrich  Karl:  distin- 
guished biblical  critic  and  orientalist:  1768,  Dec.  10—1835, 
Sep.  17;  b.  Hessberg,  near  Hildburghausen;  eldest  son 
of  Johann  Georg  R.  He  studied  at  Leipzig,  became  ex- 
traordinary prof,  of  oriental  lit.  1795,  ordinary  prof.  1813. 
He  was  a  more  accurate  and  solid  scholar  and  a  keener 
critic  than  his  father.  He  shared  the  rationalism  of  his 
time,  but  never  carried  it  to  an  extreme.  His  masterpiece, 
Scholia  in  Vetus  Testamentum  (11  vols.  Leip.  1788-1835),  is 
a  most  comprehensive  and  learned  production,  well  worthy 
of  consultation  on  any  important  point  of  biblical  criticism. 
Other  works  of  R.'s  are:  Handbuch  fur  die  Liter  atur  aef 
biblischen  Kritik  und  Exegese  (4  vols.  Gott.  1797-1800);  Das 
alte  und  neue  Morgenland,  oder  Erlduterungen  der  Heiligen 
Schrift  (6  vols.  Leip.  1818-20);  Handbuch  der  biblischen 
AUerthumskunde  (4  vols.  Leip.  1823-31)  ;  Institutiones  aa 
Fundamenta  Lingua  Arabicce  (Leip.  1818) ;  and  Analecta 
Arabica  (2  vols.  Leip.  1825-6).— His  younger  brother, 
Johann  Christian  R.  (1771-1820),  acquired  reputation  as 
writer  on  anatomy,  etc. 


ROSENMULLER— ROSE  OF  JERICHO. 

ROSENMULLER,  ro'zen-mul-ler,  Johann  Georg:  Ger 
man  divine  and  prof,  of  theology:  1736,  Dec.  18—181 5,  Mar. 
14;  b.  Ummerstadt  in  Hildburgbausen.  He  was  appointed 
prof,  of  theology  at  Erlangen  1773,  primarius  prof,  of 
divinity  at  Giessen  1783,  and  was  called  1785  to  Leipzig, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death.  Among  his  many  writ- 
ings are:  Beirachtungen  uber  die  wrnehmsten  Wahrheiten 
der  Religion  auf  alle  Tage  des  Jahres  (4  vols.  Leip.  1801); 
Predigten  uber  auserlesene  Stellen  der  Heiligen  Schrift  (3  vols. 
Leip.  1811-13);  Scholia  in  Novum  Testamentum  (6  vols.; 
6th  ed.  by  his  son,  Ernst  F.  K.  R.,  Leip.  1815-31);  and 
Historia  Interpretationis  Librorum  Sacrorum  in  Ecclesia 
Christiana  (5  vols.  Leip.  1795-1814). 

ROSE-NOBLE  (commonly  called  also  Penny  of  Gold): 
English  gold  coin,  struck  first  by  King  Edward  III.,  1334, 
and  current  at  the  value  of  6s.  Sd.  sterling  (about  $1.65): 
half-nobles,  oboli,  or  gold  half-pence,  and  quarter-nobles, 
otherwise  called  gold  farthings  and  quadrantes,  were  coined 
soon  afterward.  The  name  was  given  to  the  coin  because 
it  was  of  the  same  value  as  the  *  noble,'  a  money  of  account, 
and  was  stamped  on  one  side  with  the  figure  of  a  rose. 


Rose-noble. 

The  R.-N.  and  its  halves  and  quarters  ceased  to  be  coined 
after  9  Henry  V.;  but  the  'noble,'  the  money  of  account, 
was  used  till  a  much  more  recent  period. — The  noble  also 
existed  in  the  Scotch  coinage,  and  was  equivalent  to  one 
twelfth  of  the  English  coin. 

ROSE  OF  JERICHO  {Anastatica  hierochuntica):  plant 
of  nat.  order  Cruciferm,  which  grows  in  the  sandy  deserts 
of  Arabia;  and  on  rubbish,  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  other 
such  situations,  in  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  East.  It  is 
a  small,  bushy,  herbaceous  plant,  seldom  more  than  six 
inches  high;  with  small  white  flowers;  and  after  it  has 
flowered,  the  leaves  fall  off,  and  the  branches  become  in- 
curved toward  the  centre,  so  that  the  plant  assumes  an 
almost  globular  form,  and  in  this  state  it  is  often  blown 
about  by  the  wind  in  the  desert.  When  it  happens  to  be 
blown  into  water,  the  branches  expand  again,  and  the  pods 
open  and  let  out  the  seeds.  N  umerous  superstitions  are  con 
nected  with  this  plant,  which  is  called  Rosa  Marim,  or  Rose 
of  the  Virgin.  If  taken  up  before  it  is  quite  withered,  the 
plant  retains  for  years  its  hygrometric  property  of  contract 
ing  in  drought  and  expanding  in  moisture. 


ROSEOLA — ROSE  QUARTZ 

ROSEOLA,  n.  rd-ze'd-la  [L  rosa,  a  rose — so  called  from 
its  color]:  common  skin -disease,  included  in  the  division 
Uashes,  and  sometimes  termed  Scarlet  Rash0  In  some 
cases,  it  begins  with  slight  febrile  symptoms  and  gastric 
disturbance,  which  subside  in  two  or  three  days,  when  the 
rash  appears;  in  other  cases,  no  preliminary  fever  occurs. 
The  eruption  appears  first  on  the  face,  neck,  and  chest,  in 
specks  or  small  patches  which  have  tendency  to  coalesce; 
and  in  severe  cases,  the  whole  surface  of  the  body  assumes 
a  uniformly  red  tint.  The  eruption  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  itching  of  the  affected  parts,  and  by  redness  and 
slight  soreness  of  the  throat,  and  seldom  lasts  more  than 
two  or  three  days,  when  it  gradually  fades  away;  and  its 
disappearance  is  not  followed  by  the  desquamation  of 
epidermis,  which  is  one  of  the  natural  sequelae  of  scarlatina 
and  certain  other  skin-diseases.  The  rash  differs  consider- 
ably in  appearance  in  different  cases.  The  disease  is  never 
contagious,  and  one  attack  affords  no  immunity  from  a 
second. 

Among  causes  of  R.  are  irritation  excited  by  dentition, 
gastric  and  intestinal  irritation,  excessive  acidity  of  the 
stomach,  sudden  checking  of  profuse  perspiration,  drink- 
ing of  cold  water  when  the  body  is  overheated,  etc.  It 
often  precedes  the  distinctive  eruptions  of  small-pox  and 
varioloid;  and  is  noticed  to  be  most  frequent  during  the 
prevalence  of  measles  and  scarlatina.  The  diseases  with 
which  it  may  be  confounded  are  erythema,  measles,  and 
scarlatina;  and  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  discriminate 
with  certainty  between  roseola  and  very  mild  cases  of 
scarlatina,  when  R.  is  attended  with  sore  throat.  The 
treatment  is  very  simple,  as  the  disease  would  probably 
always  terminate  favorably  if  left  to  itself.  If  there  is  a 
suspicion  that  the  case  may  turn  out  to  be  one  of  scarla- 
tina, an  emetic  of  ipecacuanha  should  be  given,  and  the 
bowels  should  be  freely  acted  on.  In  ordinary  cases,  a 
few  days'  confinement  to  the  house,  a  spare  and  non-stimu- 
lating diet,  saline  laxatives— such  as  Seidlitz  powders — and 
an  occasional  warm  bath,  if  there  is  much  cutaneous 
irritation,  or  if  the  eruption  has  a  tendency  to  recede  too 
suddenly,  constitute  all  the  treatment  that  is  expedient. 

ROSE  QUARTZ:  variety  of  Quartz  (q.v.),  rarely  crys- 
tallized in  the  form  of  Rock-crystal  (q.v.),  generally  found 
massive  or  imperfectly  crystallized.  It  differs  from 
common  quartz  and  rock-crystal  chiefly  in  its  color,  which 
is  of  a  delicate  rose-pink  or  flesh  color,  sometimes  crimson 
or  nearly  so,  and  is  due  to  the  presence  of  manganese. 
R.  Q.  is  valued  as  an  ornamental  stone,  the  larger  masses 
being  made  into  vases,  etc.,  the  smaller  pieces  into  jewels; 
seals,  etc.  A  bright  red  kind  is  known  as  Bohemian  Rubyi 
sometimes  fraudulently  sold  as  ruby, 


ROSES— ROSETTA. 

ROSES,  War  of  the:  disastrous  civil  contest  which 
desolated  Ed  gland  30  years  (1455-85),  sacrificing  80  princes 
of  the  blood  and  the  larger  proportion  of  the  ancient  nobil- 
ity of  the  country.  It  was  so  called  because  the  two  fac- 
tions into  which  the  country  was  divided  upheld  the  two 
several  claims  to  the  throne  of  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster,  whose  badges  were  the  white  rose  for  York  and 
the  red  rose  for  Lancaster.  After  the  House  of  Lancaster 
had  possessed  the  throne  three  generations  (see  Plant age- 
net),  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  whose  title  to  the  throne 
was  superior  to  that  of  Henry  YL,  advanced,  at  first  some- 
what covertly,  his  claim  to  the  throne.  In  1454  he  was 
appointed  Protector  of  the  realm  during  Henry's  illness, 
and  on  the  king's  recovery  he  declined  to  give  up  his 
power,  and  levied  an  army  to  maintain  it.  For  account  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  see  Edward  IV.:  Edward  V.: 
Richard  III.:  Henry  VI.  The  accession  of  Henry  VII. 
may  be  said  to  have  terminated  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 
though  the  reign  of  Henry  was  from  time  to  time  disturbed 
by  pretensions  of  Yorkist  impostors. 

ROSET,  n.  ro'zet  [F.  rosette,  red  ink  or  red  chalk— from 
F.  rose;  L.  rosa,  a  rose]:  a  rose-colored  pigment. 

ROSETTA,  rbzU'ta:  city  of  Egypt,  on  the  w.  bank  of 
the  old  Bolbitic  branch  of  the  Nile,  about  4  m.  above  the 
mouth;  31°  25'  n.  lat.,  and  30°  28'  20"  e.  long.  The  name 
is  supposed  to  be  an  old  Egyptian  one,  derived  from  Busat, 
or  the  mouth  of  the  plains.— Here  was  discovered  the  so- 
called  Rosetta  Stone,  or  trilingual  inscription  in  the  hiero- 
glyphic, demotic  or  enchorial, 
and  Greek  language,  by  whose 
aid  a  key  was  oLuined  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  ancient 
hieroglyphs.  It  is  of  black 
basalt,  about  3  ft.  7  inches  in 
length,  2  ft.  6  inches  in  width, 
containing  about  one-third  of 
the  hieroglyphic,  and  nearly  all 
the  Greek  and  Roman  portions, 
the  upper  part  and  portion  of 
the  side  having  been  broken 
away.  The  contents  of  the  inscription  is  a  decree  in 
honor  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  by  the  priests  of  Egypt 
assembled  in  a  synod  at  Memphis,  on  account  of  his  remis- 
sion of  arrears  of  taxes  and  dues  owed  by  the  sacerdotal 
body.  It  was  set  up  B.C.  195,  and  is  the  only  one  of  the 
numerous  examples  ordered  to  be  placed  which  has  been 
brought  to  light.  This  monument  was  discovered  1799  by 
Boussard,  French  officer  of  engineers,  during  the  French 
occupation  of  Egypt,  in  an  excavation  made  at  Foit  St. 
Julien,  near  Rosetta.  More  recent  excavations  have 
shown  that  it  was  found  on  the  site  of  a  temple  dedicated 
by  the  Necho  II.  of  the  26th  dynasty  to  the  solar  god 
Atum  or  Turn. — By  the  Arabs,  the  city  of  R.  is  called 
Rashid.  It  rose  into  importance  when  the  accumulation 
of  mud  had  silted  up  the  Damietta  branch  and  destroyed 


Rosetta  Stone. 


ROSETTA  STONE  -  ROSEWOOD. 

the  importance  of  that  city.  It  has  been  much  praised  for 
its  verdure  and  charming  gardens,  which  present  an  agree- 
able contrast  to  the  barren  wastes  around.  The  streets  are 
narrow,  running  n.  and  s.  The  river  has  a  sand-bar  at  the 
mouth,  preventing  entrance  of  large  ships-of-war.  Pop. 
16,600 — of  mixed  races. 

ROSETTA  STONE:  see  Rosetta. 

ROSET  TA  WOOD:  furnituie-wood  of  lively  orange- 
red  color,  with  very  dark  veins;  imported  from  the  E. 
Indies  in  logs  about  12  inches  in  diameter;  but  it  is  not 
known  what  tree  produces  it.  It  is  little  used,  because, 
though  extremely  beautiful  when  first  cut,  the  colors  be- 
come dark  by  exposure. 

ROSETTE,  n.  rd-zet'  [F.  rosette,  a  dim.  of  F.  rose,  a 
rose— from  L.  rosa,  a  rose:  It.  rosetta,  a  rosette] :  ribbon 
arranged  in  a  cluster  somewhat  like  a  rose,  and  used  as  an 
ornament  or  badge;  in  arch.,  a  rose-like  ornament  used 
in  decorations;  in  hot.,  a  cluster  of  leaves  disposed  in  close 
circles. 

ROSETUM,  n.  rd-ze'ticm  [L.  rosetum,  a  rose-garden  or 
bed  of  roses — from  rosa,  a  rose]:  a  garden  or  parterre 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  roses. 

ROSE' WOOD:  name  given  to  the  wood  of  various  kinds 
of  trees,  valued  for  beauty,  and  used  for  ornamental  furni- 
ture.— The  R.  of  commerce  has  been  thought  to  be  the 
product  of  a  species  of  Mimosa,  native  of  Brazil.  It  was 
formerly  said  that  R.  is  the  timber  of  several  species  of 
Triptolomea  (nat.  order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Papilio- 
nacece);  but  that  genus  has  now  been  constituted  a  section 
of  Dalbergia;  and  the  trees  yielding  R.  are,  in  general, 
still  doubtful  in  botanical  classification.  Different  kinds 
of  R.,  imported  from  S.  America,  are  much  used  for  ve- 
neering, in  making  furniture,  musical  instruments,  etc.  R. 
has  long  been  second  in  popular  favor  only  to  mahog- 
any as  a  furniture-wood.  It  has  a  dark  blackish -brown 
color,  beautifully  streaked  with  dark  red,  and  when  being 
sawn  or  cut  yields  an  agreeable  smell  of  roses,  from 
which  it  receives  its  name.  It  is  brought  chiefly  from  Para 
and  Maranham,  in  logs  usually  about  ten  ft.  in  length; 
each  log  is  only  half  the  trunk,  which  is  split  in  two,  that 
the  decayed  part,  always  at  the  centre,  may  be  rejected. 
Violet-wood  and  king- wood  are  from  similar  trees. — The 
name  R.  has  been  given  also  to  kinds  of  timber  grown  in 
Jamaica,  in  Africa,  and  in  Burmah.  One  valuable  kind  is 
yielded  by  an  E.  Indian  tree,  Dalbergia  latifolia,  called  also 
Blackwood,  found  chiefly  in  Malabar,  and  growing  to  a 
height  of  about  50  ft.:  it  is  of  the  nat.  order  Leguminosce, 
sub-order  Papilionacem.  The  timber  is  very  valuable,  and 
is  much  used  in  Bombay  for  ornamental  furniture.  Planks 
of  four  ft.  in  breadth  are  sometimes  obtained,  after  the 
sap-wood  has  been  removed.  The  increasing  value  of  the 
wood  has  led  to  the  formation  of  new  plantations,  under 
the  govt,  conservator  of  forests,  in  several  parts  of  the 
Madras  presidency. 


ROSICRUCIANS. 


ROSICRUCIANS,  n.  plu.  rd'zi-kro'slii-anz  [L.  ros,  dew; 
crux  or  cru'cem,  a  cross — the  founder  being  Brother  Chris- 
tian Bosenkreuz  (i.e.,  Rosy  Cross)]:  alleged  secret  society 
of  philosophers  and  alchemists  in  the  17th  c,  as  famous  as  it 
was  mysterious.  Ro'sicru'cian,  a.  -shi-an,  pertaining  to  the 
Rosier ucians  or  their  arts. — The  name  Bosicrucians  is  ex- 
plained— not  with  entire  satisfactoriness — byMosheim  and 
others,  as  from  ros,  dew,  and  crux,  the  cross.  Crux  is 
supposed  mystically  to  represent  Lux,  or  light,  because  the 
figure  -f-  exhibits  the  three  letters. LVX;  and  light,  in  the 
opiuion  of  the  R.,  is  that  which  produces  gold.  Now  dew 
[ros)  is  the  greatest  solvent  of  gold,  in  the  ancient  alchemy. 
Near  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c. — a  period  of  mysticism 
in  science  and  religion,  when  alchemy,  astrology,  and  divi 
nation  divided  the  public  interest  with  Pietism  in  the  Prot, 
world,  and  with  the  Convulsionist  mania  in  the  Rom. 
Cath.  community — two  anonymous  books  appeared, 
printed  Cassel  1614,  in  German,  entitled  Universal  and 
General  Beformation  of  the  Whole  Wide  World;  together  with 
Fama  Fraternitatis,  or  Brotherhood  of  the  Illustrious  Order 
of  the  B.  G.  (Bosy  Gross);  to  the  Bulers,  States,  and  Learned 
of  Europe;  printed  at  Gassel,  by  William  Wessel.  The  first 
of  these  books  is  a  kind  of  mystic  allegory,  presenting  in 
the  assumed  deliberations  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece, 
and  three  Roman  philosophers  whom  Apollo  had  called 
into  conference,  a  satire  on  the  philosophy  and  the  political 
systems  and  governments  of  the  age.  The  other  book, 
Fama  FraternitatiQ,  is  the  story  of  a  certain  holy  and 
reverend  Brother  Christian  Rosenkreuz  (i.e.,  Rosy  Cross), 
represented  as  living  in  the  14th  c;  a  German  of  noble 
birth,  educated  in  a  monastery,  who  conceives  a  design  for 
reforming  the  world ;  and  after  learning  at  Jerusalem  and 
Damascus  all  the  science  of  the  Arabians,  spends  three 
years  at  Fez,  in  Morocco,  studying  the  magical  science  of 
the  Moors,  and  returns  to  Germany,  where  he  establishes, 
under  the  title  Sancti  Spiritus,  with  the  aid  of  seven 
monks  from  the  convent  where  he  had  been  educated,  a 
fraternity,  the  original  brotherhood  of  the  Rosy  Cross. 
The  story  proceeds — that  these  adepts  framed  a  system 
with  secret  symbols,  and  sent  forth  Father  Rosenkreuz  to 
propagate  the  brotherhood,  which  was  to  be  kept  secret 
for  100  years,  the  members,  however,  meeting  once  each 
year  in  the  mother-house  of  Sancti  Spiritus.  Rosenkreuz, 
the  book  declared,  died  at  the  age  of  106,  and  the  place  of 
his  burial  was  held  secret  by  the  adepts;  but  he  ordered 
that  an  inscription  should  be  placed  on  one  of  the  doors 
of  Sancti  Spiritus:  *  Post  cxx.  annos  patebo.'  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  1615,  a  third  tract  appeared,  also  in  German, 
entitled  Gonfessio,  or  Confession  of  the  Society  and  Brother- 
hood B.  G.,  which  purports  to  be  a  defense  of  the  brother- 
hood from  the  false  rumors  in  circulation  regarding  it. 
The  mixture  of  absurdity  with  seeming  fanaticism  in  these 
books,  and  in  some  similar  tracts  subsequent,  was  long  a 
literary  puzzle ;  but  it  is  now  considered  solved  by  the 
theory  that  they  were  merely  a  serio-comic  satire  on  the 
philosophical  follies  of  the  time,  written  by  Johann  Valeu* 


ROSIERE— ROSKILDE. 
tin  Andreas,  of  Herrenberg,  as  a  mere  exercise  of  humor, 
and  without  intention  or  expectation  of  their  serious  ac- 
ceptance. The  Rosicrucians  were  not  heard  of  for  the 
last  of  the  17th  c. ;  and  neither  their  supposed  connection 
with  the  Illuminati  of  Weishaupt  at  the  close  of  the  18th 
c. ,  nor  their  connection  with  the  Templars,  is  accepted 
by  scholars.  A  book  entitled  Curious  Things  of  the  Outside 
World:  Last  Fire  (Lond.  1861),  aims  to  give  the  impres- 
sion that  the  Brethren  of  the  Rosy  Cross  are  not  yet  ex- 
tinct.   See  Jennings's  Rosicrucians  (2d  ed.  1879). 

ROSIERE,  n.  ro'zi-er  [F,  rosier ;  a  rose  bush — from  L. 
fosdrium,  a  rose-garden]:  in  OB.,  a  rose-bush. 

ROSIL,  n.  ros'U,  or  Rossel,  n.  rds'el  [W.  rlios,  a  moor, 
a  waste  upland]:  in  OE.,  applied  to  land  in  consistence 
between  sand  and  clay.   Ross'elly,  a.  ~el-li,  friable. 

ROSIN",  n.  rdz'in  [another  spelling  of  Resin,  which 
fcee]:  residuum  of  turpentine  after  the  oil  is  distilled  off: 
see  Resins.  When  common  Turpentine  (q.v.),  obtained 
from  several  species  of  Pine  (q.v.)  and  Fir  (q.v.),  is  distilled 
.with  water,  it  yields  nearly  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of 
essential  oil,  while  the  residue  in  the  retort  consists  of 
common  rosin,  or  colophony.  There  are  two  principal 
varieties  of  R.,  one  of  which  is  of  brown,  the  other  of 
white  color.  The  brown  variety  is  furnished  by  tbe  Nor- 
way Spruce  Fir,  and  is  an  amber-colored  brittle  solid,  con- 
sisting of  two  isomeric  acids,  the  sylmc  and  pinic,  having 
the  common  formula  C2oH3o02.  Pinic  acid,  the  more 
abundant  of  the  two,  is  soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  from  which 
it  is  obtained  on  evaporation  as  an  amorphous  mass:  when 
heated  to  partial  decomposition,  it  yields  another  isomeric 
ac  id,  tho  colopJionic.  The  white  variety  of  R.,  known  com- 
mercially as  Galipot,  is  obtained  from  the  turpentine 
yielded  by  Pinus  maritima  (see  Pine),  and  consists  almost 
entirely  of  an  acid,  isomeric  with  the  preceding,  and 
termed  the  pimaric.  On  evaporating  its  alcoholic  solution, 
tbe  acid  is  obtained  ina  semi-crystalline  form;  and  on  melt- 
ing the  mass  thus  obtained,  and  allowing  it  to  cool,  the 
resulting  product  is  a  colorless  glass  as  clear  as  crystal. — 
Common  R.  dissolves  freely  in  alkaline  solutions,  and  enters 
largely  into  the  formation  of  yellow  soap.  The  alkaline 
resinatesare  in  fact  soaps,  but  are  inferior  in  their  cleansing 
properties  to  the  stearates,  oleates,  and  margarates.  All 
the  above-described  acids  of  R.  are  monobasic,  soluble  in 
ether  and  hot  alcohol,  and  insoluble  in  water.  Rosin,  v.* 
to  rub  or  cover  with  rosin.  Ros'ining,  imp.  Ros'ined,  pp. 
•md  Ros'iny,  a.  -W,  partaking  of  the  qualities  of  rosin. 

ROSKILDE,  rds'kU-deh:  town,  on  the  island  of  Seeland, 
which  belongs  to  Denmark;  about  20  m.  s.w.  from  Copen- 
hagen. It  has  a  port  at  the  head  of  the  Isefiord,  and  has 
rail  connection  with  Copenhagen.  Previous  to  1443  it  was 
the  cap.,  and  many  of  the  early  kings  of  Denmark  are 
buried  within  its  limits.  Here  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made 
1658  after  a  war  between  Denmark  and  Sweden.  R.  has 
the  most  beautiful  cathedral  in  the  kingdom.-— Pop.  5,221. 


ROSMINI  SERBiiTI- ROSS 

ROSMINI- SERB  ATX,  r6s-me'neser-bd'tet  Antonio: 
metaphysician:  1797-1855;  b.  -Roveredo,  in  the  Italian 
Tyrol.  From  his  early  years  he  believed  himself  called  to  the 
priesthood,  and  on  reaching  the  canonical  age  was  ordained. 
Later  he  founded  a  religious  order  or  congregation-  the 
Institute  of  Charity;  but  the  brethren  (who  might  be  either 
priests  or  laymen)  were  familiarly  called  Rosminians.  R. 
is  author  of  a  complete  system  of  human  knowledge,  which 
he  has  developed  in  more  than  40  vols.  He  was  a  profound 
and  original  thinker — the  peer  of  the  greatest  modern 
philosophers.  The  most  distinctive  ground-principles  of 
his  system  are:  1.  That  the  idea  (or  intuition)  of  being 
enters  into  all  our  cognitious,  so  that  without  it  th<3y  were 
Impossible.  2.  That  this  idea  is  objective.  3.  That  it  is 
essentially  true,  inasmuch  as  *  being '  and  1  truth  '  are  the 
same.  4.  That  in  the  light  of  this  essentially  true  idea  the 
mind  intellectually  discerns,  first,  the  animal  body  indi- 
vidually conjoined  with  it,  and  then,  on  occasion  of  the 
sensations  produced  in  it  not  by  itself,  discerns  the  causes 
of  those  sensations,  i.e.,  discerns  a  real,  objective  world 
without.  5.  As  being  shines  naturally  to  our  mind,  it 
must  be  what  is  called  the  *  light  of  reason :'  it  is  the 
fundamental  principle  of  all  philosophy,  the  ultimate 
criterion  of  truth  and  certitude.  Two  of  R.'s  works  have 
been  translated  into  English:  New  Essay  on  the  Origin  of 
Ideas  (London  1884),  and  Philosophical  System  (London 
1882).  The  latter  work  is  supplemented  by  a  biography 
of  R.,  catalogue  of  his  writings,  etc.;  the  translation,  notes, 
etc.,  being  the  work  of  Thomas  Davidson,  a  philosopher, 
for  several  years  past  resident  in  the  United  States. 

ROSOLIC,  a.  rb-solik  [L.  rosa,  &  rose;  oleum,  oil]:  a 
term  applied  to  an  acid.  Rosolic  acid,  basis  of  a  per- 
manent blue  (red  in  alkaline  solutions)  dye  (C2oH1603); 
formed  by  action  of  nitrous  acid  on  rosaniline.  Formerly 
R.  acid  was  supposed  to  be  produced  by  the  action  of 
oxalic  acid  on  phenol  in  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid; 
but  the  product  of  that  reaction  is  not  R.  acid,  but  auriu, 
C19H1403.  R.  acid  forms  ruby-red  crystals  with  greenish 
lustre;  is  easily  soluble  in  not  alcohol,  moderately  soluble 
In  glacial  acetic  acid  and  ether,  insoluble  in  benzine  and 
carbon  disulphide;  water  dissolves  it  slightly,  acids  a  little 
more  freely. 

ROSOLIO,  n.,  or  Rosoglio,  n.  rd-zoll-b  [It.]:  a  liqueur 
inade  from  essence  of  vanilla,  essence  of  amber,  and  oil  of 
roses  dissolved  in  alcohol,  to  which  are  added  a  clear  syrup 
of  sugar  and  water. 

ROSS,  n.  ros  [Gael,  ros,  an  eruption  on  the  skin,  and  on 
the  bark  of  trees]:  in  OE.f  the  refuse  of  plants;  in  prov. 
Eng.,  a  disease  on  the  bark  of  trees. 

ROSS,  ros:  thriving  market-town  in  Herefordshire, 
England,  finely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Wye,  14 
m.  s.s.e  of  Hereford.  In  the  parish  church  (date  1316)  is 
buried  John  Kyrle,  celebrated  by  Pope  as  4  The  Man  of 
Ross*  (q.v.).  The  town  has  trade  in  cider,  malt,  and  wool. 
It  is  much  visited  by  tourists.    Pop.  (1891)  3,575. 


ROSS. 

ROSS:  Celtic  word,  meaning  headland;  occurring  as  the 
name  or  part  of  the  name  of  many  places  in  the  British 
Islands  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  as  Roslin,  Culross, 
Rossberg,  Ross  (in  England),  Montrose,  Roxburgh,  Ard- 
rossan.  There  is  another  Welsh  root,  rhos,  signifying  a 
moor,  which  is  found  in  Welsh  and  Cornish  names,  as 
Rossall,  Rusholme.  Iu  Roseness,  in  Orkney,  the  equiva- 
lent Teutonic  term  ness  has  been  superadded  after  the 
meaning  of  the  Celtic  ross  had  been  lost. 

ROSS,  ros,  Alexander  Milton,  m.d.,  f.r.s.l  :  natu- 
ralist: b.  Belleville,  Ont.,  Canada,  1832,  Dec.  13.  By 
setting  type  in  a  newspaper  office,  in  New  York,  he  paid 
the  expenses  of  a  medical  education,  was  identified 
with  the  anti-slavery  cause,  and  in  the  civil  war  was  in 
Canada  as  confidential  correspondent  of  the  U.  S.  govt. 
He  is  prof,  in  a  medical  college,  a  member  of  numerous 
scientific  societies,  and  has  been  knighted  by  several  foreign 
governments.  His  ornithological  and  entomological  col- 
lections are  very  large  and  valuable.  Among  his  works 
are:  Recollections  of  an  Abolitionist  (1867);  Forest  Trees  of 
Canada  (1874);  Friendly  Words  to  Boys  and  Young  Merb 
(1884);  Natural  Diet  of  Man  (1886);  and  Medical  Practice  of 
the  Future  (1887). 

ROSS,  Charley  (in  full,  Charles  Brewster  R.): 
victim  of  a  mysterious  abduction:  b.  Germantown,  Penn., 
1870.  While  playing  with  an  elder  brother  in  front  of  his 
father's  house,  1874,  June,  the  boys  were  accosted  several 
times  by  two  men  in  a  buggy  who  sought  their  confidence 
by  gifts  of  candy.  July  1,  the  men  reappeared,  invited  the 
boys  to  ride  with  them,  and  on  reaching  Kingston  sent  the 
oldest  boy  to  buy  fire-crackers.  When  he  returned  to  the 
spot  where  he  had  left  the  men  and  his  brother,  he  found 
that  all  had  gone.  He  told  his  story  to  a  passer-by,  who 
took  him  to  his  father.  Since  then,  extraordinary  elforts 
have  been  made  to  find  Charley,  b*t  without  the  least 
success.  His  discovery  was  reported  many  times;  the 
abductors  demanded  $20,000  for  his  return;  the  mayor  of 
Philadelphia  offered  that  sum  as  a  reward  for  the  capture 
of  the  boy  and  his  abductors;  friends  and  citizens  aided 
the  father  with  money  to  keep  up  the  search;  and  the 
police,  press,  and  public  generally  co-operated  actively; 
but  all  without  avail. 

ROSS,  Sir  James  Clark,  d.c.l.:  Arctic  explorer:  1800, 
Apr.  15—1862,  Apr.  B;b.  London;  nephew  of  Sir  John  R. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  his  12th  year,  and  served  under  his 
uncle  in  the  Baltic,  the  White  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Scot- 
land, and  in  all  the  naval  expeditions  for  discovery  of  the 
Northwest  Passage  (q.v.)  1818-33.  While  accompanying 
his  uncle  in  his  second  Arctic  voyage,  he  discovered,  1831, 
the  north  magnetic  pole;  and  on  his  return  he  was  re- 
warded with  a  post-captaincy.  In  1839  he  led  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  Antarctic  seas  (see  Polar  Expeditions),  and 
approached  within  160  m.  of  the  south  magnetic  pole.  At 
his  return  1843,  he  received  knighthood;  and  1847  he  pub- 
lished Voyage  of  Discovery  in  Southern  Seas,  1839-43.  Ia 


ROSS. 

1848,  Jan.,  he  made  a  voyage  in  the  Enterprise  to  Baffin  s 
Bay,  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  but  without  success. 
He  received  the  '  founder's  gold  medal '  from  the  Geog. 
Soc.  of  London  1841,  and  from  Oxford  the  degree  d.c.l. 

ROSS,  Sir  John,  c.b.:  Arctic  voyager:  1777,  June  24 — 
1856,  Aug.  31;  b.  Inch,  Wigtown,  Scotland;  son  of  the 
Rev.  Andrew  R.  He  entered  the  navy  at  the  early  age  of 
10,  was  15  years  midshipman,  7  years  lieut.,  7  years  com- 
mander, and  became  post-capt.  1818.  When  lieut.  of  the 
Surinam,  he  was  wounded  in  cutting  out  a  Spanish  vessel 
from  under  the  batteries  of  Bilbao  1806.  His  more  im- 
portant services  were  in  the  Arctic  regions  1818,  with  Sir 
W.  E.  Parry:  see  Northeast  and  Noiithwest  Passages. 
On  a  fresh  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regions  1829,  he  dis- 
covered the  peninsula  *  Boothia  Felix.'  At  his  return,  R. 
received  knighthood,  and  was  made  c.b.  He  received  the 
freedom  of  London  and  other  cities,  gold  medals  from  the 
Geog.  Societies  of  London  and  Paris,  and  various  other 
honors.  In  1838  he  was  appointed  British  consul  at  Stock- 
holm, where  he  remained  some  years.  He  was  author  of 
Residence  in  Arctic  Regions,  etc.  (1829-34),  4to;  Append  ix[to 
same,  4to;  and  other  works.  He  became  rear-admiral  1851. 

ROSS,  Robert:  soldier:  about  1770-1814,  Sep.  12;  b. 
England.  He  graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Dublin; 
entered  the  Brit,  army,  served  in  foreign  lands,  and  1814 
came  to  this  country  with  3,500  soldiers.  With  this  force, 
and  1,000  marines  from  the  blockading  vessels,  he  defeated 
the  Americans  at  Bladensburg  and  burned  the  city  of 
Washington  1814,  Aug.  24.  While  on  the  way  to  Balti- 
more with  his  troops,  he  was  killed. 

ROSS,  The  Man  of:  name  given  by  Pope  to  John  Kyrle 
English  gentleman  of  great  benevolence:  b.  Whitehouse, 
Gloucestershire,  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  c. ;  d.  1724. 
Kyrle  received  his  appellation  from  having  resided  during 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  the  small  town  of  Ross,  Here- 
fordshire. He  there  spent  his  time  and  fortune  in  building 
churches  and  hospitals,  which  procured  for  him  the  -love 
and  veneration  of  his  contemporaries.  Kyrle  may  be  con- 
sidered the  Howard  of  his  age.  Pope  in  his  Moral  Essays 
celebrates  his  praises  under  the  name  of  The  Man  of  Ross: 

*  Behold  the  market-place  with  poor  o'erspread ! 
The  Man  of  Ross  divides  the  weekly  bread: 
He  feeds  yon  almshouse,  neat,  but  void  of  state, 
Where  age  and  want  sit  smiling  at  the  gate: 
Him  portioned  maids,  apprenticed  orphans  blessed, 
The  young  who  labour,  and  the  old  who  rest.' 

We  learn  further,  from  the  same  poem,  that  the  fortune  of 
Kyrle  was  no  more  than  £500  a  year. 


ROSSA-ROSSANO. 

ROSS  A,  ros'sa,  Jeremiah  O'Donovan  :  Irish  rev- 
olutionist: b.  Ross-Carbery,  co.  Cork,  1831,  Sep.  With 
his  widowed  mother,  two  brothers,  and  a  sister,  R.  was 
evicted  from  their  farm  1847:  all  the  family  emigrated  to 
America,  except  R.  He  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the 
Phoenix  Soc,  and  as  such  was  imprisoned  1856,  Dec. — 1859, 
Aug.  He  became  manager  of  James  Stephens's  paper,  Irish 
People,  in  Dublin  1863,  and  labored  diligently  in  organiz- 
ing revolutionary  clubs  in  the  three  kingdoms.  He  visited 
the  United  States  1863  and  65.  The  Irish  People  office  was 
raided  by  the  police  1865,  Sep.,  and  R.  was  arrested  on 
charge  of  treason-felony.  A  packed  jury,  instructed  by  a 
hostile  bench,  found  R.  guilty.'  Asked  'what  he  had  to 
say/  etc.,  R.  said  his  one  offense  was  that  he  was  born  an 
Irishman.  Sentence:  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  re- 
leased 1871,  Jan.,  on  condition  of  quitting  the  United  King- 
dom and  not  returning  for  20  years.  He  has  since  lived  in 
the  United  States,  ever  contriving  means  of  liberating  Ire- 
land. He  has  been  a  prisoner  in  11  prisons — viz.,  Skibbereen, 
Bandon,  Cork,  Dublin,  Richmond,  Kilmainham,  and 
Mountjoy, in  Ireland;  and  Pentonville,  Portland,  Millbank, 
and  Chatham,  in  England.  He  has  written  some  poems 
of  more  than  ordinary  merit.  He  has  written  Prison  Life. 
He  is  ed.  of  the  United  Irishman,  newspaper,  New  York. 
—His  wife,  Hanora  (Eagar)  O'Donovan  R.,  has  much 
talent  as  an  elocutionist,  and,  for  a  year  or  two  before 
R.'s  release  from  prison,  supported  her  children  by  giving 
public  readings. 

ROSSANENSIS,  ros-sd-nen'sis, Codex:  manuscript  of  the 
gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark,  complete  except  the  last  6 
verses  of  Mark;  named  from  Rossano,  a  city  of  s.  Italy,  in 
the  cathedral  of  which  the  codex  is  preserved.  For  various 
reasons,  its  date  is  referred  to  the  6th  c.  It  is  in  uncial 
letters  of  silver  on  fine  purple  vellum,  the  first  three  lines 
of  both  columns  in  gold,  at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter. 
Its  sections  are  numbered  on  the  plan  of  Eusebiusof  Cassa- 
rea.  Scenes  in  the  gospel  narrative  in  water-colors,  and 
40  figures  of  the  prophets,  embellish  its  118  leaves.  The 
text  resembles  that  of  another  purple  vellum,  Codex  N,  of 
the  same  century,  and  agrees  with  MSS.  of  the  6th  c.  rather 
than  with  the  Sinaitic  and  oldest  Vatican,  both  of  the  4th 
C. ,  where  differences  exist.  It  was  discovered  1879,  and  is 
the  subject  of  a  volume,  with  some  fae-similes,  by  Dr. 
Gebhardt  of  Gottingen  and  Prof.  Harnack  of  Giessen 
(1880). 

ROSSANO,  rossano:  city  of  s.  Italy,  province  of  Co- 
senza,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  2  m,  from  the  Gulf 
of  Taranto,  on  a  high  rocky  hill,  surrounded  by  precipices. 
It  is  walled  and  well  built,  is  defended  by  a  castle,  and 
contains  a  beautiful  cathedral,  inlaid  with  carved  marbles. 
Its  fields  are  very  fertile,  producing  grapes  and  lemons. 
R.  was  laid  waste  by  Totila,  King  of  the  Gothx.  Pop. 
15,000. 


ROSSBACH — ROSS  AND  CROMARTY.  - 

ROSSBACH,  ros'bach :  village  in  Prussian  Saxony, 
govt,  of  Merseburg,  8  m.  s.w.  of  the  city  of  Merseburg. 
It  is  famous  for  the  victory  here  gained  by  the  Prus- 
sians under  Frederick  the  Great  over  the  combined 
French  and  Imperialist  armies  1757,  Nov.  5.  A  short 
time  previously,  Frederick  had  been  compelled  to  leave 
the  bulk  of  his  army  in  Silesia  under  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Bevern,  to  check  the  Austrians  on  this  side, 
and  hastened  with  22,000  men  to  oppose  the  invasion 
from  the  west.  The  Prince  of  Soubise  (one  of  the  'ama- 
teur '  French  generals  of  the  period ) ,  who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  confederate  army  of  60,000  men,  thinking 
from  Frederick's  cautious  manoeuvres  that  he  was  ter- 
rified and  desirous  of  retreating,  at  once  charged  for- 
ward with  his  cavalry,  and  left  his  columns  at  the 
mercy  of  Gen.  Seidlitz,  who  attacked  them  in  front  and 
flank  with  the  whole  Prussian  cavalry  and  artillery. 
The  confederates  were  speedily  thrown  into  utter  dis- 
order, and,  being  charged  in  front  by  the  Prussian  in- 
fantry under  Prince  Henry,  their  rout  was  complete. 
The  '  rout  of  Rossbach '  was  so  disgraceful  that  it  long 
remained  proverbial  in  the  French  army.  The  Prus- 
sians lost  (according  to  a  French  account)  only  300 
men,  while  the  loss  of  the  allies  was  more  than  1,200 
slain;  6,000  prisoners,  among  whom  were  11  generals 
and  300  officers. 

ROSS  and  CROMARTY,  ros  and  krom'er-ti:  two 
counties  in  Scotland,  treated  in  the  £  Census  of  Scotland 
— 1881'  as  one  county.  As  such,  it  is  bounded  n.  by 
Sutherlandshire,  e.  by  the  German  Ocean,  s.  by  Inver- 
ness-shire, w.  by  the  Atlantic.  Ross  comprises  the 
districts  of  Easter  and  Wester  Ross,  Ardmeanach,  or 
the  Black  Isle,  and  the  Island  of  Lewis  (See  Lewis- 
with-Harris  ) .  Many  of  the  mountains  are  of  con- 
siderable altitude,  the  highest  ranging  from  3,000  to 
3,862  ft.,  the  most  remarkable  being  Ben  Wyvis.  The 
high  grounds  afford  excellent  pasture  for  sheep  and 
cattle;  and  the  glens  and  low  grounds,  in  the  more 
favored  portions,  have  generally  good  soil,  which,  with 
the  fine  climate,  especially  in  Easter  Ross,  produces 
grain  of  a  superior  quality.  There  are  numerous  fresh 
water  lakes  and  rivers.  The  principal  loch  is  Maree 
(q.  v.)  There  are  other  considerable  lakes,  altogether 
occupying  90  sq.  m.  There  are  numerous  water-courses; 
and  the  cataract  of  Glomach  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
kingdom.  Limestone  and  ironstone  are  abundant,  as 
also  granite  and  mica  slate;  and  there  are  various 
mineral  springs  of  note,  the  most  famous  being  that  of 
Strathpeffer.  About  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c.  the 
country  in  many  places  was  nearly  devoid  of  trees; 
but  numerous  plantations  were  formed,  and  many  parts 
now  bear  extensive  forests.  The  lakes,  rivers,  and  coast 
abound  with  fish;  and  in  the  numerous  bays  and  sea- 


ROSSE. 


Jochs  the  fishery  is  extensive,  occupying  more  than 
17,000  persons. 

The  area  of  the  two  counties  is  3,248  sq.  m.,  or 
2,078,896  statute  acres.  The  valued  rental  1674  was 
£7,000;  the  present  valuation  (exclusive  of  railways) 
averages  £283,730.  Total  acreage  under  all  kinds  of 
crops,  bare  fallow,  and  grass  averages  131,558;  under 
grain  crops,  48,470;  under  green  crops,  27,540;  clover, 
sanfoin,  and  grasses  under  rotation,  36,763;  permanent 
pasture,  exclusive  of  heath  and  mountain-land,  17,836 
The  number  of  horses  used  for  agricultural  purposes 
is  about  8,000;  cattle,  '43,900;  sheep,  326,000;  pigs, 
5,000. — The  chief  towns  are  Dingwall  (q.v.),  Fortrose 
(q.v. ),  and  Tain  (q.v.) — Pop.  76,450. 

ROSSE,  ros,  William  Parsons,  third  Earl  of: 
practical  astronomer,  and  constructor  of  telescopes: 
1800,  June  17—1867,  Oct.  31;  b.  York.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  and  afterward  at  Mag- 
dalen college,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  first-class 
in  mathematics  1822.  During  the  life  of  his  father, 
he  sat  in  the  house  of  commons  as  Lord  Oxmantown 
1821-31;  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage  1841,  and  was 
elected  a  representative  peer  for  Ii eland  1845.  At  an 
early  age  R.  had  studied  practical  science,  especially 
the  improvement  of  the  telescope;  and  in  1826  had  be- 
gun experiments  in  construction  of  fluid  lenses  (see 
Philosophical  Transactions,  1840),  but,  relinquishing 
those  investigations,  he  turned  to  the  problem  of  the 
best  mode  of  constructing  the  speculum  of  the  reflecting 
telescope.  The  two  great  defects  which  had  baffled 
opticians  were  'spherical  aberration'  and  absorption  of 
light  by  specula;  and  in  the  casting  of  specula  of 
large  size,  there  was  the  apparent  impossibility  of  pre- 
venting cracking  ai  d  warping  of  the  surface  on  cooling. 
By  a  long  series  of  careful  experiments,  he  discovered 
a  mode  by  which  the  last  defect  was  wholly  obviated, 
and  the  two  others  greatly  diminished.  The  metal 
for  the  speculum  of  his  great  telescope  (see  Telescope), 
three  tons'  weight,  was  poured  into  the  iron  mold  1842, 
Apr.,  the  crucibles  being  lifted  and  emptied  by  means  of 
cranes;  and  the  mold  was  kept  in  an  annealing  oven  16 
weeks,  so  that  the  metal  should  cool  equably.  It  was 
t>>en  polished  and  mounted  in  his  park  at  Parsonstown, 
at  a  cost  of  £30,000,  the  adjustments  consisting  of  a 
system  of  chains,  pulleys,  and  counterpoising  weights, 
so  complete  in  all  its  parts  that  the  ponderous  instru- 
ment of  12  tons'  weight  can  be  moved  to  point  in  any 
direction,  with  almost  as  much  precision  as  the  ordinary 
equatorial  of  the  observatory.  The  first  addition  to 
the  body  of  astronomical  knowledge  made  by  this 
telescope  was  the  resolution  of  certain  nebulae,  which 
had  defied  HerschePs  instrument  into  groups  of  stars; 
next  came  the  discovery  of  numerous  binary  and  trinary 


ROSSEL— ROSSER. 


stars,  and  a  description  of  the  moon's  surface.  A 
statue  to  Lord  R.'s  memory  was  erected  in  Parsonstown 
1876. 

ROSSEL:  see  Rosil. 

ROSSELLINO,  rds-sel-le'no,  Antonio:  Florentine 
sculptor;  about  1427-79.  He  belonged  to  a  family  noted 
for  artistic  taste  and  skill.  Little  is  known  of  his  life, 
but  some  of  his  works  have  been  preserved.  They 
indicate  a  strong  and  fine  religious  nature  and  show 
remarkable  skill  in  execution  of  beautiful  designs.  One 
of  his  principal  works  is  the  tomb  of  a  Portuguese 
prince  in  a  chapel  of  the  church  of  San  Miniato. 
Another  tomb,  of  almost  equal  beauty,  is  in  one  of  the 
churches  of  Naples;  and  some  smaller  works  exist, 
which,  like  his  more  elaborate  productions,  show  great 
delicacy. 

ROSSELLIN'O,  Bernardo:  sculptor  and  architect; 
1409-04.  As  a  sculptor,  he  was  considered  equal  to  his 
bro.  Antonio  R.  (q.v. )  ;  and  he  became  famous  equally 
as  architect.  His  best  work  in  sculpture  is  in  the  tomb 
of  Leonardo  Bruni,  Florentine  historian,  and  in  the 
fine  reliefs  on  the  pulpit  in  the  cathedral  at  Prato.  As 
an  architect,  he  designed  many  fine  buildings,  and  re- 
stored churches  and  other  structures  at  Rome  and 
elsewhere.  He  was  noted  also  as  a  milit.  engineer,  in 
which  capacity  he  built  the  walls  and  fortifications 
around  several  cities. 

ROS'SER,  Thomas  Lafayette:  American  soldier  and 
civil  engineer,  1836,  Oct.  15,  b.  Campbell  County,  Va. 
He  entered  West  Point  from  the  State  of  Texas  in  the 
class  of  1861,  but  when  President  Lincoln  ordered  that 
class  into  the  field  after  the  attack  upon  Fort  Sumter, 
Rosser  resigned  and  entered  the  Confederate  army,  in 
which  he  was  appointed  1st  lieutenant  of  artillery  and 
later  captain.  In  1862  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel 
and  shortly  afterward  colonel  of  the  5th  Virginia 
regiment  under  J.  E.  B.  Stuart.  In  1864  he  became 
major-general  in  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia.  He 
refused  to  surrender  at  Appomattox;  escaped  through 
the  Federal  lines,  and  while  trying  to  reorganize  scat- 
tered troops  was  captured  and  made  a  prisoner  of  war. 
After  the  war  he  studied  law,  but  did  not  practice.  In 
1868  he  became  assistant-engineer  in  the  construction 
of  the  Pittsburg  and  Connellsville  Railroad;  engaged 
on  the  Northern  Pacific  in  1870,  becoming  the  next  year 
chief  engineer  of  its  construction  through  Minnesota, 
Dakota  and  Montana;  in  1881  became  chief  engineer 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway.  In  1886  he  returned 
to  Virginia  to  reside,  and  in  the  war  with  Spain  in  1898 
commanded  a  volunteer  brigade. 


ROSSETTI. 

ROSSETTI,  Christina  Georgina  :  English  poet :  1830, 
Dec.  5—1894,  Dec.  29  ;  b.  London  ;  sister  of  Dante  Gabriel 
and  William  Michael  R.  She  began  writing  verse  in  early 
girlhood,  and  before  her  17th  year  a  small  volume  of  her 
poetry  was  privately  printed  by  her  maternal  grandfather 
in  London,  the  contents  of  which  foreshadowed  the  genius 
that  was  destined  to  rank  her  with  her  elder  brother  as  a 
mystical,  soulful,  and  felicitous  writer.  She  lived  a  life 
of  deep  but  not  morbid  seclusion,  devoting  herself  to  fam- 
ily affections — chiefly  to  the  care  of  her  invalid  mother, 
who  died  1886— and  earnest  religious  thought  and  prac- 
tice. Her  principal  publications  are  :  The  Goblin  Market, 
and  Other  Poems  (1862)  ;  The  Prince's  Progress,  and  Other 
Poems  (1866) ;  Commonplace,  and  Other  Stories,  prose  (1870) ; 
Sing- Song,  nursery  rhymes  (1872) ;  Speaking  Likenesses  ; 
(1874) ;  Annus  Domini,  a  prayer  fitting  a  text  for  each  day 
of  the  year  (1874) ;  Seek  and  Find,  and  Called  to  be  Sai?its 
(1881)  ;  Letter  and  Spirit  (1883)  ;  Time  Flies  (1886) ;  and 
The  Face  of  the  Deep  (1892).  In  1896  a  vol.  of  her  verse, 
entitled  New  Poems,  was  posthumously  edited  and  pub- 
lished by  her  brother  William  Michael. 

ROSSETTI,  Dante  Gabriel  (full  baptismal  name 
Gabriele  Charles  Dante):  thoughtful  and  powerful 
painter,  graceful  poet,  and  elegant  translator  of  early  Ital 
ian  poetry:  1828,  May  12—1882,  Apr.  9;  b.  London;  eld- 
est son  of  Gabriele  R.  He  was  educated  at  King's  College, 
London.  Asa  painter,  he  was  more  discussed  by  critics 
than  popularly  known;  probably  because  his  works  were 
transferred  into  private  collections  as  soon  as  they  left  his 
studio,  without  the  publicity  of  exhibition.  Although  he 
never  exhibited  at  the  4 Royal  Acad.,'  his  pictures  were 
occasionally  sent  by  their  fortunate  proprietors  to  various 
public  picture-galleries.  Of  these,  his  Fair  Rosamond, 
pervaded  by  earnest  thought,  and  treated  in  a  powerful, 
though  strikingly  unconventional,  manner,  was  exhibited 
in  the  galleries  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Acad.  1860-1.  Of 
his  other  pictures,  among  the  chief  are  Dante's  Dream, 
Ecce  Ancilla  Domini,  and  Beatrice  Dead.  He  contrib- 
uted some  fine  drawings  to  an  illustrated  edition  of  Ten- 
nyson, which,  though  inadequately  engraved,  rank  among 
the  first  of  modern  woodcuts.  These,  like  everything  that 
this  artist  produced,  are  strongly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
the  Romantic  period  (see  Romantic  School),  but  at  its 
best,  and  according  to  its  most  pure  ideal.  R.'s  name  was 
brought  prominently  forward  first  by  his  association  with 
Millais  and  Holman  Hunt  in  the  '  Pre-Raphaelite  Brother- 
hood 9  (see  Pre-Raphaelitism).  While  time  and  experi- 
ence modified  the  practice  of  some  of  the  original  Pre- 
Raphaelites,  R.'c  pictures  displayed  to  the  last  the  peculiar- 
it  ics  of  earlier  clays. — As  author,  R.  is  well  known  by  his 
translations  of  the  Early  Italian  Poets  from  Ciullo  d'Al- 
carno  to  Dante  AUglderi  (1100-1200-1300);  pub.  1861. 
With  his  brother  William,  he  edited  Gilchrist's  Life  of 
William  Blake,  Pictor  Ignotus  (Lond.  1863),  left  incomplete 
at  the  death  of  the  compiler.  Poems  (1870),  new  ed  ,  with 
additions  (1881),  added  to  R/s  reputation.    His  Ballads 


RGfcSETTI-ROSSI. 

and  Sonnets  (1881)  heightened  and  extended  this  reputation 
and  were  received  by  the  critics  with  almost  unanimous 
applause.  Favorite  among  his  poems  are  The  Blessed 
Damozel,  Sister  Helen,  Rose  Mary. 

R.  was  not  only  painter  and  author,  but  a  man  of  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  and  high  accomplishment  in 
applied  and  decorative  art.  He  bore  a  distinguished  part 
in  the  resuscitation  of  Gothic  art  in  England,  both  eccle- 
siastical and  domestic.  Above  and  pervading  his  other 
attractions  was  a  character  loyal  and  true,  with  a  most 
winning  personality.  See  Caine's  liecollections  of  Eossetti 
(1882). 

ROSSETTI,  ros-set'le,  Gabriele:  Italian  author:  1783- 
1854;  b.  Vasto,  Italy.  He  came  to  England  as  a  political 
refugee  1824.  Two  years  afterward  he  published  the 
Oonienlo  Analitico  on  the  Divina  Commedia  of  Dante,  in 
which  he  aimed  to  show  that  in  the  middle  a.^es  all  the 
poets  used  a  jargon  under  which  they  veiled  their  hatred 
of  the  papacy,  and  concealed  tbe  true  religion  under  the 
form  of  a  woman  beloved  by  them.  In  conducting  this 
argument,  he  displayed  amazing  erudition.  His  eccentric 
views  excited  hostile  criticism,  and  R.  replied  with  three 
books:  these  writings,  though  not  accepted  as  convincing, 
have  at  least  founded  a  new  school  of  interpretation  of 
Dante;  and  in  Italy  his  partizans  are  numerous.  He  was 
prof,  of  Italian  lit.  in  King's  College,  London.  In  Eng- 
land R.  married  Frances  Mary  Lav inia  Polidori,  of  a  family 
known  in  literature — an  Italiau  lady  of  partly  English  ex- 
traction.   He  died  iu  London. 

ROSSETTI,  William  Michael:  literary  and  art  critic: 
b.  London,  1839,  Sep.  25;  bro.  of  Diinte  Gabriel  R.  He 
was  educated  at  King's  Coll.  School.  He  holds  a  place 
under  the  govt.  He  has  translated  Dante's  Inferno;  has 
edited  the  works  of  Shelley,  with  memoir;  a  series  of  Lives 
of  Famous  Poets;  and  many  of  the  works  published  by  the 
Early  English  Text  Soc.  and  the  Chaucer  Soc.  In  1850 
Ik*  edited  the  organ  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite  school. — Chris- 
tina Georgina  R.,  a  sister  of  Dante  Gabriel  R  (b.  1880, 
Dec.  5),  is  author  of  several  poems  and  prose  stories; 
among  them  Goblin  Market,  and  Other  Poems  (1862);  The 
Prince's  Progress,  and  Other  Poems  (1866).  Her  later  writ 
lugs  are  mostly  of  a  religious  cast,  as  Seek  and  Find, 
Galled  to  Be  Saints;  Letter  and  Spirit.—  Another  sister 
Maria  Francesca  R.  (1827-76),  was  author  of  an  able 
study  of  Dante. 

ROSSI,  ros'se,  Giovanni  Battista  de:  archeologist:  b. 
Rome,  1822,  Feb.  23—1894,  Sep.  20:  studied  in  the  College  of 
Rome,  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  archeology  and  of 
the  inscriptions  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  Rom.  Church, 
and  won  wide  repute  by  his  discoveries  in  the  catacombs 
of  Rome.  He  is  pres.  of  the  Pontifical  Acad,  of  Arche- 
ology, a  director  of  the  German  Archeologieal  Institute 
in  Rome,  corr.  member  of  the  Berlin  Acad,  of  Sciences, 
and  member  of  the  French  Institute.  He  published  col- 
lections of  inscriptions  and  other  archeological  works  1857 
-01,  04-77,  76-85,  79,  and  82 


ROSSI— ROSSINI. 

ROSSI,  ros'se,  Pellegrino:  1787-1848,  Nov.  15;  b. 
Carrara.  Italy;  of  noble  family.  He  studied  at  Bologna, 
and  at  25  years  of  age  was  appointed  prof,  of  law  in  that 
univ.  On  the  fall  of  King  Murat,  R.  took  refuge  at  Ge- 
neva, where  he  was  appointed  prof,  of  the  science  of  law. 
There  he  published  Le  Droit  Penal,  which  made  him  fa- 
mous in  France;  and  1833,  Louis  Philippe  appointed  him 
prof,  of  polit,  economy  at  Paris.  R.  was  sent  to  Rome 
as  French  ambassador  1845.  Becoming  again  an  Italian 
subject  he  was  called  to  the  ministry  by  Pius  IX. ;  and 
devised  a  confederation  of  Italian  princes,  with  the  pope 
as  their  pres.  This  roused  the  hatred  of  the  Romans,  and 
R.  was  stabbed  to  death  by  an  unknown  hand.  After  his 
death  his  unedited  writings  were  published  in  Paris  at  the 
expense  of  the  Italian  government, 

ROSSIENA,  rbs-se-d'na:  town  of  Europeau  Russia, 
govt,  of  Kovno,  on  the  Dubitza,  a  branch  of  the  Niemen, 
66  m.  u.w  of  Kovno.  Under  the  Polish  govt,  it  was  cap. 
of  Samogitia.    Pop.  11,100. 

ROSSINI,  rots  se'ne,  Gioachino  Antonio:  greatest  com- 
poser of  the  19th  c.  for  the  Italian  lyrical  stage:  1792,  Feb. 
29 — 1868,  Nov.  13;  b.  Pesaro,  Italy;  son  of  a  horn-player 
in  an  orchestra  of  strolling  players.  At  the  age  of  15  his 
talent  was  discovered  by  Countess  Perticari,  who  sent 
him  to  study  at  Bologna.  He  was,  however,  principally 
self-taught,  giving  days  and  nights  to  ohe  great  Italian  and 
German  masters.  His  first  important  opera  was  Tancredi, 
performed  first  in  Venice  1813,  exciting  extraordinary 
sensation  throughout  the  musical  world,  and  raising  its 
composer  at  once  to  fame.  It  was  followed  by  LLtaliana 
in  Alger i  (1813),* II  Turco  in  Italia  (1814),  and  Aureliano 
in  Palmira  (1814),  all  inferior  to  Tancredi.  In  1815  R. 
was  appointed  musical-director  of  the  theatre  of  San  Carlo 
at  Naples.  II  Barbiere  di  Semglia,  most  popular  of  all  his 
works,  was  produced  at  Rome  1816,  and  was  said  to  have 
been  composed  in  20  "days;  it  was  followed  by  Otello  the 
same  year;  and  1817  appeared  La  Cenerentola  at  Rome, 
and  La  Gazza  ladra  at  Naples.  From  this  time  to  the 
close  of  R.'s  engagement  at  Naples  1823,  he  wrote  the 
operas  Mose  in  Egitto,  La  Donna  del  Lagoy  Maometto  Se- 
eondo  (otherwise  known  as  I/Assedio  di  Corinto)  and  Zel- 
mira.  In  1823,  he  produced  Scmiramide,  most  gorgeous 
of  his  operas,  at  Venice,  and  soon  afterward  left  Italy.  He 
visited  London,  where  he  was  received  with  great  enthu- 
siasm. At  Paris,  he  received  from  Charles  X.  the  appoint- 
ment of  director  of  the  Italian  Opera;  and  while  there 
composed  Guillaume  Tell  (1829),  which,  though  ill-con- 
structed as  a  drama,  ranks  musically  as  high  as  any  of  his 
works.  When  the  revolution  of  1830  broke  out,  R.  lost 
the  management  of  the  Italian  Opera.  In  1836  he  re- 
turned to  Italy,  where  principally  he  resided  till  1855. 
With  Guillaume  Tell  he  may  be  said  to  have  closed  his 
career,  except  that  after  it  he  composed  his  well-known 
Stabat  Mater,  a  pretty  and  popular  work,  more  secular  than 
sacred.    His  statue  was  inaugurated  at  Pesaro  1864.    It.  's 


ROSSITciii— KOSTOCK. 

early  works  are  of  flie  established  Italian  type,  though 
originally  developed,  with  stirring  melody,  brilliant  instru- 
mentation, and  enjoyable  vivacity.  Guillaume  Tell, 
equally  original,  approaches  the  German  school.  Prized 
as  R/s  music  still  is,  only  five  of  his  40  operas  have  kept 
the  stage,  II  Barbiere,  Otello,  La  Gazza  ladra,  Bemir  amide, 
and  Guillaume  Tell.  He  died  in  Paris.  See  Life  by  Ed- 
wards (Lond.  1869). 

ROSSITER,  rbs'si-ter,  Thomas  Pkitchakd:  scriptural 
and  historical  painter:  1817,  Sep.  29—1871,  May  17;  b. 
New  Haven,  (Jonn.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Jocelyn,  and 
opened  a  studio  in  New  Haven  1838,  but  was  a  resident  of 
New  York  after  spending  6  years  abroad  1840-46,  and 
again  3  years  1853-56.  After  1860,  he  lived  at  Cold 
Spring,  N.  Y.,  until  his  death.  He  became  an  academician 
1849,  and  received  gold  medals  in  exhibitions  at  Paris 
1855.  His  works  were  highly  regarded,  excelling  espe- 
cially in  color.  Besides  numerous  portraits,  he  painted 
such  subjects  as  the  Return,  of  the  Dove  to  the  Ark,  The 
Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins,  a  series  of  scenes  in  the  ;fe  of 
Christ,  Venice  in  the  Fifteenth  Century,  The  Home  of  Wash- 
ington, and  Washington's  First  Cabinet. 

ROSSO  ANTICO,  rbs'b  dn-tekd:  technical  name  for  the 
red  porphyry  of  Egypt.  It  consists  of  a  red  felspathic 
base,  in  which  are  dispersed  rose-colored  crystals  of  oligo 
clase  with  some  plates  of  hornblende,  and  grains  of  oxi- 
dized iron  ore.  The  name  is  often  given  to  a  red  varie- 
gated marble  of  Italy. 

ROSTEL,  n.  rbs'tel,  or  Rostellttm,  n.  rbs-tel'lum  [L. 
rostellum,  a  little  beak— from  rostrum,  a  beak,  a  bill]:  in 
bot.9  that  part  of  the  heart  of  a  seed  which  descends  and 
becomes  the  root;  an  extension  of  the  upper  edge  of  the 
stigma  in  some  orchids;  in  anat.,  a  beak-shaped  process. 
Ros'  tell  ate,  a.  -Idi,  having  a  small  beak.  Rostelli- 
form,  a.  rbs-tel'li-fawrm  [L.  forma,  shape]:  beak-shaped; 
having  the  form  of  a  rostel. 

ROSTER,  n.  rbs'ter  [etym.  doubtful:  perhaps  a  cor- 
ruption of  register,  which  see:  more  probably  a  contracted 
form  of  rollster — from  roll,  a  list]:  tabular  form  showing 
the  order  or  rotation  of  officers,  soldiers,  or  regiments  for 
any  service  or  duty;  a  list  or  muster-roll. 

ROSTOCK,  rbs'tbk:  most  important  town  and  seaport 
of  the  grand  duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin;  in  a  flat 
fruitful  district  on  the  Warnow,  9  m.  from  the  mouth  of 
that  river  in  the  Baltic,  and  55  m.  n.e.  of  Schwerin.  R. 
consists  of  the  city  proper  and  of  extensive  suburbs  outside 
the  line  of  the  old  ramparts,  now  promenades.  The  uni- 
versity, founded  1419,  has  more  than  40  professors  and 
lecturers,  250  students,  and  a  library  of  135,000  vols.  The 
handsome  new  univ.  building  is  a  Renaissance  structure  in 
brick.  In  St.  Mary's  Church,  a  large  building  dating 
from  the  13th  c,  and  possessing  one  of  the  finest  organs  in 
Germany,  is  the  tomb  of  Grotius.  St.  Peter's,  "dating 
from  the  12th  c,  has  a  tower  420  ft.  high.  There  are 
several  squares,  some  containing  monuments  or  statues. 


ROSTOFF — ROSTOPCHINE. 


Manufactures  of  linen  and  tobacco,  and  tanning,  brew- 
ing, and  distilling,  are  carried  on.  Exports  are  chiefly 
wheat,  barley,  oil-cakes,  and  cattle-bones  to  Great 
Britain;  imports  are  coals,  salt,  iron,  limestone,  her- 
rings, and  other  provisions,  timber,  etc.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  Warnow  is  Warnemiinde,  the  port  of  R.,  at 
which  all  vessels  drawing  more  than  10  ft.  load  and 
unload. — R.  is  of  Slavic  origin,  and  a  shadowy  glimpse 
of  it  is  got  in  the  11th  or  12th  c,  but  the  progress  of 
commerce  and  other  causes,  chiefly  political,  rapidly 
Germanized  it,  and  1218  it  figures  as  wholly  German. 
It  was  a  member  for  centuries  of  the  old  Hanseatic 
League,  long  ranked  in  importance  with  Liibeck,  and 
still  holds  to  a  remarkable  extent  its  ancient  privileges 
- — the  municipal  constitution  of  the  town  being  even 
yet  almost  wholly  republican. — Pop.  54,735. 

ROSTOFF,  ros-tof :  town  of  European  Russia,  one  of 
the  most  ancient  in  the  empire;  in  the  govt,  of  Jaroslav, 
on  the  banks  of  Lake  Nero  or  Rostofsky,  35  m.  by  rail 
s.  w.  of  Jaroslav.  An  important  fair  is  held  here;  and 
there  is  flourishing  commerce.  R.  contains  numerous 
factories,  the  chief  manufacture  being  that  of  linen,  in 
over  20  establishments  employing  nearly  1,000  work- 
people and  having  an  annual  output  valued  at  one 
million  roubles.  Its  chief  building,  the  great  Kreml, 
has  undergone  a  process  of  restoration  since  1901.  Pop. 
14,350. 

ROSTOFF'  on  the  Don:  district  town  and  ferry  of  s. 
Russia,  govt,  of  Ekaterinoslav,  high  on  the  right  bank, 
and  ctt  the  head  of  the  delta,  of  the  river  Don.  It  owes 
its  origin  to  the  transfer  of  a  fortress  to  this  site  1761, 
and  the  definite  Russian  occupation  of  the  Black  Sea 
coast,  since  which  time  its  progress,  aided  by  its  advan- 
tageous situation,  has  been  so  great  that  it  is  now  the 
centre  of  trade  in  s  Russia.  The  export  of  corn,  oil- 
seeds, wool,  tallow,  butter,  iron,  hides,  ropes,  coarse 
linen,  pitch,  etc.,  aggregate  in  value  annually  over 
$25,688,332.    Pop.  120,000. 

ROSTOPCHINE,  ros-top-chen',  Feodor  Vassilevitch, 
Count:  Russian  general:  1765,  Mar.  23—1826,  Jan.  30; 
directly  descended  from  Genghiz  Khan.  He  entered  the 
Russian  milit.  service  as  a  lieut.  in  the  imperial  guard. 
Having  the  good  fortune  to  be  the  first  messenger  to 
Paul  of  his  accession  to  the  throne,  he  was  immediately 
(1796)  created  general;  and  successively  grand-marshal 
of  the  court,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  count  (1799), 
and  chevalier  of  all  the  Russian  orders.  R.  possessed 
extraordinary  influence  over  the  half-witted  monarch, 
and  succeeded  in  preventing  his  vagaries  from  seriously 
affecting  the  government  or  religion  of  the  empire;  but 
he  was  repeatedly  banished  from  court  and  almost 
immediately  recalled,  and   it    was    during    the  last 


ROSTRAL — ROSY. 


of  these  banishments  (to  Moscow)  that  the  czar  was  mm 
dered.  Emperor  Alexander  seems  to  have  disliked  R., 
for  he  remained  in  banishment  till  1812,  May,  when  the 
emperor,  having  need  of  the  services  of  all  his  subjects, 
appointed  R.  gov.  of  Moscow.  On  the  approach  of  Napo- 
leon's army,  R.,  by  extraordinary  exertions,  raised  an  army 
of  122,000  men  fully  equipped,  but  to  his  great  chagrin 
was  ordered  to  evacuate  Moscow.  R.  has  been  unani- 
mously branded  by  the  French  writers  as  the  burner  of 
Moscow,  and  for  a  long  time  this  was  generally  credited, 
111,  1823,  he  published  La  Verite  sur  VIncendie  de  Moscou 
(Paris  1823),  in  which  he  rebuts  the  charge,  affirming  that 
this  barbarous  action  was  due  in  part  "to  the  fervid  pa- 
triotism of  a  few  of  the  inhabitants,  and  in  part  to  the  vio- 
lence and  negligence  of  the  French.  At  the  same  time,  he 
showed  that  the  damage  to  Moscow  was  much  less  than 
the  estimate  by  French  and  English  writers.  R.  certainly 
set  fire  to  his  own  mansion  in  the  neighborhood,  but  no 
other  act  of  incendiarism  has  been  proved  against  him. 
Count  R.  resided  in  Paris  1817-25;  then  returned  to  Rus- 
sia and  died  in  Moscow.  His  daughter-in-law,  Countess 
Eudoxia  R.,  is  considered  one  of  the  first  poets  of  Russia. 
R.'s  works,  which  include  historical  memoirs,  comedies, 
etc. ,  in  Russian  and  French,  were  collected  and  pub.  at 
St.  Petersburg  1853. 

ROSTRAL,  a.  ros'tral  [L.  rostrum,  the  bill,  snout,  or 
muzzle  of  animals,  a  ship's  beak — from  rodo,  I  gnaw:  It. 
rostri;  F.  rostres,  a  rostrum]:  pertaining  to  a  beak;  resem- 
bling the  beak  of  a  ship.  Ros  trate,  a.  -trdt  [L.  rostrdtus, 
beaked,  curved],  or  Ros't rated,  a.  having  a  process  re- 
sembling the  beak  of  a  bird;  in  hot.,  furnished  with  beaks; 
having  a  long  sharp  point.  Ros  trtjm,  n.  -triim  [L.J:  the 
beak  or  bill  of  a  bird,  or  anything  resembling  it;  the  prow 
of  a  ship;  in  anc.  Borne \  an  erection  for  speakers  in  the 


Proyv  of  Ancient  Galley  Armed  with  the  Rostrum. 

Forum — so  called  from  its  being  adorned  with  the  beaks  of 
an  enemy's  ships;  a  platform  or  pulpit  from  which  a 
speaker  may  address  an  audience.  Rostriform,  a.  ros- 
tri-fawrm  [L.  forma,  a  shape]:  beak-shaped. 

ROSTRULUM,  n.  ros'trii-lum  [L.  rostrum,  a  beak]: 
literally,  a  little  beak;  in  entom.,  the  name  of  the  sucking 
apparatus  or  proboscis  of  the  flea  and  like  insects. 

ROSTRUM:  see  under  Rostral. 

ROSY:  see  under  Rose. 


ROT— ROTARY. 

ROT,  v  rot  [Icel.  rotna;  Sw.  ruttna,  to  decay,  to  fall 
nff:  Dut.  rot;  Icel.  rotinn,  rotten:  AS.  rotian,  to  putrefy]: 
to  putrefy  or  decay;  to  be  decomposed;  to  make  putrid;  to 
bring  to  corruption:  N.  putrid  decay;  fatal  distemper 
peculiar  to  sheep  (see  below).  Rot  ting,  imp.:  Adj.  de- 
composing wholly  or  partially.  Rot'ted,  pt.:  Adj.  decom- 
posed wholly  or  partially;  affected  with  rot.  Rotten,  pp. 
rot  n:  Adj.  putrid;  corrupt;  decomposed  by  the  natural 
process  of  decay;  having  some  defect  in  principle;  treach- 
erous. Rot'tenly,  ad.  -II.  Rot  tenness,  n.  -nes,  the 
state  of  being  rotten;  putrefaction;  unsoundness.  Dry- 
hot:  see  under  Dry.—  Syn.  of  *  rot,  v.':  to  putrefy;  cor- 
rupt; decay;  spoil: — of  '  rotten  putrefied;  corrupt;  putrid; 
decayed;  unsound;  defective;  treacherous;  deceitful. 

ROT:  malignant  distemper  most  frequent  among  sheep, 
but  also  occasionally  attacking  rabbits,  hares,  deer,  and 
c  ittle.  It  consists  in  the  maturation  within  the  liver 
and  biliary  ducts  of  an  entozoon,  the  Distoma  hepalicwn, 
or  Fluke  (q.  v.).  In  Great  Britain,  and  some  other  coun- 
tries, it  causes  enormous  losses,  but  it  seldom  appears  in 
the  United  States.  The  liver  is  first  affected,  but  the 
disease  soon  extends  to  the  lungs  and  kidney,  and  at  a  later 
stage  assumes  a  dropsical  form.  Among  the  symptoms  are 
thirst,  blue  color  of  the  skin,  diarrhoea,  and  general  depres- 
sion. The  disease  is  most  prevalent  in  autumn  and  early 
winter,  is  far  more  common  in  warm  and  wet  seasons,  and 
is  principally  confined  to  animals  kept  on  low,  undrained, 
or  occasionally  overflowed  pastures;  which  drink  from 
stagnant  pools;  6r  which  are  fed  on  hay  grown  on  marshy 
soils.  Preventive  measures  are  thorough  draining  of  the 
soil,  supplying  the  animals  with  pure  water,  and  giving 
them  free  access  to  salt.  The  indications  of  disease  appear 
in  2  to  7  weeks  after  the  work  of  the  parasite  is  commenced. 
Turpentine  is  sometimes  given  with  benefit  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disorder,  but,  as  a  rule,  remedial  measures 
are  of  no  avail.  As  the  flesh  is  not  apparently  injured  till 
degeneration  of  the  liver  commences,  it  is  customary  for 
farmers  in  whose  flocks  this  disease  appears  to  sell  to  the 
butcher  immediately  all  the  animals  fit  for  food. 

ROTA,  n.  rb'ia  [L.  rota  a  wheel]:  turn  in  succession? 
the  roll  or  list  to  be  selected  from  by  turn  or  in  succession. 

ROTA,  n.  rb'ta:  in  the  Rom.  C/th.,  a  tribunal  within  the 
Curia,  formerly  the  supreme  court  of  justice  and  the 
universal  court  of  appeal.  These  functions  are  now  other- 
wise assigned. 

ROTA,  ro'td:  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Cadiz,  six  m. 
n  n.w.  from  Cadiz,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  entrance  of 
Cadiz  Bay.  Rota  wine  has  some  celebrity,  and  is  sent  to 
the  British  market.  — Pop.  8,000. 

ROTACISM,  n.  rota-stzm  [Gr.  rdtakismos]:  an  ex- 
aggerated pronunciation  of  the  letter  r,  produced  by  trilling 
the  extremity  of  the  soft  palate  against  back  part  of  tongue. 

ROTANG,  n.  rd-tang':  see  Ratan. 

ROTARY:  see  under  Rotate 


ROTATE — ROTATION. 

ROT  ATE,  v.  ro-tdt'  [L.  rotatus,  whirled  round ;  rota/re, 
to  whirl — from  rota,  a  wheel:  It.  rotare,  to  rotate: 
Gael,  roth,  a  wheel]  :  to  move  round  a  centre  or  axir, 
like  a  wheel:  Adj.  in  bot.,  applied  to  a  gamopetalous 
corolla,  having  a  very  short  tube,  and  the  limb  spread- 
ing out  more  or  less  at  right  angles;  wheel-shaped. 
Rota'ting,  imp.  Rota'ted,  pp.  Rota'tion,  n.-ta'shun, 
the  act  of  turning  a  wheel  or  other  body  on  its  axis ;  the 
state  of  being  whirled  round  (see  below) :  vicissitude ; 
established  succession ;  in  anat.,  the  revolving  motion 
of  a  bone  round  its  axis;  in  hot.,  the 
internal  circulation  of  the  fluids  in  the 
cells  of  plants.  Rotate-plane,  or  Ro- 
tato-plane,  a.  in  bot.,  wheel-shaped 
and  flat,  without  a  tube.  Rotator,  n. 
ro-td'ter,  that  which  gives  a  circular  or 
rolling  motion — applied  to  certain  mus- 
cles  of  the  body.  Rotatory,  a.  rota-  Botate  Corolla- 
ter-i,  going  in  a  circle ;  moving  in  succession.  Ro'ta- 
to'ria,  n.  plu.  -tori-a,  or  Ro  tatories,  n.  plu.  -iz,  the 
wheel-animalcules  or  rotifers,  so  called  from  their  circles 
of  ciiia,  which  under  the  microscope  appear  like  revolving 
wheels  (see  below).  Rotary,  a.  rd'ter-i,  turning  on  an 
axis,  as  a  wheel;  whirling.  Rotary  engine,  a  steam- 
engine  in  which  is  produced  a  continuous  motion  round 
an  axis,  by  the  direct  action  of  steam. 

ROTA'TION  (L.  rota):  state  of  being  turned  around. 
There  is,  perhaps,  no  elementary  idea  which  has  been 
the  subject  of  so  much  popular  misconception  as  that  of 
R.  This  is  due,  probably,  to  the  vagueness  of  the  usual 
definitions. 

All  motion  that  we  can  observe  is  relative — e.g.,  any 
fixed  object  on  the  earth's  surface  has  a  certain  motion 
relative  to  the  earth's  axis,  in  consequence  of  the  diurnal 
R. ;  the  earth  itself  has  a  certain  motion  relative  to  the 
sun,  in  consequence  of  its  annual  revolution;  the  sun 
has  a  certain  motion  relative  to  the  so-called  fixed  stars; 
and  it  is  possible  that  the  whole  stellar  system  may 
have  a  motion  relative  to  something  in  space  beyond  its 
boundaries.  Now,  the  motion  of  an  object  on  the  earth's 
surface  differs  according  to  the  way  it  is  measured :  a 
passenger  sitting  in  a  railway-carriage  is  at  rest  if  his 
motion  relative  to  the  carriage  be  considered ;  he  has  the 
same  motion  as  the  carriage  if  it  be  measured  relative 
to  the  rails ;  and  if  the  carriage  were  running  from  e.  to 
w.  along  a  parallel  of  latitude,  so  as  to  complete  the 
circuit  in  24  hours,  he  would  be  at  rest  relative  to  the 
earth's  axis.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  talk  of  absolute 
motion,  it  must  be  measured  relative  to  fixed  points  or 
directions ;  and  in  the  violation  of  this  obvious  condi- 
tion lies  the  most  common  error.  Thus,  to  show  that 
the  earth  rotates  about  its  axis,  we  may  observe  its 
motion  relative  to  the  line  joining  it  with  the  moon ; 
and  we  observe  that  the  moon  comes  to  the  meridian  at 
intervals  o£  (roughly)  25  hours.  Does  the  earth  rotate 
in  25  hours?   We  know  that  it  does  not,  and  the  error 


ROTATION. 


consists  in  treating  as  an  absolute  R.  a  R.  measured 
relative  to  a  line — that  joining  the  earth  and  moon — 
which  is  itself  turning.  If  we  take  the  intervals  of  the 
sun's  crossing  the  meridian,  we  find  24  hours — a  much 
closer  approximation ;  but  still  not  exact,  because  our 
line  of  reference — that  joining  the  earth  and  sun— is 
slowly  turning.  Would  we  have  an  absolute  measure, 
we  must  choose  a  fixed  line,  or  one  so  nearly  fixed  that 
its  motion  is  absolutely  insensible.  Such  is  the  line 
joining  any  fixed  star  with  the  earth,  and  the  time  of  the 
earth's  absolute  rotation  on  its  axis  is  23  h.  56  min.  4-09  s. 
— the  interval  between  culminations  of  the  same  fixed 
star.  The  difference  between  absolute  and  relative 
R.  in  any  planet  gives  rise  to  the  difference  between 
the  sidereal  and  the  solar  day ;  and  the  planet's  year  con- 
tains just  one  more  of  the  former  than  of  the  latter. 

Now,  suppose  for  a  moment  that  the  earth  were  to 
revolve  only  part  as  fast  as  it  now  does,  there  would 
be  one  sidereal  day  in  the  year,  and  there  would  be  no 
solar  day  at  all — in  other  words,  there  would  be  no  R. 
of  the  earth  with  reference  to  the  line  joining  it  with 
the  suu  ;  that  is,  the  earth  would  turn  always  the  same 
side  to  the  sun  ;  yet  it  would  be  absolutely  rotating  about 
its  axis  once  in  a  year.  This  is  the  case  which  we  ob- 
serve in  the  moon's  motion  relative  to  the  earth,  and  we 
see  at  once  that  the  moon  must  rotate  absolutely — that 
is,  with  reference  to  fixed  directions  in  space — in  the 
exact  time  in  which  she  completes  one  revolution 
about  the  earth.  Those  who  say  the  moon  does  not 
rotate  on  her  axis  make  precisely  the  same  mistake  as 
those  who  fancied  that  the  earth  is  immovable,  and  that 
moon,  sun,  and  stars  revolve  about  it  every  day.  There 
is  a  physical  cause  for  this  peculiarity  in  the  moon's 
motion,  which  leads  to  very  important  consequences 
with  reference  to  the  future  of  the  solar  system :  see 
Tides. 

Several  elementary  theorems  regarding  rotation  may 
now  be  enunciated ;  but  the  proofs,  though  very  simple, 
will  be  given  merely  in  outline.    Any  displacement 


8 


whatever  given  to  a  plane  figure  in  its  own  plane — as  to 
a  sheet  of  paper  lying  on  a  table — is  equivalent  to  a 
single  rotation  about  a  definite  axis.  Let  A,  B  be  any 
two  points  of  the  figure,  and  let  them  be  displaced  to 


ROTATION. 

A.',  B',  respectively.  Join  AA',  BB',  and  bisect  them  in 
a  and  b  by  perpendiculars  meeting  in  O.  Then  it  is 
easy  to  show  that  (1)  OA'=  OA,  OB'=OB,  and  there- 
fore O  is  the  same  point  of  the  plane  figure  in  its  first 
and  second  positions;  (2)  AO  A'  =  BOB',  and  is 
therefore  the  angle  through  which  the  whole  has  turned 
about  the  point  O.  If  AA'  and  BB'  are  parallel,  this 
construction  fails;  but  in  this  case,  if  AB  and  A'B'  do 
not  intersect,  the  motion  is  simply  one  of  translation : 
if  they  do  intersect,  the  point  of  intersection  is  the  axis. 

Any  number  of  successive  rotations  about  different 
points  constitute,  of  course,  a  displacement,  and  are 
therefore  reducible  to  one  rotation. 

Two  equal  and  opposite  rotations  about  different 
points  give  rise  to  a  mere  translation. 

The  first  two  of  these  propositions  are  true  of  figures 
on  a  sphere  as  well  as  on  a  plane  surface ;  for  the  figure 
above  has  only  to  be  drawn  with  great  circles  instead 
of  straight  lines,  and  the  proof  applies  letter  for  letter ; 
jnly,  here,  the  fir&t  case  of  exception  cannot  occur,  be- 
cause two  great  circles  must  intersect.  Hence  it  follows 
that,  if  the  centre  of  a  sphere  be  fixed,  any  displacement 
whatever  is  equivalent  to  a  rotation  about  some  axis ; 
that  is,  after  any  motion  whatever  of  a  rigid  body,  one 
point  of  which  is  fixed,  there  is  always  one  line  of  parti- 
cles which  remains  undisturbed.  (This  simple  propo- 
sition has  been  found  very  hard  to  believe,  even  by  men 
of  considerable  intelligence.)  Hence  rotations  about 
any  number  of  axes  passing  through  the  same  fixed 
point  may  be  compounded  into  one ;  and,  generally,  any 
motion  whatever  of  a  rigid  body  maybe  decomposed 
into  two,  one  of  which  is  a  motion  of  translation  of 
some  chosen  point,  and  the  other  rotation  about  some 
axis  through  that  point.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  moon, 
we  have  a  motion  of  translation  of  its  centre  in  its  orbit, 
and  one  of  rotation  about  its  axis ;  or  we  may  combine 
them  into  a  single  rotation,  in  the  period  of  a  lunar 
month,  about  a  fixed  axis  passing  through  the  earth's 
centre. 

Again,  any  displacement  of  a  plane  figure  in  its  plane, 
or  of  a  spherical  figure  on  a  sphere,  may  be  produced 
by  the  rolling  of  a  curve  fixed  in  the  figure  upon  an- 
other fixed  on  the  plane  or  sphere.  Hence  the  most 
general  motion  of  a  body,  with  reference  to  one  point, 
consists  in  the  rolling  of  a  cone  fixed  in  the  body  upon 
another  fixed  in  space,  their  vertices  being  at  the  chosen 
point.  To  this,  when  the  cones  in  question  are  right 
circular  cones,  belong  the  Precession  (q.v.)  and  Nutation 
(q.v.)  of  the  earth  and  of  a  top,  the  evolutions  of  an  ill- 
thrown  quoit. 


ROTATION. 

ROTA'TION,  Magnetism  of:  term  denoting  one  of 
a  class  of  phenomena  connected  with  rotation,  illustra- 
tive of  a  law  of  magnetic  induction.  The  magnetism  of 
rotation  was  discovered  by  Arago  1824-5.  He  observed 
that  when  a  magnetic  needle  was  made  to  oscillate  im- 
mediately above. a  copper  plate,  it  came  sooner  to  rest 
than  it  did  otherwise.  The  oscillations  were  made  in 
the  same  time  as  when  away  from  the  plate,  but  they 
were  less  in  extent ;  the  plate  seemed  thus  to  act  as  a 
damper  to  the  motions  of  the  needle.  This  being  the 
action  of  the  plate  at  rest  on  the  needle  in  motion, 
Arago  reasoned  that  the  needle  at  rest  would  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  plate  in  motion.  Experiment  confirmed 
his  opinion.  He  made  a  copper  disk  revolve  with  great 
rapidity  under  a  needle,  resting  on  a  bladder  placed  im- 
mediately above  it,  and  quite  unconnected  with  it,  the 
middle  of  the  needle  being  placed  above  the  centre  of 
the  disk.  As  expected,  the  needle  deflected  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  motion  of  the  disk.  The  deflection  of  the 
needle  increased  with  the  rapidity  of  the  motion ;  and 
when  it  reached  a  sufficient  amount,  the  needle  no 
longer  remained  in  a  fixed  position,  but  turned  round 
after  the  disk.  This  action  of  the  revolving  disk  was  at- 
tributed to  what  was  then  called  the  4  Magnetism  of  no- 
tation,' and  the  name  has  been  since  retained. 

The  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  was  made  first 
by  Faraday  (1832).  He  found  it  to  arise  from  the  reac- 
tion of  currents,  induced  in  the  plate  in  motion  by  the 
magnet.  The  accompanying  figure  illustrates  the 
electrical  condition  of  the 
plate.  PP  is  the  plate,  ro- 
tating in  the  direction  indi- 
cated by  the  arrow ;  NS  is 
the  needle*;  and  the  lines 
with  the  arrow-heads  indi- 
cate the  general  direction 
of  the  currents  induced  by 
rotation  under  the  magnet 
in  the  plate.  There  are 
two  complete  circuits  on 
each  side  of  the  disk,  coin- 
ciding in  the  middle,  and 
taking  the  direction  CO.  It 
is  the  conjoined  current  *' 
which  affects  the  needle ;  it  runs  in  a  direction  a  little 
in  advance  of  the  needle,  as  the  inductive  power  of  the 
magnet  takes  some  time  to  act.  As  the  induced  current 
lies  below  the  needle,  the  deflection  (according  to  Am- 
pere's rule:  see  Galvanism)  takes  place  in  the  direction 
of  the  motion  of  the  disk.  When  cuts  are  made  in  the 
disk  in  the  line  of  the  radii,  it  loses  almost  entirely  its 
disturbing  power ;  the  currents  formed  in  the  whole  disk 
can  no  longer  take  place,  and  those  formed  in  the  vari- 
ous sectors  are  weak  in  comparison :  by  filling  up  the 
vacant  spaces  with  solder,  the  power  is  nearly  restored 
to  it.    As  is  to  be  expected,  the  effect  of  the  revolving 


ROTATION. 


plate  depends  on  the  conducting  power  of 
the  material  of  which  it  is  made.  It  is  ow- 
ing to  its  high  conducting  power  that  copper 
is  so  much  used  in  these  experiments ;  hence 
also  copper  is  much  used  in  construction  of 
magnetic  apparatus.  A  copper  compass- 
box,  e.g.,  is  not  only  desirable  from  its  be- 
ing free  from  iron,  but  it  acts  as  a  damper 
to  bring  the  needle  quickly  to  rest  when 
disturbed. 

The  magnetism  of  rotation  is  only  one  of 
a  large  class  of  phenomena,  in  which  the 
motion  either  of  a  magnet  or  of  a  conductor 
near  it  induces  an  electric  current  in  the 
conductor.  We  here  quote  two  experiments 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  converse  of 
the  magnetism  of  rotation.  In  the  first  ex- 
periment, a  small  cube  of  copper  (fi^.  2)  is 
hung  by  a  thread  to  a  frame,  and  placed  be- 
tween the  poles  of  a  powerful  electro-mag- 
net ;  the  cube  is  sent  into  rapid  rotation  by 
the  twist  on  the  thread,  previously  given  it; 
it  is  instantly  brought  to  a  halt  when  the 
current  is  allowed  to  circulate  in  the  coils 
of  the  magnet,  and  it  begins  its  motion 
again  when  the  current  is  turned  off.  In  the 
Fig.  2.  second  experiment,  a  disk  of  copper,  c,  is 
made  to  rotate  rapidly  between  the  poles,  n,  s,  of  an 
electro-magnet,  by  means  of  a  handle  and  intervening 
wheel-works,  turned  by  the  experimenter.  When  the 
current  invests  the  soft  iron  poles  with  magnetism,  the 
disk,  moving  freely  before, 
appears  suddenly  to  meet 
with  an  unseen  resistance, 
and  the  rotation  continues 
slowly  or  not  at  all.  If  per- 
sisted in,  the  rotation  causes 
the  disk  to  rise  in  tempera- 
ture, the  rise  being  propor- 
tionate, according  to  Fou- 
cault,  to  the  square  of  the 
velocity  of  rotation.  These 
and  all  similar  phenomena 
illustrate  a  law  that  holds 
universally  in  magnetic  in- 
duction, and  was  enunciat- 
ed first  by  Lenz :   Wlien  a 

current  is  induced  by  the  motion  of  a  magnet  or  conductor, 
the  inductive  action  tends  to  develop  in  the  conductor  a  cur- 
rent, in  such  a  direction  that  its  action  will  be  to  oppose  the 
motion  producing  it.  Thus,  in  the  last  experiment,  the 
part  of  the  disk  approaching  the  poles  has  a  current 
developed  in  it  which  repels  them,  and  the  part  leaving 
the  poles  has  a  current  induced  in  it  which  attracts 
them.  The  same  mode  of  explanation  applies  to  the 
other  experiments  referred  to. 


Fig.  3. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

ROTA'TION  OF  CROPS :  in  agriculture,  cultivation 
of  a  succession  of  dissimilar  crops.  In  a  simple  form 
it  was  practiced  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  was 
long  ago  introduced  into  England,  and  has  become  one 
of  the  great  principles  of  modern  farming.  It  has 
largely  superseded  the  fallow  (see  Fallow).  Its  intro- 
duction to  England  is  thought,  by  some,  to  have  grown 
out  of  the  conditions  of  life  and  the  system  of  land- 
holding  in  the  village  communities,  rather  than  from 
any  clear  appreciation  of  its  importance  in  growing 
crops.  The  tillage  land  was  divided  into  three  portions, 
one  of  which  was  given  to  winter  grain,  one  to  summer 
grain,  and  one  was  allowed  to  lie  fallow,  a  change  being 
made  each  year  so  that  the  same  land  was  not  given  to 
the  same  crop  for  two  successive  years.  Each  inhabit- 
ant of  a  village  had  a  portion  of  the  tilled  land  assigned 
to  his  special  use,  an$  it  was  necessary  that  some  uni- 
form system  of  cultivation  be  adopted. 

Various  reasons  have  been  assigned  to  account  for  the 
necessity  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  but  non-3  of  them  are 
entirely  satisfactory,  and  some,  like  the  idea  that  the 
roots  of  plants  excrete  a  substance  poisonous  to  similar 
plants,  but  harmless  to  others,  have  been  abandoned. 
A  theory  generally  accepted  is  that,  as  different  crops 
take  the  elements  of  fertility  from  the  soil  in  differing 
proportions — some  requiring  large  quantities  of  nitrogen 
and  smaller  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
while  others  use  much  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  and 
but  little  nitrogen — a  frequent  change  will  insure  larger 
crops  and  tend  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  the  land.  But 
this  does  not  fully  account  for  all  the  phenomena  which 
come  under  the  observation  of  the  cultivator.  If  there 
were  no  other  reason  than  appears  in  this  statement, 
the  application  of  large  quantities  of  manures,  or  of 
commercial  fertilizers,  specially  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  plants  to  be  grown,  should  obviate  the  need  of  rota- 
tion of  the  crops.  Certain  crops,  like  onions  and  aspar- 
agus, are  eminently  successful  under  such  conditions  ; 
but  others,  like  clover,  in  time  show  a  marked  deteri- 
oration. This  may  be  due  to  the  generation  in  the  soil 
of  acids  formed  by  large  quantities  of  decomposing  veg- 
etable matter,  to  the  peculiar  mechanical  condition  of 
the  soil  which  sometimes  results  from  keeping  the  land 
long  in  a  single  crop,  and  to  other  causes,  some  of 
which  are,  as  yet,  unknown. 

Aside  from  its  relations  to  the  subject  of  food  supplies, 
the  rotation  of  crops  brings  important  benefits.  It 
proves  a  great  check  to  multiplication  of  insect  enemies, 
which  under  a  continuous  system  sometimes  becomes 
so  great  as  to  prevent  possibility  of  profitable  cultiva- 
tion. It  also  tends  to  prevent  the  spread  of  various 
fungoid  diseases,  e.g.,  the  smut  of  Indian  corn,  which 
are  greatly  intensified  by  growing  the  same  crop  year 
after  year  on  the  same  land.  Still  another  benefit  is  in 
the  facility  which  rotation  affords  for  giving  clean  cult- 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

ure,  and  thus  keeping  down  the  weeds  which  otherwise 
might  increase  so  as  to  choke  the  crops. 

The  frequency  with  which  changes  of  crops  should 
be  made  depends  on  the  various  conditions  under  which 
they  are  grown.  On  soils  which  disintegrate  rap- 
idly, changes  are  not  required  as  often  as  on  land  of 
opposite  nature.  There  are  fields  in  Peru  on  which  In- 
dian corn  has  been  grown  for  centuries ;  but  in  many  lo- 
calities two  or  three  successive  crops  are  as  many  as 
can  be  profitably  grown.  The  nature  of  the  crops,  and 
the  proportion  of  the  product  which  is  fed  to  animals 
on  the  farm  and  the  waste  returned  to  the  land,  also 
will  exert  a  strongly  modifying  influence.  Grass,  if 
used  on  the  farm,  diminishes  its  fertility  but  little,  but 
the  growth  and  sale  of  grain  tend  to  rapid  impoverish- 
ment of  the  soil.  The  number  and  kind  of  animals  kept, 
the  quantity  of  concentrated  food  with  which  they  are 
supplied,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  fertilizers  used  on 
the  farm,  and  the  degree  of  thoroughness  in  tillage,  also 
must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Various  forms  of  *  rotation  have  been  adopted  at  dif- 
ferent times  and  in  different  countries.  Of  late  the  al- 
most inflexible  rules  of  former  times  have  been  greatly 
modified ;  though  in  England  a  form  of  lease  is  often 
used  which,  by  limiting  the  area  to  be  given  to  certain 
crops,  and  restricting  the  sale  of  straw  and  hay,  stands 
in  the  way  of  beneficial  changes.  The  famous  Norfolk 
four-course  system,  long  popular  in  England,  provided 
for  the  following  crops,  each  to  be  grown  one  year: 
(1)  clover  or  grass  ;  (2)  wheat  or  oats  ;  (3)  turnips,  beets, 
potatoes,  or  else  a  bare  fallow ;  (4)  barley.  In  this 
country  the  method  of  rotation  is  varied  in  numerous 
ways.  In  the  n.,  a  crop  of  corn  is  often  followed  by  po- 
tatoes, this  by  rye,  after  which  the  land  is  kept  in  grass 
several  years.  When  the  grass-crop  perceptibly  fails, 
the  land  is  plowed,  and  the  same  course  is  gone  over 
again.  At  the  s.,  corn  is  often  planted  on  a  clover  sod, 
is  followed  by  wheat,  this  by  cotton,  and  the  land  is 
then  seeded  to  clover,  which  is  cropped  two  or  more 
years. 

All  systems  of  rotation  of  crops  should  be  arranged 
with  reference  to  economy  of  labor  and  the  utilization 
of  machinery  in  their  production  ;  and  the  choice  of  two 
or  more  crops  requiring  either  careful  cultivation  or 
harvesting  at  the  same  time  should  be  avoided.  Two 
crops  requiring  a  long  season  in  which  to  mature  should 
not  be  grown  in  succession ;  a  surface-feeding  crop 
should  usually  be  followed  by  one  which  roots  more 
deeply;  and  one  like  asparagus,  which  occupies  the  laud 
for  a  period  of  years,  should  be  succeeded  by  one  which 
requires  only  a  short  period  for  development.  The  fre- 
quency of  grain-crops,  as  compared  with  the  legumes 
and  hoed  crops,  in  a  rotation,  is  to  be  modified  by  the 
character  and  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  former  being 
sparingly  grown  on  poor  soils  or  on  land  which  cannot 
be  heavily  manured.    Climatic  conditions  must  be  con- 


ROTATORIA. 

sidered ;  also  the  special  relations  which  crops  sustain 
to  each  other,  when  such  relations  are  known  to  exist — 
such  as  the  beneficial  influence  of  clover  and  certain 
other  legumes  on  a  succeeding  crop  of  wheat,  for  which 
they  store  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  Unless  the  land  is 
heavily  manured  (and,  as  a  rule,  even  then)  between  two 
very  exhausting  crops,  one  crop  or  more  requiring  a 
much  smaller  quantity  of  plant-food  should  be  allowed 
to  intervene. 

ROTATO  RIA,  or  Rotif'era;  popularly  known  as 
Wheel-animalcules  :  animalcules  named  from  the  ap- 
parent rotation  of  certain  disk-like  ciliated  organs  which 
surround  the  mouth.  Although  some  of  the  larger 
forms  may  be  detected  with  the  naked  eye,  they  are,  as 
a  class,  microscopical.  They  are  widely  diffused  over 
the  earth,  inhabiting  both  salt  and  fresh  water,  in  all 
climates.  There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  their 
true  place  in  nature.  Ehrenberg  and  others  regarded 
them  as  Infusoria ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  their  or- 
ganization is  far  more  complex  than  that  of  the  Infu- 
soria; and  the  main  question  at  the  present  day  is 
whether  they  are  most  closely  allied  to  the  worms  or  to 
the  crustaceans.  Huxley  maintains  that  they  form  a  link 
connecting  the  Echinoderms  with  the  Nematoid  (or 
thread)  worms,  and  that  they  constitute  the  lowest  step 
of  the  Echinoderm  division  of  the  Annelida ;  while  Ley- 
dig  endeavored  to  show  that,  on  various  anatomical, 
physiological,  and  embryological  grounds,  they  more 
nearly  resemble  crustaceans  than  worms,  and  proposed 
to  call  them  Ciliated  Crustaceans.  Science  is  indebted 
to  Leeuweuhoek  for  discovery  of  this  remarkable  class 
of  animals.  In  Philosophical  Transactions,  1702,  he  de- 
scribed one  of  the  commonest  of  these  animals,  now 
known  as  Rotifer  vulgaris,  his  attention  having  been 
directed  especially  to  its  power  of  retaining  its  vitality 
after  more  or  less  complete  desiccation — a  fact  since 
confirmed  by  many  other  observers  (see  Dormant  Vi- 
tality). The  R.  have  usually  an  elongated  form,  and 
are  in  most  cases  covered  with  a  smooth  hard  skin, 
thrown  into  folds  by  contractions  of  the  subcutaneous 
tissue.  The  animal  consists  of  a  head  and  body.  The 
body  usually  terminates  in  a  prolongation,  which,  till 
recently,  was  termed  the  tail,  but  which  is  now  known 
as  the  foot,  and  into  which  the  intestines  are  never 
prolonged.  The  foot  is  composed  of  muscular  and 
glandular  structures,  and  often  terminates  in  a  pair  of 
forceps,  by  which  the  animal  can  attach  itself  to  leaves, 
etc.  The  body  generally  presents  six  segments,  more 
or  less  distinct  in  different  genera.  The  head  presents 
the  characteristic  rotatory  organs  and  the  mouth,  which 
always  lies  in  the  midst  of  them  so  as  to  receive  parti- 
cles drawn  in  by  their  whirlpool  action.  It  is  by  these 
organs  that  they  swim  freely  about,  revolving  on  their 
axis,  or,  when  at  rest,  producing  vortex-like  disturbances 
of  the  water.  The  form,  number,  and  arrangement  of 
these  organs  vary  extremely  in  different  genera,  and 


ROTATORIA. 

have  been  made  a  basis  of  classification  by  Ehrenberg 
and  others.  The  rotatory  organ  may  be  single,  double, 
or  multiple.  It  often  consists  of  a  disk  supported  by  a 
pedicle,  on  whose  borders  are  successive  rows  of  regu- 
larly arranged  cilia,  whose  motion  gives  the  appearance 
of  rotation  to  the  disk  itself.  In  the  genera  Floscularia 
and  Stephanoceros,  these  organs  undergo  peculiar  modi- 
fications. In  the  iormer,  there  are  five  or  six  button- 
like processes  about  the  mouth,  covered  with  very  long 
bristles,  which  move  feebly,  and  scarcely  give  rise  to 
vortices;  while  in  the  latter,  the  rotatory  apparatus 
consists  of  five  tentacle-like  ciliated  processes,  and  the 
animal  thus  closely  resembles  the  Polyzoa  (q.v.).  The 
ciliated  rotatory  organs,  unlike  ordinary  volatile  cilia, 
are  entirely  under  the  animal's  control.  The  digestive 
apparatus  differs  extremely  in  the  two  sexes,  which  are 
always  distinct  in  these  animals.  In  the  female,  the 
digestive  apparatus  is  well  developed,  consisting  of  a 
mouth  opening  into  a  muscular  pharynx,  which  has  two 
horny  masticating  organs  moving  laterally  upon  each 
other.  The  pharyngeal  masticating  apparatus  is  of 
roundish  form,  and  is  composed  of  two  jaws  having  one 
or  several  teeth  brought  together  laterally  by  action  of 
special  muscles.  For  further  information,  see  an  ex- 
haustive memoir  by  Gosse,  *  On  the  Structure,  Func- 
tions, and  Homologies  of  the  Manducatory  Organs  of 
the  Class  Rotifera,'  Philosophical  Transactions,  1856. 
Succeeding  the  pharynx  is  a  narrow  oesophagus,  which 
leads  into  a  dilated  stomach,  from  which  proceeds  an 
intestine  opening  externally  by  an  anus.  In  all  the 
males  discovered,  there  is  entire  absence  of  digestive 
organs,  a  rudimentary  pharynx  being  the  most  that  is 
ever  observed.  The  nervous  system  in  the  R.  consists 
of  a  cerebral  ganglion,  with  filaments  radiating  from  it. 
No  heart  or  vessels  have  been  discovered,  but  the  respir- 
atory organs  are  well  developed.  The  sexual  organs 
of  the  female  are  better  known  than  those  of  the  male. 
The  ovary  is  round  or  oval,  usually  by  the  side  of  the 
stomach,  and  the  oviduct,  proceeding  from  it,  usually 
opens  into  the  cloaca.  The  ovaries  develop  only  a  few 
eggs  at  a  time,  and  the  nearly  mature  eggs  may  be 
readily  observed  in  the  body  of  the  animal  under  a  mi- 
croscope. These  animals  produce  two  distinct  kinds  of 
eggs,  similar  in  their  primary  for- 
mation, but  differing  in  their  ul- 
t  i  m  a  t  e  destiny — namely,  thin- 
shelled  summer  eggs  and  thick- 
shelled  winter  eggs.  The  young 
are  liberated  from  the  former  im- 
mediately after  their  discharge, 
while  they  remain  unhatched  in 
the  latter  during  the  winter 
weather.  As  far  as  hitherto  ob- 
served, the  males,  much  fewer  in  number  than  the  fe- 
males, are  developed  only  from  summer  eggs.  Except 
in  regard  to  their  being  totally  devoid  of  stomach  or  in- 


Fig.  1  — Male  Egg, 
just  laid. 


B0TAT0B1A. 

fcestine,  and  in  relation  to  the  sexual  organs  (which  in 
the  male  have  been  carefully  examined  by  Gosse  in  his 
memoir  '  On  the  Dioecious  Character  of  the  Kotifera,'  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions,  1857),  the  organization 
of  the  males  is  similar  to  that  of  the  females.  The 
sexes  are,  however,  so  unlike  that  they  would  be  taken 
for  widely  remote  genera,  if  their  actual  hatching  had 
not  been  observed  ;  the  males  and  the  eggs  from  which 
they  spring  being  much  smaller  than  the  females  and 
the  eggs  from  which  they  are  produced.  (In  Brachionus 
amphiceros,  the  female  eggs  were  Tfff  of  an  inch  in 


Fig.  2. —Female  Egg,  nearly  mature, 
length,  while  the  male  eggs  were  only  ¥^y.)  The  ac- 
companying figures  represent  the  male  and  female  of 
Brachionus  dorcas  when  newly  born.  The  length  of 
the  latter  anjaour  after  birth  was  ^  of  an  inch, 
while  the  diameters  of  the  empty  shell  were  only 
T7T  by  sixs  of  an  incn — a  marvellous  increase  in  so 
short  a   period.     *  Whether,'  says  Gosse,  'certain 


Fig.  8.— Male  Brachionus  dorcas. 
individuals  produce  only  male,  and  others  only  female 
young,  or  whether  separate  impregnations  are  required 
for  the  production  of  the  separate  sexes,  I  do  not  know ; 
but  from  all  my  observations  I  gather  that  the  devel- 
opment of  the  one  sex  never  takes  place  co-etaneousiy 
with  that  of  the  other;  for  male  and  female  eggs  are 
Vol.  32  —  17 


ROTCHE— ROTE. 


never  seen  attached  to  the  same  parent,  and  the  imma- 
ture eggs  in  the  ovary  invariably  develop  themselves 


Fig.  4.— Female  Brachionus  dorcas. 
into  the  same  sex  as  those  which  are  already  extruded. 
The  duration  of  life  in  the  males  is  always  very  brief;  I 
have  never  been  able  to  preserve  one  alive  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  Their  one  business  is  to  impregnate  the 
females,  and  for  this  momentary  occupation  no  supply 
of  loss  by  assimilation  of  food  is  wanted,  and  hence  we 
can  understand  the  lack  of  the  nutritive  organism.' 

ROTCHE,  roch  (Mergulus  or  Cephus):  genus  of  the 
Auk  family  (Alcadce),  separated  from  the  true  auks  on 
account  of  the  thick,  short,  and  indistinctly  grooved 
bill.  The  Common  R.  (M.  or  C.  melanoleucus,  or  M.  alle, 
formerly  Alca  alle),  known  also  as  the  Little  Auk, 
Sea  Dove,  Dovekie,  and  Greenland  Dove,  is  about 
the  size  of  a  large  pigeon ;  its  general  color  is  black,  but 
the  belly  is  white,  and  there  is  a  white  mark  on  each 
wing.  It  is  very  abundant  in  arctic  seas,  and  immense 
flocks  are  seen  on  the  coasts  of  Greenland,  Spitzbergen, 
Melville  Island,  etc.  It  is,  however,  truly  oceanic  in 
its  habits,  and  scarcely  visits  the  land  except  during 
the  breeding  season.    See  Auk. 

ROTE,  n.  rot  [F.  route;  OF.  rote,  a  track  or  road — 
from  mid.  L.  rupta,  a  road — from  L.  ruptus,  broken; 
rumpere,  to  break]  :  the  practice  of  impressing  words 
on  the  memory  by  mere  repetition,  without  an  effort  of 
the  understanding:  V.  in  OE.,  to  fix  in  the  memory 
without  informing  the  understanding.  By  rote,  with- 
out variation  in  the  same  track  or  road  ;  by  mere  repeti- 
tion, without  the  exercise  of  the  understanding — but  to 
learn  by  heart  is  to  learn  thoroughly. 


BOTE — R  0  T  HER. 

ROTE,  n.  rot  [OF.  rote;  OHO.  hrota,  a  rote:  Gael. 
cruit,  a  harp,  violin]  :  in  OE.,  a  musical  instrument,  of 
two  varieties,  one  being  a  psaltery  or  harp,  the  other  a 
kind  of  fiddle. 

ROTE,  v.  rot  [L.  rota,  a  wheel] :  in  OE.,  to  go  out  by 
rotation. 

ROTHE,  roteh,  Richaed  :  one  of  the  most  profound 
speculative  theologians  of  Germany  :  1799,  Jan.  28 — 
1867,  Aug.  20;  b.  Posen.  He  studied  theology  in  the 
univs.  of  Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  under  Schleiermacher 
and  Neander,  and  became  successively  member,  profess- 
or, director,  and  ephorus  of  the  Theological  Seminary 
of  Wittenberg.  In  1837  he  was  nominated  prof,  of 
theology  at  the  Univ.  of  Heidelberg,  which  in  1849  he 
exchanged  for  Bonn.  In  i.854  he  returned  to  Heidel- 
berg.— R.  was  in  youth  deeply  religious  and  inclined  to 
a  mystical  theology ;  later  he  was  strongly  influenced 
by  Pietism  ;  but  still  later  his  scope  broadened ;  and  in 
the  last  six  years  of  his  life  he  was  publicly  known  as 
one  of  the  theological  liberals,  though  indeed  his  place 
might  more  correctly  be  stated  as  among  the  very  mod- 
erately orthodox.  He  held  that  man,  for  his  salvatior 
from  sin,  required  a  supernatural  revelation  from  God 
revivifying  the  human  consciousness,  and  that  the 
Saviour  had  to  manifest  himself  4  in  human  history  as  a 
fresh  miraculous  creation,  born  of  a  woman,  but  not 
begotten  by  a  man.'  Vigorous  grasp  and  keenly  logical 
independence  of  thought,  with  an  intensely  religious 
spirit,  were  his  chief  characteristics;  but  he  never 
formed  a  school,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  One 
of  his  well-known  works  is  the  System  of  Theological 
Ethics,  or  Moral  Theology — a  complete  system  of  specu- 
lative theology  or  theosophy0  This  work  is  to  show 
that  religious  truth  is  not  a  series  of  disputable  propo- 
sitions, but  a  Divine  morality ;  the  book  is  an  attempt 
to  translate  the  scholastic  dialect  of  the  creeds  back 
into  the  living  language  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
Another  remarkable  book  of  his  is  the  Beginnings  of  the 
Christian  Church,  which,  by  the  peculiarity  of  4  stand- 
point '  assumed  by  the  author  regarding  church  and 
state — tending  to  identify  the  two  in  his  ideal,  as  he 
identified  religion  and  morality — evoked  many  fierce 
counter-treatises,  likeBaur's  On  the  Origin  of  Episcopacy. 
R.  died  at  Heidelberg.  Four  different  works  by  him,  ir 
9  vols.,  have  since  been  published.  See  Life  by  Nip 
pold  (Wittenberg  1873-4). 

ROTHENBURG  an  deb  Taubeb,  roten-burch  an  der 
tow' her  :  small  ancient  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Tauber, 
31  m.  s.s.e.  of  Wiirzburg.  There  are  manufactures  of 
woolen  cloth,  paper,  and  gunpowder,  and  trade  in  corn 
and  cattle.    Pop.  (1880)  6,504. 

BOTHER,  n.  roth'er  :  in  OE.,  an  old  spelling  for  Rud- 
deb,  which  see ;  a  sailor.  Rotheb-nail,  a  large  nail 
with  full  head  for  fastening  rudder-iron?. 


ROTHER— ROTHESAY. 

ROTHER,  a.  roth'er  [AS.  hryther,  an  ox]  :  in  OE. 
and  prov.  Eng.,  wild;  fighting  and  roaring,  as  cattle: 
N.  black  cattle  in  general.  To  rule  the  rother,  in 
OE.,  to  be  master  among  the  herd;  to  rule  the  fight. 
Rothersoil,  dung  of  rother  beasts. 

ROTHERHAM,  roth'er-am:  market-town  in  the  W. 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England;  6  m.  e.  n.  e.  of  Sheffield, 
on  the  slope  of  a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Don. 
On  the  middle  of  the  ancient  stone  bridge  that  crosses 
the  Don  is  a  Gothic  chapel,  formerly  a  prison.  The 
Free  Grammar  School,  founded  1584,  restored  1858,  and 
the  court-house,  are  handsome  buildings.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  coal  and  iron  mines,  which  furnish 
materials  for  the  manufactures,  chief  of  which  are 
stoves,  grates,  nails,  engines  and  railway  wagons.  Pop. 
54,350. — In  the  vicinity  of  R.  are  Roche  Abbey,  erected 
1147;  and  Conisborough  Castle,  still  in  good  preserva- 
tion (see  Scott's  Ivanhoe) . 

ROTHERMEL,  roth'er-mel,  Peter  Frederick:  his- 
torical painter:  b.  Nescopack,  Penn.,  1817,  July  18; 
d.  1895,  Aug.  15.  He  adopted  art  at  an  early  age, 
under  the  instruction  of  Otis,  at  Philadelphia,  where  he 
afterward  lived,  except  during  two  intervals  of  residence 
abroad.  In  the  Penn.  Acad,  he  held  prominent  positions. 
His  works  are  imaginative  rather  than  realistic,  though 
historical;  and  his  ability  in  composition  is  acknowl- 
edged; among  his  best  known  are  De  Soto  Discovering 
the  Mississippi,  The  Embarkation  of  Columbus,  Colum- 
bus before  Queen  Isabella,  Patrick  Henry  before  the 
Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  and  the  Battle  of  Gettys- 
burg. 

ROTHESAY,  roth'sa:  royal  burgh,  seaport,  and 
favorite  watering-place  of  Scotland,  cap.  of  the  county 
of  Bute,  beautifully  situated  on  the  n.  e.  shore  of  the 
Island  of  Bute,  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay,  40  m.  w.  of 
Glasgow  by  the  river  Clyde.  The  bay  offers  safe 
anchorage  in  any  wind,  and  is  spacious  enough  to  con- 
tain the  largest  fleet.  The  town  has  excellent  schools 
and  seminaries;  while  the  beautiful  bay,  and  the 
charming  scenery  of  the  island,  attract  summer  resi- 
dents. Its  sheltered  position,  and  the  extreme  mildness 
of  the  climate,  have  made  R.  a  resort  for  invalids, 
especially  those  with  pulmonary  disease.  Fishing  em- 
ploys some  of  the  inhabitants,  there  is  some  ship-build- 
ing, and  at  the  pier  nearly  all  the  Clyde  steamers  to  and 
from  the  w.  Highlands  regularly  touch.  There  is  a 
very  handsome  promenade,  an  excellent  hydropathic  es- 
tablishment, and  an  aquarium.  In  the  middle  of  the 
town  are  the  ruins  of  Rothesay  Castle,  which  receives 
historical  mention  first  in  1263;  it  has  remained  in 
ruins  since  1685.  The  Marquis  of  Butte  has  done  much  to 
render  this  ruin  a  picturesque  object  to  visit. — Pop. 9,300. 


ROTHSCHILD. 


ROTHSCHILD,  roths' child,  Ger.  rdt'shW,  Lionel 
Nathan  de,  Baron:  1808,  Nov.  22—1879,  June  3;  b. 
Frankfurt;  eldest  son  of  Bai'on  Nathan  Mayer  de  K. 
He  was  educated  at  Gottingea ;  was  early  initiated  by 
his  father  into  the  business  of  the  firm,  and  successfully 
extended  its  colossal  operations.  He  was  elected  to  par- 
liament for  London  1847,49,52,  and  57 ;  and  at  each 
election  claimed  to  take  the  oath  and  his  seat  in  the 
house  of  commons.  The  latter  words  of  the  oath — '  on 
the  true  faith  of  a  Christian  ' — he  insisted  on  omitting, 
«  as  not  being  binding  on  his  conscience.'  He  was  then 
requested  to  withdraw  from  the  house ;  and  patiently 
awaited  the  fate  of  the  bill  for  Jewish  emancipation, 
which  usually  passed  the  commons  and  was  rejected  by 
the  upper  house.  In  1858  he  was  placed  on  a  committee 
which  was  to  hold  a  conference  with  the  house  of  lords, 
and  this  was  virtually  the  means  of  establishing  Jewish 
emancipation.  The  commons  sent  up  another  bill ;  and 
a  general  belief  prevailed  that  if  it  were,  like  the 
rest,  thrown  out  by  the  lords,  Jewish  members  would 
be  admitted  by  resolution  of  their  own  house,  instead 
of  by  act  of  parliament.  The  lords  gave  way,  merely 
taking  measures  to  prevent  the  admission  of  Jews  into 
the  upper  chamber.  Baron  B.  thereupon  (1858,  July) 
took  the  oath  and  his  seat.  He  sat  till  1868,  and  again 
1869-74.— In  1875  the  firm  of  N.  M.  Rothschild  &  Sons 
supplied  the  £4,000,000  required  for  purchase  of  the 
Huez  canal  shares. — His  brothers,  Sir  Anthony  R.  (1810 
-76)  and  Baron  Mayer  Amschel  de  B.  (1819-74),  were 
members  of  parliament. — His  eldest  son,  Lord  Nathan- 
iel Mayer  de  B.  (b.  1840,  Nov.  8),  sat  in  the  liberal 
interest  for  Aylesbury  1864-85,  and  was  then  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  B.  He  is  the  present  head  of  the 
firm  in  London  (1891) ;  and,  like  many  of  his  family,  an 
enthusiastic  collector  of  works  of  art. 

ROTHS  CHILD,  Mayer  Ansedm  de,  Baron  of  the 
Austrian  empire :  1743-1812,  Sep.  19 ;  b.  in  the  Jews* 
alley,  Frankf urt-on-the-Main ;  son  of  Anselm  Moses 
Bauer,  small  Jewish  merchant.  He  was  brought  up  to 
be  a  rabbi  of  the  Hebrew  faith ;  but  became  a  money- 
lender at  the  sign  of  the  4  Bed  Shield '  (Rothschild— 
whence  his  change  from  his  father's  name)  in  Frankfurt. 
He  soon  gained  reputation  for  integrity,  which,  with  his 
taste  for  numismatics,  gained  him  the  friendship  of 
William,  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel ;  and  B.,  being  em- 
ployed by  the  senate  to  raise  a  loan  to  save  Frankfurt 
from  pillage  by  the  French  republican  army,  obtained  a 
loan  from  the  landgrave.  The  landgrave  (afterward 
elector)  acquired  immense  sums  by  selling  his  subjects 
to  fight  in  the  armies  of  England  and  France.  Napoleon, 
after  the  battle  of  Jena,  pronounced  the  forfeiture  of  his 
estates,  and  a  French  army  was  on  the  march  to  his 
capital.  The  landgrave  had  accumulated  in  his  palace 
T^ults  about  $5,000,000  in  silver;  and  sending  for  R.  tc 
Cassel,  he  offered  him  the  free  use  of  the  treasure,  with 


ROTHSCHILD. 

out  interest,  if  he  would  convey  it  to  a  place  of  safety. 
With  the  aid  of  his  Jewish  friends,  R.  succeeded  in 
secreting  the  money  (it  is  said,  burying  it  in  a  corner  of 
his  garden),  and  saving  it  from  the  hands  of  the  French. 
At  this  time  he  had  live  sons,  three  of  whom — Anselm, 
Nathan,  and  Solomon — being  grown  up,  he  associated 
with  himself  in  business.  Anselm  Mayer  de  R. 
(1773-1855)  remained  with  him  at  Frankfurt,  and  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  royal  Prussian  privy  council  of 
commerce,  and  1820  Bavarian  court-backer.  Nathan 
Mayer  de  R.  (see  below)  went  to  England  1800,  where 
he  acted  as  his  father's  agent.  Previous  to  Mayer 
Anselm  de  R.'s  death,  he  saw  his  five  sons  securely  estab- 
lished as  monarchs  of  European  finance — Anselm  Mayer 
in  Frankfurt,  Nathan  Mayer  in  London,  Solomon  in 
Vienna,  James  in  Paris,  and  Charles  in  Naples;  all 
united  in  the  wealthiest  copartnership  of  the  present, 
or  probably  of  any,  age.  The  chief  of  the  firm,  according 
to  the  founder's  wish,  was  to  reside  at  Frankfurt,  where 
all  important  consultations  are  held.  The  sons  were  cre- 
ated barons  by  the  Austrian  govt.  1822.  R.  left  also  five 
daughters.  The  loans  contracted  by  the  firm  during  the 
great  wa»  with  France  were  not  more  rer  larkable  for  mag- 
nitude than  for  success.  They  never  took  a  bad  loan  in 
hand,  and  few  good  loans  fell  into  other  hands.  In  ad- 
dition to  their  five  principal  establishments,  they  have 
agencies  in  many  other  citirs  of  the  old  and  new  world. 
On  two  or  three  occasion?  the  Rothschilds  have  suc- 
cessfully exerted  themselves  to  preserve  the  peace  of 
Europe.  Their  losses  from  the  French  revolution  1848, 
and  from  depreciation  in  funds  and  securities  which  fol- 
lowed the  subsequent  disturbances  in  various  capitals 
of  Europe,  were  estimated  at  $40,000,000 — a  wild  esti- 
mate, but  showing  the  popular  belief  in  the  immense  re- 
sources of  the  firm. — As  the  members  of  each  successive 
generation  are  received  into  the  copartnership,  and  the 
cousins  usually  intermarry,  and  as  their  immense  wealth 
is  being  continually  augmented  by  a  profitable  business, 
the  name  and  operations  of  the  firm  give  promise  of  out- 
lasting some  royal  dynasties. 

ROTHS  CHILD,  Nathan  Mayer  de,  Baron  :  1777,  * 
Sep.  16—1836,  July  28  ;  son  of  Mayer  Anselm  de  R. 
(q.v.).  Removing  to  England  1800,  he  acted  as  agent  for 
his  father,  first  at  Manchester,  in  the  purchase  of  Man- 
chester goods  for  the  continent.  He  then  removed  to 
London,  where,  by  his  father's  agency,  large  sums  were 
placed  at  his  disposal,  and  invested  by  him  with  so  much 
judgment  that  his  capital  multiplied  with  great  rapidity. 
He  was  appointed,  by  the  interest  of  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  agent  for  the  payment  of  the  £12,- 
000,000  sterling  which,  by  the  treaty  of  Toplitz,  Great 
Britain  stipulated  to  pay  to  her  German  allies.  A  large 
profit  accrued  to  the  house  by  this  transaction.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  present  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
etching  the  struggle,  and  to  have  made  known  to  his 


ROTIFER — ROTTEN-STONE. 

firm  in  London  the  result  of  the  battle  several  hours 
before  it  was  known  to  the  Eng.  govt. ;  and  the  knowl- 
edge is  reputed  to  have  been  worth  a  million  dollars  to 
the  firm.  R.  after  his  father's  death  was  considered 
the  chief  of  the  family,  and  has  the  repute  of  the 
most  original  financial  genius  of  them  all.  He  died  at 
Frankfurt,  whither  he  had  been  called  by  the  marriage 
of  his  eldest  son,  Lionel,  to  his  cousin  Charlotte, 
daughter  of  Baron  Charles.  Anselm,  Solomon,  and 
Charles  all  died  1855,  the  first  named  dying  childless  at 
Frankfurt,  and  leaving  a  fortune  valued  at  from  40,000,- 
000  to  50,000,000  florins  (16-20  million  dollars).  James 
died  1868. 

ROTIFER,  n.  rotl-fer  [L.  rota,  a  wheel;  ferre,  to 
carry]  :  one  of  the  Rotifera,  rd-tif'er-Q,  a  class  of  ani- 
mals ;  called  also  wheel-animalcules  (see  Rotatoria, 
uuder  Rotate:  also  Rotatoria,  or  Rotifera).  Rotif- 
erous,  a.  -er-us,  having  or  bearing  organs  like  wheels. 

ROTTED,  ROTTEN,  ROTTEN-STONE:  see  under 
Rot. 

ROT'TEE  (island):  see  Rotti. 

ROTTEN-BOROUGHS,  n.  rdt'n-bur'dz :  name  given 
to  certain  boroughs  in  England,  which,  previous  to  the 
Reform  Act  of  1832,  retained  the  privilege  of  returning 
members  to  parliament,  though  the  constituency  con- 
sisted of  a  mere  handful  of  electors.  In  one  case  (Old 
Sarum),  the  borough  did  not  contain  a  single  inhabitant. 

ROTTENBURG,  rot'n-burch:  town  in  Wiirtemberg, 
seven  m.  s.w.  from  Tubingen;  on  the  Neckar.  The 
castle,  built  1216,  is  now  the  house  of  correction.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  extensive  hop-fields,  orchards,  and 
vineyards.  The  Roman  station  Sumelocennis  stood  on 
the  site  of  R.,  and  remains  of  roads  and  viaducts  have 
been  found.    R.  is  seat  of  a  bishop.    Pop.  7,000. 

ROTTEN  ROW,  n.  rot'n  ro ;  the  fashionable  ride  in 
Hyde  Park,  London.  Note. — An  interesting  parallel  to 
Rotten  Row  is  found  in  the  Gael,  rathad-an-righ  [rathad^ 
a  road;  an,  of;  righ,  the  king],  the  king's  road  or  high- 
way, and  the  Scot,  corruption  of  the  same  phrase  is 
6  Rattan-raw ; '  there  are  many  *  Rotten  Rows  '  and 
*  Rattan-raws  '  in  Eng.  and  Scot. ;  a  suggested  origin  ol 
the  London  Rotten  Row  is  the  F.  route-du-roi,  the  king's 
road :  the  suggested  origin  from  the  corruption  oi 
routine-row,  as  the  route  or  course  which  the  monks  tools 
in  some  of  their  processions,  is  not  probable — see  Dr. 
C.  Mackay. 

ROTTEN-STONE,  rot'n-ston:  mineral  consisting  chiefly 
of  alumina,  with  about  ten  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous 
matter,  and  a  little  silica ;  soft,  and  easily  scraped  to 
powder:  used  for  cleaning  and  polishing  brass  and  other 
metals.  It  is  supposed  to  be  formed  by  decomposition 
of  shale;  and  is  found  near  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  in  very 
numerous  localities.  It  is  brown;  either  grayish,  red- 
dish, or  blackish. 


ROTTERDAM. 

ROTTERDAM,  rot'er-ddm,  Dut.  rot-er-ddm  (dam  or 
dike  of  the  Rotte) :  after  Amsterdam,  the  largest  city  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  a  place  of  great  commercial  activity; 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Rotte  with  the  Maas,  in  the 
province  of  S.  Holland.  It  forms  a  triangle  with  apex 
to  the  n.,  and  base  stretching  along  the  river,  where 
ships  from  all  parts  of  the  world  discharge  their  cargoes 
in  front  of  the  Boompjes,  a  splendid  row  of  houses 
shaded  with  trees.  The  Hoog  Straat,  built  on  the 
dam  or  dike  formed  to  repel  inundations,  divides  the 
city  into  the  Binnenstad  and  Buitenstad,  the  former  n. 
of  that  line,  the  latter  extending  s.  to  the  Maas.  Broad 
canals  or  havens,  full  of  shipping,  cut  the  Buitenstad 
into  islands,  and  lofty  houses  face  the  quays  on  either 
side.  The  largest  canals  are  the  Leuvenhaven  and 
Oudehaven,  which  trend  inward  from  the  Maas;  and  the 
Scheepmakershaven,  Wijnhaven,  Blaak,  Haringvliet, 
and  Nieuwhaven,  parallel  with  the  river.  The  water- 
way to  the  sea  was  deepened  and  altered,  by  works  com- 
pleted 1872,  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  hindrances 
to  navigation  caused  by  the  sand-banks  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Maas.  R.  has  railway  communication  with  the 
other  cities  of  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  and  Belgium. 
It  is  about  20  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Maas,  the 
great  commercial  highway  between  the  open  sea  and  the 
Rhine  provinces  of  Prussia. 

The  industries  are  varied,  including  sugar-refining, 
gin-distilling,  making  of  liquors,  beer-brewing,  iron- 
founding,  soap-boiling,  manufacture  of  vinegar,  cigars, 
patent  oil,  sail  and  hair  cloths,  articles  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver, ship-building,  etc.  The  works  of  the  Netherlands 
Steamboat  Co.,  at  Feijnoord,  employ  700  men.  The 
shipping  trade  is  extensive.  There  is  a  shipping  line  to 
New  York  and  Java,  and  several  lines  to  ports  on  the 
Baltic.  For  the  large  transit-trade,  chiefly  with  Ger- 
many, there  are  about  30  steam  lines  to  England,  5  to 
Scotland,  and  2  to  Ireland.  About  four-fifths  of  the 
steamers  and  one-third  of  the  sailing-vessels  that  enter 
the  port  are  from  Britain  or  her  colonies. 

Refined  sugar  is  extensively  exported.  Large  quan- 
tities of  butter,  cheese,  yeast,  madder,  flax,  and  fruits 
are  annually  sent  to  Great  Britain  ;  also  immense  num- 
bers of  cattle,  calves,  swine,  and  sheep. 

The  municipal  govt,  consists  of  a  burgomaster,  4  wet- 
houders  (aldermen),  and  34  councilors.  R,  had  4  Dutch 
Reformed  churches,  1  French  Prot.,  1  Eng.  Episc,  1 
Scotch  Presb.,  6  Rom.  Cath.  chapels,  and  1  Jewish  syn- 
agogue. The  schools  are  good,  and  subsidized  by  the 
municipality.  There  were  3  for  gymnastics;  normal 
school ;  one  for  training  boys  for  sea ;  medical  school ; 
institute  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  at  which  93  boys  and 
52  girls  were  educated  by  15  teachers,  64  of  the  pupils 
being  admitted  free;  grammar  school  called  the  Eras- 
mus ;  and  several  institutions  for  arts,  sciences,  archi- 
tectural drawing,  and  music.  The  medical  school  has 
an  anatomical  museum  ;  the  Batavian  Soc.  has  a  good 


KOTTI— ROTTLERA. 
collection  of  philosophical  instruments,  books,  and 
models.  The  Museum  Boijmans,  with  many  valuable, 
paintings  and  works  of  art,  was  destroyed  by  fire  1863. 
The  Exchange,  built  1722,  is  a  plain,  rectangular  build- 
ing of  hewn  stone.  The  hospital,  on  the  Coolsingel,  a 
handsome  structure,  with  excellent  internal  arrange- 
ments, can  receive  250  patients.  R.  has  also  a  children's 
hospital,  a  great  boon  to  the  poor.  The  St.  Laurence 
Church,  built  at  the  end  of  the  15th  c,  is  a  spacious 
building,  ornamented  with  a  high  truncated  tower, 
whose  top  is  reached  by  326  steps :  it  has  a  splendid 
organ,  and  several  beautiful  marble  monuments,  in 
honor  of  De  Witt,  Admiral  Kortenaar,  and  other  dis- 
tinguished men.  A  bronze  statue  of  Erasmus  stands 
on  the  Great  Market,  and  the  house  in  which  he  was 
born  is  pointed  out  in  the  Breede  Kerk  Straat,  which 
leads  to  the  Great  Church.— R.  is  rapidly  extending. 
Pop.  (1872)  123,677;  males  58.411,  females  65,266;  (1901, 
Dec.)  341,051.  About  two- thirds  of  the  people  are 
Protestants,  nearly  one-third  Rom.  Catholics,  4,500  Jews. 

ROTTI,  or  Rottee,"  rot'te :  island  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, belonging  to  the  Dutch ;  s.w.  of  Timor;  10°  39' — 
10°  56' s.  lat.,  and  122°  57'-— 123°  29'  e.  long. ;  greatest 
length,  e.  to  w.,  36  m. ;  breadth  from  Termano  on  the  n. 
to  Tilly  on  the  s.,  about  11  m.  The  surface  is  nowhere 
more  than  600  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  the  fertile  soil  pro- 
duces rich  vegetation.  The  most  valuable  product  is  the 
Lontar  palm,  the  juice  of  which,  either  fresh  or  thickened 
by  boiling,  and  preserved  in  pots,  forms  a  leading  article 
of  food.  Next  in  importance  is  the  Gabang  tree,  which 
bears  large  quantities  of  fruit  in  size  and  shape  like 
apricots,  the  fibre  yielding  a  good  tow,  and  the  pith  a 
sort  of  sago.  Cocoa-nut,  plantain,  banana,  and  mango 
trees  are  abundant.  There  is  great  variety  of  timber- 
trees,  e.g.,  beautiful  ebony,  mahogany,  and  several  sorts 
well  adapted  for  ship-building.  R.  is  famed  for  a  small 
but  hardy  race  of  horses;  and  has  buffaloes,  sheep, 
goats,  swine,  and  deer.  Edible  nests,  trepang,  tortoise- 
shell,  and  wax,  also  horses,  swine,  palm-wine,  syrup, 
sugar,  and  native  sail-cloth,  are  exported  to  Timor;  and 
cotton  fabrics,  cotton,  beads,  iron,  iron-work,  powder, 
guns,  and  arrack  received  in  exchange.    Pop.  75,000. 

ROTTLERA,  rot'ler-g,:  genus  of  trees  of  nat.  order 
Euphorbiacew,  with  a  3-5  parted  calyx,  no  corolla,  30- 
40  stamens  springing  from  the  convex  receptacle,  aud 
a  2-4  coccous  capsule,  each  portion  having  one  seed. 
The  species  are  rather  small  trees,  found  in  India  and 
other  tropical  parts  of  Asia.  R.  tetracocca  grows  in  Syl- 
het,  and  yields  a  hard  and  valuable  timber.  R.  tincioria 
is  native  of  India,  from  the  Coromandel  coasts  to  the  n. 
forests.  Its  capsules  are  covered  with  short,  stiff  hairs, 
which,  when  rubbed  off,  have  the  appearance  of  fine  red 
powder,  are  used  in  India  for  dyeing  silks  scarlet  and 
orange,  and  form  an  article  of  commerce.  The  color 
this  dye-stuff  yields  is  of  great  beauty  and  stability. 


BOTTWEIL — EOUAHIE. 

ROTTWEIL,  rotvil:  smalltown  of  Wurteniberg,  on 
the  Neckar,  38  m.  e.n.e.  of  Freiburg  in  Baden.  It  con- 
tains a  beautiful  exchange  and  a  number  of  interesting 
churches.  Its  manufactures  are  gunpowder,  silk,  cot- 
ton, and  woolen  fabrics,  and  its  corn-market  is  one  of 
the  most  important  in  the  kingdom.     Pop.  8,000. 

R.  is  the  site  of  an  ancient  Roman  colony,  among 
whose  ruins  was  discovered,  besides  many  other  valu- 
able antiquities  now  preserved  in  the  buildings  of  the 
gymnasium,  a  piece  of  mosaic- wTork,  upon  which  are  an 
excellent  drawing  of  Orpheus  and  a  number  of  profile 
drawings  of  the  larger  kinds  of  game,  of  chariot-races, 
and  of  gladiatorial  encounters,  with  other  drawings. 

ROTULA,  n.  rot'u-la  [L.  rotula,  a  little  wheel— from 
Yota,  a  wheel]  :  in  anat.,  the  patella  or  knee-pan,  situated 
at  the  front  of  the  knee-joint. 

ROTUMA,  rb-tomd:  small  island  in  the  s.  Pacific, 
formally  annexed  to  the  Fiji  Islands  by  Great  Britain 
1880 ;  about  250  m.  n.n.w.  from  the  nearest  island  of 
that  group ;  14  sq.  m.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  readily 
produces  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  yams,  taro,  bananas,  etc. 
The  natives  are  friendly  to  the  white  man.  R.  was  dis- 
covered by  Capt.  Edwards  in  his  search  for  the  muti- 
neers of  the  Bounty  1791.    Pop.  (1884)  2,414. 

ROTUND,  a.  rd-tund'  [L.  rotitn'dm,  wheel-shaped — 
from  rota,  a  wheel:  It.  rotondo]:  round;  spherical; 
inclining  to  be  round.  Rotundity,  n.  -tun'dl-tl  [L. 
rotun'dltas]  :  roundness;  sphericity.  Rotun  da,  n.  ~da, 
or  Rotun  do,  n.  -do,  building  that  is  round  both  on 
the  outside  and  inside,  as  the  Pantheon  of  Rome. 

ROTURIER,  ro-tu-ri-a  [according  to  Littre,  from 
ruptura,  LowT  Latin  for  ground  broken  by  the  plow]  : 
one  of  the  ignoble  classes,  who,  during  the  early  period 
of  the  feudal  system,  were  separated  from  the  high-born 
by  almost  as  broad  a  line  of  demarkation  as  that  which 
divided  servitude  from  liberty.  When  the  feudal  theory 
of  knight-service  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  only 
principle  of  gentle  tenure,  the  term  R.  came  to  be  ap- 
plied to  the  part  of  the  population  who  continued  to 
hold  by  the  older  or  allodial  tenure. 

ROUARIE,  ro-a-re  ,  Armand  Taffin,  Marquis  de  la: 
1756,  Apr.  14 — 1793,  Jan.  30;  b.  Rouarie  Castle,  near 
Rennes,  France :  soldier.  He  joined  the  king's  body- 
guard when  19  years  old;  was  soon  afterward  dismissed 
for  duelling;  came  to  the  United  States  when  21,  and 
received  a  commission  as  col.  in  the  army ;  and  served 
gallantly  till  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war,  with 
Lafayette,  Gates,  and  Washington,  retiring  with  the 
rank  of  brig. gen.  He  lived  in  France  in  private  life  till 
1788,  when  he  was  chosen  a  deputy  to  obtain  from  the 
king  a  pledge  that  he  would  preserve  the  privileges  of 
Brittany,  and  for  his  zeal  was  confined  in  the  Bastile  a 
short  time.  Subsequently  he  planned  a  union  of  the 
provinces  of  Brittany,  Anjou,  and  Poitou ;  but  he  died 
before  the  uprising  of  Les  Chouans- 


ROUBAIX— ROUEN. 

ROUBAIX,  rd-ba  :  flourishing  manufacturing  town  in 
n.  Franco,  dept.  of  Nord,  six  m.  n.e.  of  Lille.  It  has 
risen  into  importance  in  the  present  century,  as  a  great 
scat  of  manufacturing  industry.  Numerous  mills  and 
factories,  as  well  as  dye-works  and  tanneries,  are  in 
operation.  R.  rivals  Elbeuf  and  Louviers  for  wooleq 
cloths  and  carpets,  and  vies  with  Laval  and  the  rest  of 
Flanders  in  linen  manufactures.  R.  is  the  S2at  of  the 
Nat.  School  of  Industrial  Arts.    Pop.  125,000. 

ROUBLE,  or  Ruble,  or  Rubel,  n.  robl:  Russian 
silver  coin,  the  unit  of  the  Russian  money  system. 
Pieces  of  peltry  formed,  in  early  times,  the  ordinary 
medium  of  exchange  in  Russia;  but  about  the  beginning 
of  the  15th  c,  silver  bars  came  more  into  use  for  larger 
payments ;  and  to  make  up  intermediate  sums,  pieces  of 
the  bars  were  cut  off.  It  was  in  this  cutting  off — in 
Russian,  rubat — that  the  name  R.  originated.  The  pres- 
ent silver  R.  is  equivalent  to  nearly  80  cents.  Half, 
quarter,  fifth,  tenth,  and  twentieth  parts  of  a  rouble 
also  are  coined  in  silver ;  and  gold  coins  of  nominally 
five  roubles  (d§mi-imperials)  and  three  roubles  (imperial 
ducats)  also  are  in  circulation.  In  1877  the  paper  rouble 
had  fallen  from  about  75  cts.,  its  nominal  value,  to  about 
35  cts.    The  rouble  is  divided  into  100  kopeks. 

ROUE,  n.  roa  [F.  roue,  one  broken  on  the  wheel — 
from  rouer,  to  break  on  the  wheel ;  roue,  a  wheel — 
from  L.  rota,  a  wheel]  :  one  devoted  to  a  profligate 
life;  a  confirmed  rake. 

ROUEN,  ro-bng ':  one  of  the  principal  manufactur- 
ing and  trading  cities  of  France,  cap.  of  the  dept.  of 
Seine-In  ferieure,  and  ancient  cap.  of  Normandy;  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Seine,  87  m.  n.w.  of  Paris  by  rail- 
way. The  ramparts  have  been  converted  into  spacious 
boulevards,  which,  as  well  as  the  quays  that  line  the 
river-banks,  are  little  inferior  to  the  boulevards  and 
quays  of  Paris.  The  deep  waters  of  the  Seine  form  a 
commodious  port,  generally  crowded  with  vessels  of  all 
nations,  from  300  tons  to  the  smallest  river-craft.  A 
stone  bridge  and  a  suspension-bridge  connect  the  Fau- 
bourg St.  Sever,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  with  the 
city,  which  is  at  once  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and 
one  of  the  busiest  and  liveliest  places  in  France.  Some 
of  the  streets  are  well  and  regularly  built,  with  fine 
modern  stone  houses ;  but  the  greater  part  of  R.  con- 
sists of  old,  ill-built,  but  picturesque  streets  and  squares, 
with  tall,  narrow,  quaintly  carved,  wooden-bound,  and 
gabled  houses.  Among  the  many  beautiful  Gothic 
churches  for  which  it  is  noted,  the  finest  arc  the  cathe- 
dral and  the  church  of  St.  Ouen.  The  former,  one  of 
the  noblest  metropolitan  churches  of  France,  is  a  re- 
markably fine  specimen  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  is 
of  cruciform  shape,  and  has  two  towers  at  the  sides  of 
the  w.  entrance,  and  a  lofty  tower  (464  ft.  high)  termi- 
nating in  a  cast-iron  spire,  which  was  erected  after  the 
destruction  by  fire  1822  of  the  old  wooden  belfry,  which 


ROUEN. 

bore  the  date  1544.  It  was  erected  by  Philippe  Auguste 
between  1200  and  1220,  and  contains,  in  its  25  highly 
ornamented  chapels,  numerous  monuments  of  great  in- 
terest— among  others,  those  of  Duke  Hollo  of  Normandy, 
and  his  son,  William  Longsword.  The  heart  of  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion,  buried  in  this  church,  is  now  preserved 
in  the  extensive  Museum  of  Antiquities.  The  church 
of  St.  Ouen,  as  large  as  the  cathedral,  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  buildings  in  R. ;  and  in  its  present  restored 
state  presents  a  pure  and  elegant  specimen  of  Gothic 
architecture.  Among  the  other  buildings,  the  finest  are 
the  Palais  de  Justice,  belonging  to  the  15th  c,  built  for 
the  parliament  of  the  province ;  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  with 
its  public  library  of  110,000  vols.,  and  its  gallery  of  pict- 
ures ;  and  the  Hotel  Dieu,  one  of  the  largest  of  its  kind. 
R.  has  numerous  benevolent,  educational,  and  scientific 
institutions ;  and  next  to  Lyons  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant manufacturing  town  in  the  republic.  The  prin- 
cipal branches  of  industry  are  cotton  manufactures, 
including  the  checked  and  striped  cottons  specially  des- 
ignated as  Rouenneries,  nankeens,  dimity,  lace,  cotton- 
velvets,  shawls,  etc.  R.  has  extensive  manufactures 
also  of  hosiery,  mixed  silk  and  wool  fabrics,  blankets, 
flannels,  hats,  cordage,  cotton  and  linen  yarns,  shot, 
steel,  lead,  chemicals,  paper,  etc.  Ship-building  and 
machine-making  in  various  departments  are  carried  on. 
R.  is  the  seat  of  an  abp.,  a  high  court  of  justice  for  the 
dept.,  a  tribunal  of  first  instance,  and  of  commerce, 
etc.  Pop.  (1886)  107,163^  (1891)  112,352;  (1901)  116,316. 

History.— -As  the  original  capital  in  France  of  the 
Northmen,  who  took  possession  of  it  842,  and  settled 
there  in  accordance  with  the  agreement  which  Charles 
the  Simple  was  compelled  to  make  with  their  leader 
Rollo,  R.  presents  special  points  of  interest  to  English- 
men. It  was  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Normandy 
till  Duke  William,  1066,  on  his  conquest  of  England, 
transferred  the  seat  of  his  court  to  London ;  and,  till 
the  time  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  it  continued  the  cap. 
of  Normandy,  and  was  the  seat  of  govt,  of  the  Norman 
possessions  of  William  the  Conqueror's  successors  ;  but 
1204  it  was  taken  by  siege  by  the  French  king,  Philippe 
Auguste,  and  annexed  with  the  main  part  of  the  duchy 
to  the  French  crown.  During  the  wars  of  Henry  V. 
and  Henry  VI.  of  England,  it  was  under  the  power  of 
the  English  1419-49,  when  it  was  retaken  by  the  French 
under  Charles  VII.  It  was  during  this  occupation  by 
the  English  that  Joan  d'Arc  was  burned  alive  (1431)  as 
a  witch  in  the  square  of  the  city,  in  which  stands  her 
statue,  and  which  is  called,  in  memory  of  her,  Place  de 
la  Pucelle.  R.  was  occupied  by  German  troops  in  the 
war  of  1870-1. 


EOUGE — ROUGE-ET-NOIR. 

ROUGE,  n.  rozh  [F.  rouge — from  L.  rubeus,  red :  L, 
ruber,  rufus,  red]  :  preparation  of  safflower,  used  to  give 
artificial  bloom  to  the  cheeks,  and,  when  properly  pre- 
pared, said  to  be  perfectly  harmless  in  such  use.  The 
color  is  obtained  through  a  long  and  elaborate  process, 
by  precipitating  it  from  the  safflower,  by  citric  acid  or 
lemon  juice,  on  to  prepared  cotton.  It  is  then  washed 
out  of  the  cotton  with  a  solution  of  soda,  and  again  pre- 
cipitated with  citric  acid ;  but  previous  to  adding  the 
acid,  finely  powdered  French  chalk  is  added  to  the  solu- 
tion, which  becomes  colored,  and  falls  down,  when  the 
precipitation  takes  place,  giving  the  necessary  body 
and  a  peculiarly  silky  lustre  to  the  coloring  matter. 
Jeweller's  rouge  is  a  preparation  of  iron  formed  by  calcin- 
ing sulphate  of  iron  or  green  vitriol,  until  the  water 
of  crystallization  is  expelled ;  it  is  then  roasted  in  a 
strong  heat,  and  afterward  washed  with  water,  until  it 
no  longer  affects  litmus  paper.  Liquid  rouge  is  the  red 
liquor  left  in  making  carmine.  Rouge,  a.  red :  V.  to 
tinge  the  cheeks  with  rouge;  to  tinge  or  paint  with 
rouge.  Roug  ing,  imp.  Rouged,  pp.  rozhd :  Adj. 
tinged  with  rouge,  as  the  face.  Rouge  ckoix,  one  of 
the  pursuivants  belonging  to  the  heraldic  establishment 
of  England,  generally  allowed  to  be  the  most  ancient. 
Rouge  dragon,  title  of  a  pursuivancy  founded  by 
Henry  VII.,  the  day  before  his  coronation. 

ROUGE-ET-NOIR,  rozh-a-nwdr  [F.,  <  red-and-black'], 
or  Trente-un  ['thirty-one'],  or  Tiiente  et  Quarante 
['  thirty  and  forty ']  :  notorious  modern  game  of  chance, 
played  with  six  packs  of  cards  on  a  table  covered  with 
green  cloth.  The  table  is  divided  into  four  portions, 
each  marked  in  the  centre  with  a  diamond,  the  diamond? 
being  alternately  red  and  black ;  and  these  quarters  are 
further  separated,  two  and  two,  by  bands  which  cross 
the  table  at  its  narrowest  part.  At  the  end  of  the  table 
is  a  series  of  concentric  bands  of  yellow  color.  Tail- 
leurs  (or  dealers),  including  the  croupier,  manage  the 
table,  take  charge  of  the  bank,  and  keep  an  eye  on  the 
players.  Each  player  must  stake  his  money  on  one  of  the 
four  chances,  denominated  noir,  rouge,  couleur,  and 
V inverse ;  and  the  stakes  are  laid  on  the  table — those  for 
the  noir  being  laid  on  either  of  the  quarters  marked  with 
a  black;  those  for  the  rouge  on  either  of  the  quarters 
marked  with  a  red  diamond ;  those  for  the  couleur  on 
one  of  the  transverse  bands ;  and  those  for  the  inverse 
on  one  of  the  yellow  circles  at  the  end  of  the  table.  The 
tailleur  then  deals  a  limited  number  of  the  cards,  laying 
them  face  upward,  side  by  side,  on  the  table ;  and  the 
question  of  winning  or  losing  is  determined  by  such 
points  as  the  color  of  the  first  card  tabled  by  the  tailleur, 
or  the  number  of  pips  in  the  first  row  of  cards  tabled, 
etc. — The  game  requires  no  skill  and  is  of  use  only  to 
gamblers :  the  odds  are  always  in  favor  of  the  bank. 
Together  with  roulette,  this  game  has  been  forbidden 
bylaw  in  some  countries. 


ROUGH-ROUGH  RIDERS. 

BOUGH,  a.  ruf[Gev.  ranch;  Dut.  ruych;  AS.  kruh  or 
ruh ;  Dan.  ru,  rough,  hairy]  :  not  smooth  or  plain ; 
rugged;  not  wrought  or  polished;  violently  agitated, 
as  the  sea ;  stormy,  as  the  weather ;  harsh  to  the  taste 
or  ear;  grating;  rugged  of  temper;  coarse  in  manners; 
crude ;  imperfect ;.  hard-featured ;  hairy  or  shaggy ;  in 
OE.,  terrible;  dreadful:  N.  state  of  being  coarse  or 
unfinished,  as  articles  in  the  rough.  Roughing,  imp. 
Roughed,  pp.  ruft.  Rough'ly,  ad.  -li,  in  a  rough 
manner;  with  uneven  surface;  harshly;  severely. 
Roughness,  n.  -nes,  the  quality  or  state  of  being  rough  ; 
unevenness;  harshness;  asperity;  ruggedness  of  tem- 
per ;  coarseness  of  manners.  Rough'ish,  a.  -ish,  rather 
rough.  Roughs,  n.  plu.  rufs,  coarse  unmannerly  men; 
rowdies;  blackguards;  ruffians.  To  rough  it,  to  put 
up  with  inconveniences  and  hardships,  as  in  travelling. 
Roughing-in,  in  arch.,  a  plastering  of  three  coats  on 
brick  or  stone  work.  Rough-cast,  n.  in  sculp.,  rude  or 
first  model:  in  building,  fluid  mortar  mixed  with  fine 
gravel,  making  a  coarse  plaster  for  a  finishing  coat  on 
outer  walls:  V.  to  mold  in  a  rude  unfinished  state. 
Rough  diamond,  a  diamond  uncut;  a  person  possessing 
great  worth,  but  rude  and  unpolished  in  manners. 
Rough  draft  or  draught,  a  first  or  unfinished  sketch 
or  representation.  To  rough-draw,  to  draw  or  de- 
lineate coarsely.  Rough-drawn,  pp.  Rough-footed, 
a.  feather-footed,  as  in  the  case  of  certain  birds.  Rough- 
hew,  v.  -hu,  to  give  the  first  form  or  shape  to  anything; 
to  hew  rudely.  Rough-hewn,  pp. :  Adj.  rugged ;  un- 
polished. Rough-rider,  in  the  army,  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer  who  assists  the  riding-master  of  a  cavalry 
regiment ;  one  who  breaks  horses.  To  rough  a  horse, 
to  break  in,  particularly  for  military  service ;  to  make 
its  shoes  rough.  Rough-shod,  a.  having  shoes  armed 
with  points.  To  ride  rough-shod,  to  pursue  a  course 
selfishly,  regardless  of  the  consequences  to  others.  To 
rough-work,  to  work  coarsely,  or  without  regard  to 
nicety  of  finish.  Rough-wrought,  a.  done  coarsely. 
Roughings,  n.  plu.  rufingz,  grass  that  follows  mowing 
or  reaping.  In  the  rough,  in  the  original  material ;  in 
an  unwrought  condition.  A  rough  customer,  in  famil- 
iar language,  a  troublesome  and  somewhat  dangerous 
person  to  deal  with.  Roughen,  v.  rufn,  to  make  rough ; 
to  become  rough.  Roughening,  imp.  rufnlng.  Rough- 
ened, pp.  rufnd. — Syn.  of  4  rough,  a/  :  rugged ;  austere ; 
harsh ;  inelegant ;  coarse ;  uncivil ;  severe ;  rude ; 
abrupt ;  indelicate ;  unpolished ;  unfinished ;  disordered ; 
tempestuous;  stormy;  boisterous;  hairy;  uncut;  un- 
even; shaggy;  ragged;  disordered;  uucourteous;  hard. 

ROUGH  RIDERS,  a  regiment  of  volunteers  formed  at 
the  commencement  of  hostilities  with  Spain  (see  Spanish- 
American  War),  by  Theodore  Roosevelt  (q.v.)  1898  and 
made  up  as  follows: 

Troops  A,  B,  and  C,  from  Arizona; 

Troop  D,  from  Oklahoma; 

Troops  E,  F,  G,  H,  and  I,  from  New  Mexico; 


ROUHER — ROULEAU. 

Troop  K,  from  eastern  cities  and  colleges; 

Troops  L  and  M,  from  Indian  Territory. 

The  very  last  troop,  K,  left  Washington  May  8,  and  the 
regiment  embarked  for  Cuba  June  14,  arriving  on  the  23d. 
On  the  24th  they  helped  to  defeat  the  Spaniards  at  Las 
Guasimas,  where  Capt.  Capron  and  Lieut.  Hamilton  Fish 
were  killed.  The  regiment  was  under  the  command  of 
Col.  Wood  and  Lieut.  Col.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  the  organ- 
izer. Together  with  the  1st,  6th,  and  10th  U.  S.  infantry, 
the  R.  R.,  after  a  desperate  fight,  captured  the  village  of 
San  Juan  and  a  blockhouse,  but  suffered  heavy  loss.  On 
Aug.  7  the  regiment  embarked  at  Santiago,  at  the  surrender 
of  which  it  was  present,  and  sailed  for  Montauk  Point, 
Long  Island,  where  it  remained  in  camp  until  mustered 
out,  1898,  Sept.  13. 

ROUHER,  ro-a\  Eugene:  French  statesman:  1814, 
Nov.  30—1884,  Feb.  3;  b.  Riom.  He  distinguished  him- 
self first  as  an  advocate  at  the  bar  of  his  native  town, 
at  which  he  practiced  till  1848,  when  he  was  returned  by 
the  dept.  of  Puy-de-D6me  to  the  constituent  assembly, 
and  in  the  following  year  to  the  corps  legislatif.  Toward 
the  end  of  1849,  R.  was  appointed  Minister  of  Justice  in 
the  second  ministry  of  Louis  Napoleon ;  and  with  slight 
interruptions,  he  was  for  20  years  a  member  of  the 
French  gvt.  In  the  corps  legislatif,  he  showed  himself 
a  moderate  politician ;  and  he  never  affected  to  consider 
the  Republic  an  improvement  on  the  constitutional, 
system  which  had  preceded  it.  In  1852,  he  was  ap- 
pointed vice-pres.  of  the  council  of  state,  with  oversight 
of  the  departments  of  legislation,  justice,  and  foreign 
affairs.  In  1855,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  public  works,  and  found  extraor- 
dinary opportunities  for  his  administrative  ability.  R. 
was  prominent  in  nogotiation  of  the  Treaty  of  Commerce 
with  England,  1860.  In  1863,  he  was  appointed  pres. 
of  the  council  of  state.  Soon  afterward  he  took  the 
office  of  minister  of  the  interior ;  and  later  was  appointed 
minister  of  state.  He  held  office  till  1869,  when  he  be- 
came pres.  of  the  senate.  He  was,  after  the  emperor, 
the  chief  representative  of  the  system,  domestic  and 
foreign,  which  came  to  a  disastrous  end  at  Sedan ;  and 
was  sometimes  called  the  vice-emperor.  After  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  R.  fled.  Returning,  he  lived  for  a  time 
under  arrest.  He  was  returned  to  the  national  assem- 
bly for  Corsica  1872,  and  sat  till  1875  as  a  staunch  Bona- 
partist  and  defender  of  the  ex-emperor.  In  1876,  he  was 
returned  for  three  separate  arrondissements,  but  his 
election  was  annulled.  His  reputation  as  debater  stood 
almost  higher  than  his  fame  as  administrator. 

ROULADE,  n.  rd~lad'  [F.]  :  in  mus.,  sax  embellishment; 
a  flourish ;  an  ornamental  passage  of  runs. 

ROULEAU,  n.  ro-W  [F.  rouleau,  a  roll — from  rouler,  to 
roll  (see  Roll)]  :  a  little  roll ;  a  roll  of  coin  made  up  in 
paper. 


ROULERS— ROULETTE. 

ROULERS,  ro-laf:  town  of  W.  Flanders,  Belgium,  19 
m.  s.s.w.  of  Bruges.  In  the  vicinity  flax  is  extensively 
grown,  and  in  the  town  linen  is  largely  bleached  and 

manufactured.    Pop.  23,240. 

ROULETTE,  n.  ro-lef  [F.  roulette,  a  little  wheel—from 
F.  rouler ;  OF.  roller,  to  roll — from  mid.  L.  rohdare,  to 
roll — from  L.  rotula,  a  little  wheel ;  rota,  a  wTheel]  :  small 
instrument  used  by  engravers  to  produce  a  series  of 
dotted  lines  on  a  plate :  game,  of  chance  (see  below) :  a 
culinary  delicacy. 

ROULETTE,  rd-let':  game  of  chance  which,  from  the 
end  of  the  18th  c.  till  the  beginning  of  1338,  was  in  vogue 
over  all  others  in  Paris.  It  continued  to  be  played  at 
German  watering-places  till  1872,  when  it  ceased  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  a  law  passed  four  years  before.  R. 
is  still  played  at  Monaco,  in  Italy.  As  much  as  $40,000 
a  year  used  to  be  spent  in  the  papers  of  Paris  alone 
advertising  this  game,  which,  being  purely  one  of  chance, 
is  a  gamblers'  game.  It  is  played  on  an  oblong  table 
covered  with  green  cloth,  which  has  in  its  centre  a  cavity 
a  little  more  than  two  ft.  in  diameter  in  the  shape  of  a 
punch-bowl.  This  cavity  has  its  sides  fixed,  but  the 
bottom  is  movable  round  an  axis  in  the  centre.  Round 
the  circumference  of  this  movable  bottom  are  38  holes, 
painted  in  black  and  red  alternately,  and  numbered. 
Those  who  manage  the  table  and  keep  the  bank  are  called 
tailleurs ;  one  of  whom  puts  the  movable  bottom  in 
motion  and  at  the  same  instant  throws  into  its  cavity 
an  ivory  ball  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  motion  of  the 
bottom ;  the  ball,  after  several  revolutions,  falls  into 
one  of  the  38  holes  above  mentioned,  the  hole  into  which 
it  falls  determining  the  gain  or  loss  of  the  players,  each 
of  whom  has  previously  selected  the  number  of  the 
hole  on  which  he  stakes  his  money.  There  is  an  elabo- 
rate system  of  combinations  of  chances  offering  the 
tempting  variety  for  selection  in  which  gamblers  delight. 
At  Monaco,  where  this  game  is  still  (1891)  in  vogue, 
suicides  are  frequent  of  players  who  havo  staked  and 
lost  their  all. 


ROUMANIA. 

BOUMANIA,  or  Rumania,  ro-ma'ni-a :  country  com* 
prising  the  two  states,  Moldavia  and  Walachia — the 
so-called  Danubian  Principalities — which  since  1861,  Dec. 
23,  have  been  united  under  one  prince  and  one  adminis- 
tration, and  officially  bear  the  single  name  Roumania 
or  Rumania.  Formerly  subject  to  the  Porte,  R.  pro- 
claimed its  own  absolute  independence  1877,  and  had 
its  claim  recognized  at  the  Berlin  Congress  1878.  It 
was  proclaimed  a  kingdom  1881.  R.  obtained  the  Do- 
brudscha  (q.v.)  1878,  and  Roumanian  Bessarabia  (q.v.) 
was  ceded  to  Russia.  Ihe  area  is  50,720  sq.  m. — Pop.  of 
R.,  though  the  loss  of  Bessaraia  was  not  balanced  by  the 
gain  of  the  Dobrudscha,  5,912,520. 

1.  Moldavia  (Ger.  Moldau,  Turk.  Bogdan)  is  bounded 
n.  and  e.  by  Russia,  s.  by  Walachia,  w.  by  Hungary ; 
area,  since  the  cession  of  Bessarabia,  about  15,000  sq.  m. 
The  country  forms,  geographically,  part  of  the  great 
plain  of  s.  Russia,  except  toward  the  w.,  where  there  are 
spurs  from  the  Carpathians.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Pruth,  the  Sereth,  and  the  Danube,  and  is  almost  every- 
where fertile,  producing  grain,  fruit,  and  wine.  But 
the  riches  of  the  country  consist  mainly  in  its  cattle  and 
horses,  of  which  immense  numbers  are  reared  on  its 
splendid  and  far-stretching  pastures ;  swine  and  sheep 
also  are  numerous ;  and  the  rearing  of  bees  is  extensive, 
favored  by  the  multitude  of  lime-trees.  The  great 
plagues  of  the  land  are  locusts  and  earthquakes.  Min- 
erals and  precious  metals  are  said  to  be  abundant,  but 
they  have  not  been  worked :  there  are  a  few  salt-pits 
near  Okna,  in  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  Trade  is 
almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  numerous  Jews, 
Germans,  Greeks,  and  Russians  who  have  settled  in  the 
country.  The  cap.  of  M.  is  Jassy  (q.v.);  but  the  great 
centre  of  trade  is  Galacz  (q.v.),  where,  of  late,  several 
British  merchants  have  established  houses.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  grain,  wool,  lambs*  skins,  hides, 
feathers,  maize,  tar,  tallow,  honey,  leeches,  cattle,  and 
salt  (in  blocks) ;  the  imports  are  chiefly  the  manufact- 
ured products  of  w.  Europe.  M.  is  divided  into  13 
districts,  each  of  which  has  a  prefect  or  gov.,  a  receiver- 
gen,  of  taxes,  and  a  civil  tribunal  consisting  of  a  prese 
and  two  other  judges. 

2.  Walachia,  the  larger  of  the  United  Danubian 
Principalities,  is  bounded  n.  by  the  Austrian  empire  and 
Moldavia,  e.  and  s.  by  the  Danube,  w.  by  the  Austrian 
empire  and  the  Danube ;  length  from  the  w,  frontier  to 
Cape  Kaliakra  on  the  Black  Sea,  305  m. ;  greatest 
breadth,  130  m. ;  27,500  sq.  m.  The  greater  part  of  W. 
is  Oat;  but  in  the  n.,  where  it  borders  on  Hungary  and 
Tr.uirfylvania,  it  gradually  rises  into  a  great  mountain- 
wall,  impassabie  except  in  five  places.  It  is  destitute 
of  wood  throughout  almost  its  whole  extent;  and  es- 
pecially along  the  Danube,  is  covered  with  swamps, 
miles  on  miles  in  breadth.  The  principal  river  flowing 
through  the  country  is  the  Aluta,  which  joins  the  Danube 
at  Nikopol,   The  climafc©  is  extreme ;  the  summer  hestB 


ROUMANIA. 

are  intense ;  in  winter,  the  land  lies  under  deep  snow 
for  four  months.  The  principal  products  are  corn, 
maize,  millet,  wine,  flax,  tobacco,  and  olive-oil.  The 
vast  treeless  heaths  afford  sustenance  to  great  herds  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  As  in  Moldavia,  agriculture 
is  an  important  industry.  The  swampy  districts  of  the 
s.  are  inhabited  by  immense  numbers  of  wild  water- 
fowl. In  minerals — especially  gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
rock-salt — the  soil  is  rich,  but  only  the  salt  is  extensively 
worked.  Bucharest  is  the  cap.  of  Walachia  and  of 
Roumania. 

Roumania. — Administration. — The  King  of  R. — till  of 
late  styled  by  the  Roumans  Domnu  or  Domnitor  ;  officially 
called  by  the  Sublime  Porte,  Woiwod  (Prince);  by  the 
Turks  generally,  Ijauer-Effendi  (Lord  of  the  Unbelievers) ; 
and  by  the  Russians,  Hospodar  or  Gospodarj  (Prince) — 
is  now  the  head  of  an  independent,  constitutional,  and 
hereditary  monarchy.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  and 
the  Convention  (1858),  Moldavia  and  Walachia  were 
politically  united  under  one  prince,  with  a  special  min- 
istry for  each  country,  two  elective  assemblies,  and  a 
central  commission,  which  had  its  seat  at  Fokshani. 
But  1861,  Nov.,  the  Turkish  sultan  sanctioned  the  ad- 
ministrative union  of  the  two  states ;  and  in  the  follow- 
ing month,  it  was  publicly  proclaimed  at  Bucharest  and 
Jassy.  The  first  ruler  of  R.,  Prince  Alexander  John 
Couza,  was  forced  to  abdicate  1866,  when  Karl  I.,  son  of 
the  prince  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  was  chosen  his 
successor.  At  the  same  time,  a  new  and  more  popular 
constitution  was  adopted  by  a  constituent  assembly 
elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  two  houses,  a  senate,  and  a  chamber  of  depu- 
ties. The  former  consists  of  120  members,  elected  for 
eight  years;  and  the  latter  of  183,  elected  for  four  years. 
The  members  of  both  houses  are  chosen  by  indirect 
election — i.e.,  the  first  voters  nominate  electors,  who 
choose  the  members.  All  citizens  who  have  reached 
their  25th  year,  and  who  can  read  and  write,  are  voters  in 
the  first  instance,  and  every  Rouman  who  possesses  a 
small  yearly  income  is  eligible  for  a  seat  in  parliament. 
The  king  has  a  suspensive  veto  over  all  laws  passed  by 
both  chambers.  He  is  also  chief  of  the  executive,  which 
is  composed  of  a  council  of  seven  ministers,  heads  of 
the  departments  of  the  Interior,  of  Foreign  Affairs,  of 
War,  of  Finance,  of  Justice,  of  Commerce  and  Agricul- 
ture, and  of  Religion  and  Public  Instruction.  Judges 
are  removable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  superior  author- 
ities. The  legal  codes  are  founded  on  the  civil  law  and 
the  customs  of  the  Principalities;  but  though  the 
system  of  jurisprudence  has  been  much  amended,  many 
reforms  remain  to  be  effected,  especially  in  administra- 
tion of  the  laws,  which  is  said  to  be  most  corrupt. 

Religion. — The  established  religion  of  R.  is  that  of  the 
Greek  Church,  to  which  nearly  the  whole  population 
belong ;  but  all  forms  of  Christianity  are  tolerated,  and 
their  profes^—  M.ve  equal  political  rights.    At  the 


ROUMANIA. 

head  of  the  Greek  clergy  stand  the  metropolitan  arch- 
bishops of  Moldavia  and  of  Walachia,  the  latter  of  whom 
is  primate  of  R.  Every  bishop  is  assisted  by  a  council 
of  clergy,  and  has  a  seminary  for  priets ;  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  preaching  clergy  is  the  Proto-papa  of  the 
diocese.  The  ecclesiastical  wealth  of  the  country  was 
formerly  very  great,  but  the  increased  expenditure  that 
followed  the  union  of  the  two  states  rendered  a  scheme 
of  spoliation  the  only  means  left  to  the  government  to 
extricate  itself  from  its  difficulties — in  a  word,  the 
convent-properties  were  wrested  from  the  hands  of  the 
Greek  monks,  and  placed  under  the  administration  of 
the  state.  It  had  been  the  fashion  to  establish  such 
convents  in  Turkey  as  supports  to  the  orthodox  faith, 
and  the  institutions  in  the  Principality  itself  were  richly 
endowed  in  land  and  other  ways :  it  was  resolved  to 
apply  the  revenues  to  the  relief  of  national  needs,  such 
as  schools,  hospitals,  the  support  of  the  poor,  etc.,  and 
to  give  only  the  surplus  to  the  clergy.  This  has  con- 
siderably increased  the  revenue  of  the  state.  The 
administration,  however,  is  now  put  on  a  better  footing. 

Education. — There  are  more  than  2,700  elementary 
schools,  besides  normal  schools,  gymnasia,  private 
schools,  etc.,  in  all  about  2,500  schools.  There  are  two 
universities.  Education  is  gratuitous  and  compulsory. 
There  are  numerous  French  boarding-schools,  and  French 
is  now  the  language  of  the  educated  circles,  especially 
ladies  (as  Greek  formerly  was),  but  the  state  language 
and  the  proper  national  tongue  is  the  Romanic. 

Army  and  Navy. — In  1902  the  permanent  army  (peace 
footing)  comprised  3,280  officers,  60,000  men,  11,930 
horses,  and  390  cannon,  and  the  war  effective  was  3,948 
officers  and  170,000  men,  including  the  Dobrudscha  divi- 
sion; in  all  about  174,000  officers  and  men.  Under  exist- 
ing laws  every  male  citizen  on  reaching  his  majority  is 
liable  to  three  years'  service  in  the  active  army.  His  as- 
signment is  by  lot,  and  all  not  drawn  for  the  permanent 
army  are  assigned  to  the  territorial  army  for  four  years' 
service  in  the  cavalry  and  five  years  in  the  infantry. 
The  army  corps  comprised  10,000  cavalry;  8,500  artil. ; 
4,000  engineers;  85,000  inf.;  and  17,000  staff  and  general 
services.  In  1902  the  strength  of  the  army  on  a  peace 
footing  was  3,280  officers,  60,000  men,  11,930  horses  and 
390  guns.  The  territorial  army  consisted  of  72,000  men 
and  7,500  horses.  The  war  strength  was  put  at  3,948 
officers,  170,000  men  and  43,114  horses.  The  fortifica- 
tions are  at  Galatz  on  the  Danube,  at  Nemolassa  on  the 
Sereth  and  at  Focsani  to  the  n.  w.  near  the  Sereth.  The 
navy  1902  comprised  1  protected  18  knot  cruiser;  1  com- 
posite screw  brig ;  7  gun-boats ;  8  torpedo  boats ;  and 
several  dispatch  and  revenue  vessels. 

Commerce. — In  1901  the  imports  were  $58,889,154; 
exports  $70,766,175;  exports  of  cereals,  chiefly  wheat 
and  maize,  $49,160,000. 

Finances.— Public  revenue  is  derived  from  direct  a*id 


ROUMANIA. 


indirect  taxation,  state  monopolies,  domains,  and  public 
works,  such  as  railroads,  post-offices,  and  telegraph 
service.  There  are  over  3,000  m.  of  state  railroads, 
nearly  5,000  m„  of  telegraph  lines,  a  rapidly  developing 
telephone  system,  and  excellent  postal  facilities.  The 
government  monopolizes  also  salt  and  tobacco.  The 
decimal  system  of  coinage,  weights  and  measures  has 
been  adopted.  The  budget  estimates  for  revenue  and 
expenditure  average  annually  $45,000,000  respectively. 
The  public  debt  amounts  to  nearly  $283,000,000. 

Race,  Language  and  Literature. — The  great  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  are  known  in  w.  Europe  as  Walachs, 
but  they  call  themselves  Romeni.  The  Walachs,  how- 
ever, are  not  confined  to  the  Principalities,  but  inhabit 
also  the  s.  part  of  Bukowina,  the  greater  part  of  Tran- 
sylvania, e.  Hungary,  a  part  of  the  Banat,  Bessarabia, 
districts  in  Podolia  and  Kherson,  and  portions  of  e. 
Servia.  They  are  found  also  in  Macedonia,  Albania, 
and  Thessaly.  They  are  a  mixed  race,  produced  by 
amalgamation  of  Emperor  Trajan's  Roman  colonists 
with  the  original  Dacian  population;  and  subsequently 
modified  by  Greek,  Slavic,  Albanian,  Hungarian,  and 
Turkish  elements.  This  mixture  is  seen  in  their 
language,  one  half  of  whose  words  are  Latin  (the 
Dacian  has  disappeared),  while  the  remainder  is  made 
up  of  words  from  the  other  languages.  Roumanian 
literature,  which  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  16th  c, 
is  rich  in  popular  songs,  a  collection  of  which  were 
admirably  translated  into  German  by  the  queen  of  R. 
1881.  The  chronicles  of  the  country  are  not  without 
interest.  There  are  numerous  political  and  other 
journals  in  the  Roumanian  tongue. 

Social  Condition. — Very  recent  statistics  on  this  point 
are  not  attainable.  In  Moldavia  there  are  rather  less, 
in  Walachia  considerably  more,  than  3,000  bojars,  be- 
sides whom  there  is  an  extensive  inferior  nobility.  In 
Walachia  every  28th  man  is  a  nobleman,  every  133d 
a  merchant;  and  in  the  capital,  every  20th  is  a  mer- 
chant. The  free  peasants,  or  yeomen,  called  Reseschs, 
are  not  numerous — in  all  Walachia  there  are  under 
5,000.  Gypsy  communities  are  an  important  element  in 
the  population;  more  than  150,000  of  this  mysterious 
race  are  or  were  serfs  belonging  to  the  rich  bojars  and 
the  monasteries.  In  1844,  about  30,000  were  emanci- 
pated, and  settled  in  colonies  in  different  parts  of  the 
land:  they  call  themselves  Rom-nit schel  or  Romni. 
The  common  people  are  on  the  whole  good-humored, 
frugal,  sober,  and  cleanly;  murder  and  larceny  are 
almost  unknown.    The  dwellings  are  most  wretched; 


ROUMANIA. 

fcomposed  chiefly  of  interlaced  willow-withes,  covered 
with  mud,  cane,  and  straw. 

History. — In  ancient  times,  Moldavia  and  Walachia 
formed  an  important  part  of  Dacia  (q.v.),  and  the  two 
countries  have  in  general  experienced  the  same  vicissi- 
tudes. At  the  period  of  the  migration  of  nations,  and  in 
the  following  centuries,  they  were  the  scene  of  the  strug- 
gles between  the  Gothic,  Hunnic,  Bulgarian,  and  Slavic 
races — the  Avari,  Chazars,  Petschenegi,  Uzi,  and 
Magyars,  who  alternately  ruled  or  were  expelled  from 
the  country.  These  peoples  all  left  traces  (more  or  less) 
of  themselves  among  the  Romanized  Dacian  inhabitants, 
and  thus  helped  to  form  that  composite  people,  the 
modern  Walachs,  who,  in  the  11th  c,  were  converted 
to  the  Christianity  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church. 
Their  incursions,  however,  frightfully  devastated  the 
country.  In  the  11th  c,  the  Kumans,  a  Turkish  race, 
established  in  Moldavia  a  kingdom  of  their  own.  Two 
centuries  later,  the  great  storm  of  Mongols  broke  over 
the  land.  It  then  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Nogai  Tar- 
tars, who  left  it  utterly  wasted,  so  that  only  in  the  for- 
ests and  mountains  was  any  trace  left  of  the  native 
AValachian  population.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  13th  c, 
a  petty  Walach  chief  of  Transylvania,  Radu  Negru  of 
Fogarasch,  entered  Walachia,  took  possession  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  country,  divided  it  among  his  bojars  (noble 
followers),  founded  a  senate  of  12  members,  and  an  elec- 
tive monarchy;  and  gradually  conquered  the  whole  of 
Walachia.  A  little  less  than  a  century  later  (1354),  a 
similar  attempt,  also  successful,  was  made  by  a  Walach 
chief  of  the  Hungarian  Marmarosh,  of  the  name  of  Bog- 
dan,  to  re-people  Moldavia.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  c,  both  Principalities  placed  themselves  under  pro- 
tection of  the  Porte,  and  gradually  the  bojars  lost  the 
right  of  electing  their  own  ruler,  whose  office  was 
bought  in  Constantinople.  After  1711,  the  Turks 
governed  the  countries  by  Fanariot  princes  (see  Fanar- 
iots),  who  in  reality  only  farmed  the  revenues,  enriched 
themselves,  and  impoverished  the  land.  In  1802,  the 
Russians  wrested  from  Turkey  the  right  of  surveillance 
over  the  Principalities.  A  great  number  of  the  nobles 
— through  family  marriages  with  the  Fanariots-— were 
now  of  Greek  descent,  the  court-tongue  was  Greek,  and 
the  religious  and  political  sympathies  of  the  country 
were  the  same.  Hence  the  effort  of  the  Principalities 
1821  to  emancipate  themselves  from  Turkish  authority, 
which  was  only  the  prelude  to  the  greater  and  more 
successful  struggle  in  Greece  itself.  In  1822,  Russia 
forced  Turkey  to  choose  the  princes  or  hospodars  of 
Walachia  and  Moldavia  from  natives,  and  not  from  the 
corrupt  Greeks  of  Constantinople ;  and  after  1829,  to 
allow  them  to  hold  their  dignity  for  life.  The  Princi- 
palities, united  under  one  ruler  1858,  were  brought 
under  one  administration  1861,  and  proclaimed  a  king- 
dom 1881,  Mar.  27. 

A  military  revolt  1866,  Feb.  resulted  in  the  deposition 


ROUMELIA — BOUND, 
of  Prince  Couza — Alexander  John  I.  The  Count  of  Flan- 
ders, younger  brother  of  Leopold  II.  of  Belgium,  was 
unanimously  chosen  hospodar ;  but  he  at  once  declined 
the  perilous  honor.  The  choice  of  the  Roumanians  then 
fell  on  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  who 
was  proclaimed  Prince  of  R.  1866,  Apr.  20.  The  existing 
constitution  was  then  adopted.  When  war  broke  out 
between  Russia  and  Turkey,  1877,  Apr.,  R.  signed  a  con- 
vention with  Russia,  guaranteeing  the  Russian  troops 
free  passage  through  Rumanian  territory ;  and  May  21 
the  chamber  of  deputies  at  Bucharest  decreed  the  inde- 
pendence of  R.  War  was  declared  with  Turkey;  and 
the  Roumanian  army  bore  a  creditable  part  in  several 
battles,  especially  before  Plevna.  The  Berlin  Congress 
of  1878,  which  revised  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  con- 
cluded between  Russia  and  Turkey,  and  has  attempted 
the  most  recent  solution  of  the  *  Eastern  Question/ 
agreed  to  recognize  the  independence  of  R.  It  resolved 
however,  much  against  the  will  of  the  government  and 
people  of  R.,  to  restore  to  Russia  the  portions  of  Bessa- 
rabia (q.v.)  touching  the  Pruth  and  Danube,  which  were 
given  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  to  Moldavia  1856 ;  and,  by 
a  rough  sort  of  compensation,  R.  received  the  Dobrud- 
scha  (q.v.).  It  was  stipulated  that  religious  dissent 
Should  not  exclude  from  civil  rights. 

ROUMELIA,  rd-me'Vi-a  (Turkish,  Rumili) :  indefinite 
term  for  an  important  portion  of  European  Turkey,  dif- 
fering widely  in  area  at  various  times;  but  denoting 
generally  the  region  between  the  Balkans  and  the  JEgean, 
corresponding  to  anc.  Thrace  and  part  of  Macedonia. 

ROUME'LIA,  Eastekn  :  province  of  the  Ottoman 
empire,  immediately  s.  of  the  Balkans,  13,830  sq.  m. 
Though  remaining  under  the  military  and  political  au- 
thority of  the  sultan,  it  had  administrative  autonomy 
conferred  on  it  by  the  Berlin  Congress  of  1878.  Internal 
order  is  maintained  by  a  native  gendarmerie  and  a  local 
militia.  The  gov.gen.,  nominated  by  the  Porte,  must  be 
ecclesiastically  a  Christian,  and  the  constitution  is  set- 
tled by  a  European  commission.  Since  1885,  R.  is  prac- 
tically united  with  Bulgaria  (q.v.),  the  Prince  of  Bulgaria 
being  appointed  gov.gen  of  E.  Roumelia. — Pop.  (1880] 
815,946,  of  whom  573,560  Bulgarians;  (1900)  1,099,984. 

ROUN,  v.  rown  [Ger.  raunen  ;  Dut.  roenen,  to  whisper: 
Sp.  runrun,  rumor,  report] :  in  OE.,  to  address  in  a 
whisper;  to  whisper.  Routing,  imp.  Rouned,  pp. 
rownd .    Also  spelt  Round  and  Rown. 

ROUNCE,  n.  rowns  [probably  a  mere  corruption  of 
round — that  is,  an  in  and  out  again] :  the  handle  of  a 
printing-press,  by  which  the  carriage  with  the  form  of 
type  is  run  in  under  the  platen  and  out  again. 

ROUND,  a.  rownd  [F.  rond ;  Ger.  rund ;  OF.  rodnd— 
from  L.  rotun'dus,  round — from  rota,  a  wheel:  It. 
ritondOy  circular] :  circular ;  globular ;  smooth  or  flow- 
ing, as  sound  or  language;  not  defective  or  abrupt; 

T—  »  T 


BOUND. 


not  inconsiderable ;  large,  as  a  round  sum  ;  quick,  as  to 
travel  at  a  round  rate ;  bold,  as  a  round  assertion ;  in 
OE.,  plain ;  free  without  delicacy  or  reserve:  Ad.  on  all 
sides ;  every  way ;  not  in  a  direct  line  ;  circularly  :  Prep. 
on  every  side  of;  about;  all  over:  N.  a  circle;  a  globe; 
a  sphere ;  an  action  or  passage  in  a  circle  returning  to 
the  point  of  commencement ;  a  walk  or  circuit  per- 
formed by  a  guard  or  an  officer  among  sentinels ;  a  revo- 
lution  or  rotation;  a  succession  or  recurring  series,  as 
of  duties;  the  step  of  a  ladder;  a  volley,  as  of  firearms 
by  troops :  in  music,  a  short  song  or  catch  in  parts  re- 
turning to  the  same  point  in  the  performance  (see  below) : 
in  OE.,  a  dance:  V.  to  make  circular;  to  become  round; 
to  encircle ;  to  make  protuberant ;  to  make  full,  smooth, 
and  flowing,  as  in  writing  or  speaking ;  to  take  the  edge 
off  anything;  in  thieves'  slayig,  to  become  an  informer; 
in  OE.,  to  grow  round  in  form.  Bounding,  imp. 
Bound'ed,  pp.  Bound'ly,  ad.  -U,  in  a  round  form;  in 
OE.,  openly;  plainly;  completely;  vigorously;  to  the 
purpose.  Bound'ness,  n.  -nes,  the  quality  or  state  of 
being  round ;  cylindrical  form ;  fulness  or  smoothness 
of  flow;  boldness.  Bound'isii,  a.  -ish,  nearly  round. 
Bound'about,  a.  -Qrbowt,  indirect ;  circuitous ;  loose : 
N.  a  horizontal  revolving- wheel  at  fairs  on  which  chil- 
dren ride:  Prep,  around.  Bound-hand,  in penmansliip, 
a  style  in  which  the  letters  are  formed  round  and  full. 
Bound-shouldered,  a.  having  a  round  back  or  shoul- 
ders. Boundhead,  a  term  of  reproach  given  to  Puritans 
and  the  adherents  of  parliament  during  the  wars  of 
Charles  I.  who  wore  their  hair  closely  cut,  while  the 
Cavaliers  wore  theirs  in  long  ringlets.  Boundhouse, 
the  cabin  or  apartment  on  the  after  part  of  the  quarter- 
deck of  a  ship ;  formerly,  a  prison  or  watch-house. 
Bound  number,  a  number  which  ends  in  a  cipher,  or 
that  is  divisible  by  ten;  a  complete  or  full  number; 
an  approximate  number.  At  a  round  rate,  rapidly. 
Boundrtdge,  to  form  round  ridges  by  plowing. 
Bound  robin,  n.  rob'in  [said  to  be  a  corruption  of  F. 
rond,  round ;  ruban,  a  ribbon]  :  a  written  petition  or 
memorial,  of  the  nature  usually  of  a  protest  or  remon- 
strance, signed  with  the  names  arranged  in  a  circle  so 
as  not  to  show  who  signed  first.  Bound  table,  the 
table  around  which  King  Arthur  and  his  knights  sat. 
Alii  round,  in  every  direction.  To  bring  round,  to 
restore ;  to  bring  to  a  satisfactory  issue ;  to  revive.  To 
come  round,  to  revive ;  to  become  more  placable.  To 
get  round,  to  recover ;  to  wheedle ;  to  become  able  to 
exercise  undue  influence  over.  A  round  of  cartridges, 
one  cartridge  to  each  man.  A  round  of  beef,  the  thick 
fleshy  part  of  the  thigh  cut  through  and  across  the  bone 
at  the  top.  To  round  to,  among  seamen,  to  turn  the 
head  of  a  ship  toward  the  wind. — Syn.  of  *  round,  a.': 
cylindrical;  circular;  spherical;  orbicular;  whole;  un- 
broken ;  globular ;  globose ;  orbed  ;  full ;  plump ;  rotund ; 
—of  '  roundness  '  ;  rotundity  ;  circularity ;  plumpness. 


ROUND — ROUND-FISH. 

ROUND,  v.  roumd :  in  OE.,  to  whisper.  Round'ing 
imp.    Round'ed,  pp.  See  Roun. 

ROUND,  in  Music:  short  vocal  composition,  generally 
gay,  humorous,  in  three  or  more  parts,  ail  written  on  the 
same  clef.  Each  voice  takes  up  the  subject  at  a  certain 
distance  after  the  first  has  begun.  The  second  voice 
begins  the  lirst  part  when  the  first  begins  the  second 
part,  and  the  third  takes  up  the  first  part  when  the 
second  begins  the  second  part,  the  whole  ending  together 
at  the  mark  of  a  pause, or  a  signal  agreed  on. 

ROUND,  William  Marshall  Fitts:  author:  b. 
Pawtucket,  1845,  Mar.  26.  After  an  academic  education, 
he  began  studying  medicine  at  Harvard,  but  was  com- 
pelled by  ill  health  to  abandon  the  course,  and  subse- 
quently engaged  in  journalism.  He  was  a  U.  S.  commis- 
sioner to  the  Vienna  exhibition  1873.  While  engaged 
in  literary  work  in  New  York  he  became  interested  in 
the  prison  reform  movement ;  1883  was  elected  cor.  sec. 
of  the  N.  Y.  Prison  Assoc. ;  1885  aided  in  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  National  Prison  Assoc.  and  became  its  sec. ; 
and  1886  was  a  delegate  to  the  International  Peniten- 
tiary Congress  in  Rome.  His  experience  abroad  led  him 
to  plan  the  Burnham  industrial  farm  scheme  for  unruly 
boys,  at  Canaan  Four  Corners,  N.  Y.,  1887-8.  He  has 
published  Achsah  (1876);  Child  Marion  Abroad  (1876); 
Torn  and  Mended  (1877) ;  Hal  (1878) ;  and  Rosecroft  (1880). 

ROUNDEL,  n.  roivnd'el,  or  Round'elay,  n.  -e-la  [F. 
rondeau;  OF.  rondel,  a  rhyme  or  sonnet  that  ends  as  it 
begins — a  dim.  of  rond,  round] :  a  song  or  dance  in  which 
the  passages  or  parts  are  repeated  ;  small  circular  shield 
carried  by  soldiers  in  the  14th  and  15th  c.  (see  Rondeau)  ; 
the  guard  of  a  lance ;  a  round  guard  for  the  armpit :  in 
fort,  a  bastion  of  a  circular  form  :  in  her.,  a  sub-ordinary 
in  the  form  of  a  circle:  in  ord.,  a  disk  of  iron  having  a 
central  aperture,  through  which  an  assembling-bolt 
passes.    It  serves  to  separate  the  stock  and  cheeks. 

ROUND-FISH  (Coregonus  quadrilateralis ;  see  Coreg- 
onus)  :  fish  found  in  w.  parts  of  N.  America,  from  Van- 
couver's Island  northward,  in  the  rivers  on  the  w.  side 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  the  Mackenzie  and  Cop- 
permine rivers.  It  ascends  the  rivers  in  summer  to 
spawn,  spending  part  of  its  life,  like  the  salmon,  in  the 
sea.  It  is  a  beautiful  fish ;  seldom  more  than  2  lbs.  in 
weight,  of  yellowish-brown  color,  paler  on  the  sides  and 
belly  than  on  the  back,  with  bright  and  glittering  scales, 
each  edged  with  a  narrow  band  of  dark  gray ;  the  mouth 
very  small,  no  teeth  perceptible.  Before  spawning,  it  is 
loaded  with  fat,  which,  on  the  shoulders,  almost  amounts 
to  a  hump;  but  after  spawning,  it  becomes  thin,  and  its 
flesh  watery  and  insipid.  In  a  good  state,  it  is  delicious 
food,  rivalling  in  excellence  its  congener,  the  Whitefish 
(q.v.).  This  fish  is  an  important  article  of  food  to  the 
Indians  of  n.w.  America,  and  vast  numbers  are  caught 
in  the  rivers  as  they  ascend  from  the  sea.  They  ascend 
in  such  numbers  that  no  ordinary  contrivances  of  fish* 


ROUNDISH— ROUND  TOWERS, 
ing  are  necessary,  but  the  fish  are  baled  out  by  baskets, 
little  nets,  wooden  bowls,  or  even  by  the  hand.  They 
are  cured  by  splitting  and  drying,  like  salmon.    The  R. 
readily  takes  a  rough  gaudy  fly. 
ROUNDISH  :  see  under  Round. 

ROUN'DLE,  or  Roundlet,  rownd'let,  in  Heraldry :  gen- 
eral name  for  charges  of  circular  form. 

ROUND  TABLE,  Knights  of  the:  ses 
Arthur  :  Novels. 

ROUND  TOWERS :  tall  narrow  towers 
tapering  gradually  from  the  base  to  the 
summit;  found  abundantly  in  Ireland,  and 
Eoundle.  occasionally  in  Scotland  :  they  are  among 
the  earliest  and  most  remarkable  relics  of 
the  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  the  British  islands. 
They  have  been  the  subject  of  endless  conjecture  and 
speculation  among  antiquaries,  who  have  connected  them 
with  pagan  times  and  pagan  rites ;  but  the  controversies 
regarding  them  have  to  some  extent  been  set  at  rest  by 
the  investigations  of  Dr.  Petrie ;  and  there  can  be  now 
no  doubt  that  they  are  the  work  of  Christian  architects, 
for  religious  purposes.  They  all  seem  to  have  been  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  a  church  or  monastery, 
and  like  other  early  church-towers  (an  older  invention 
than  bells),  they  served  as  symbols  of  dignity  and 
power— while  they  were  also  capable  of  being  used  as 
strongholds,  into  which,  in  times  of  danger,  the  ecclesi- 
astics, and  perhaps  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
around,  could  retreat  with  their  valuables.  After  the 
introduction  of  bells,  they  were  used  probably  also  as 
bell-towers.  About  118  towers  of  this  description  are 
yet  standing  in  Ireland — 20  of  which  are  entire  or  nearly 
so ;  and  Scotland  has  three  at  Brechin,  Abernethy,  and 
St.  Eglishay  in  Orkney.  They  are  usually  capped  by  a 
conical  roof,  and  divided  into  stories  sometimes  by  yet 
existing  floors  of  masonry,  though  of  tenor  the  floors 
have  been  of  wood.  Ladders  were  the  means  of  com- 
munication from  story  to  story.  There  is  generally  a 
small  window  on  each  story,  and  four  windows  immedi- 
ately below  the  conical  roof.  The  door  is  in  nearly  all 
cases  a  considerable  height  from  the  ground.  The  tower 
at  Devenish,  in  Ireland  (see  ill.),  a  typical  example  of 
the  class,  is  82  ft.  high,  with  conical  cap.  A  battle- 
mented  crown  occasionally  supplies  the  place  of  the 
conical  roof,  and  in  one  instance  the  base  of  the  tower  is 
octagonal.  Dr.  Petrie  is  inclined  to  think  that  a  few  of 
these  remarkable  structures  may  be  as  old  as  the  6th  c. ; 
but  this  great  antiquity  has  been  questioned  by  later 
writers,  particularly  Dr.  Daniel  Wilson,  who,  from  the 
architectural  details,  assigns  thern  all  to  the  period  9th 
— 12th  c.  The  source  whence  this  form  of  tower  was 
derived,  and  the  cause  for  its  long  preference  by  the 
Irish  architects,  are  unknown.  Two  round  towers, 
similar  to  the  Irish  type,  are  in  the  yet  extant  plan  of 
the  monastery  of  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  of  the  first 


ROUNDURE — ROUP, 
half  of  the  9th  c. ;  and,  in  the  Latin  description^ttached 
to  the  plan,  they  are  said  to  be  ad  universa  superspicienda. 
The  church  and  towers  as  rebuilt  at  that  date  are  no 
longer  in  existence;  but  the  towers  were  introduced 
probably  in  honor  of  the  founder  of  the  monastery, 
leader  of  a  colony  of  Irish  monks,  who,  early  in  the  6th 
c,  carried  civilization  and  Christanity  into  the  fast- 


Round  Tower,  Devenish,  Ireland. 
(From  Fergusson's  Hand-Book  of  Architecture.) 

nesses  of  the  Alps.  The  form  thus  introduced  became 
traditional  in  w.  Germany  in  the  succeeding  Roman- 
esque style,  where  it  is  seen  reproduced  with  little 
modification  at  Worms  Cathedral  and  elsewhere.  See 
Dr.  G.  Petrie's  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Ireland 
(Dublin  1845) ;  Lord  Dunraven's  Irish  Archceology,  II. 
(Lond.  1877) ;  Dr.  J.  Anderson's  Scotland  in  Early  Christ- 
ian  Times  (Edin.  1881). 

ROUNDURE,  n.  rownd'ur  [see  Round]  :  in  OR,  cir- 
cumference ;  inclosure. 

ROUP,  n.  roivp  [AS.  hrepan,  to  cry,  to  call  out ;  hreop, 
cried,  called  out :  Dut.  roepen,  to  call ;  roepf  a  call,  a  cry] : 
in  Scot.,  a  sale  of  goods  by  auction :  V.  to  expose  to  sale 
by  auction.  Rottp'ing,  imp.  Rouped,  pp.  rowpt. 
Articles  of  roup,  conditions  under  which  property  is 
exposed  to  sale  by  auction :  see  Auction, 


ROUP— ROUSES  POINT. 
ROUP,  n.  rop  [mid.  L.  rupia,  foul  scurf] :  a  disease  in 
poultry. 

ROUS  ANT,  a.  rowefant  [F.]  :  in  her.,  applied  to  a  bird 
in  the  attitude  of  rising,  as  if  preparing  to  take  flight. 

ROUSAY,  rd'sa,  or  Rowsa,  row'sa :  one  of  the  Orkney 
Islands,  between  the  island  of  Westray  on  the  n.,  and 
Pomona  on  the  s. ;  4  m.  long,  3  m.  broad;  hilly,  and 
covered  with  heath  in  the  centre,  but  with  margin  of 
fertile  land  along  the  shore.    Pop.  (1891)  774. 

ROUSE,  v.  rowz  [Low  Ger.  ruse,  noise,  disturbance ; 
Ger.  rauschen,  to  rustle :  Sw.  rusa,  to  rush :  Gr.  rhoizos, 
any  rushing  sound,  as  the  whizzing  of  an  arrow;  the 
original  sense  is  preserved  in  a  rousing  fire — viz.,  a  roar- 
ing crackling  fire ;  a  rousing  lie,  a  very  great  or  astound- 
ing lie] :  to  raise  from  sleep,  or  from  dulness  and  inac- 
tivity ;  to  excite  to  thought  or  action ;  to  drive,  as  a 
beast  from  its  lair;  to  awake.  Rous' ing,  imp.:  Adj. 
exciting;  having  power  to  rouse.  Roused,  pp.  rowzd. 
Rous'ingly,  ad.  -fe. 

ROUSE,  v.  rowz  or  roz  [Scot.  roose}  to  praise :  Sw.  rus  ; 
Ger.  rausch,  drunkenness :  Gael,  roiseal,  a  boast] :  in  OE. 
and  pro  v.  Eng.,  to  praise;  to  extol;  to  boast,  as  when 
touched  with  liquor:  N.  in  OE.,  a  bumper;  a  deep 
draught ;  excess  of  drinking. 

ROUSES  POINT,  rowss'iz  poynt :  incorporated  village 
in  the  town  of  Champlain,  Clinton  co.,  N.  Y.,  named 
from  Jacques  Rouse,  a  Canadian,  who  settled  here  1783. 
It  is  pleasantly  situated  at  the  n.  end  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  J  m.  s.  of  the  Canadian  boundary,  24  m.  n.  by  e. 
from  Plattsburgh.  It  has  exceptional  facilities  for 
commercial  traffic,  being  a  junction  of  the  Canada 
Atlantic,  the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Central  Vermont,  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson,  the  Grand  Trunk,  and  the 
Ogdensburg  and  Lake  Champlain  railroads,  and  a  port 
of  entry  with  water  communication  from  the  lakes  of 
Canada  to  the  Atlantic  via  Richeiieu  river,  Lake  Cham- 
plain, Delaware  and  Hudson  canal,  and  Hudson  river. 
The  village  contains  4  churches,  handsome  public  school, 
Rom.  Cath.  parochial  school,  excellent  hotels,  and  is 
growing  as  a  business  centre  and  as  a  summer  resort. 
It  has  an  abundant  water  supply.  The  principal  indus- 
tries are  the  Champlain  Electrotype  (book)  works,  206 
employes,  and  a  box  factory  and  planing-mill.  At  a 
little  distance  n.  of  the  village,  commanding  the  en- 
trance to  Lake  Champlain,  is  Fort  Montgomery,  built 
where  the  Richelieu  river  commences,  which  connects 
the  lake  with  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  erection  of  the 
fort  was  begun  soon  after  the  war  of  1812,  but  1818 
was  found  to  be  on  Canadian  ground  and  was  abandoned, 
and  became  known  as  Port  Blunder.  By  the  Ashburton 
treaty  1842  it  was  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and 
ultimatelv  completed  at  the  cost  of  about  $2,000,000.— 
Pop.  (1880)  1,485;  (1890)  2,100;  (1900)  1,675. 


FOUSSEAU. 

EOTJSSEAU,  vo-sd\  Jea^  Jacques:  French  author, 
notable  not  less  for  his  personal  peculiarities  and  strange 
fortunes  and  misfortunes,  than  for  the  brilliancy  ana 
sentimental  enthusiasm  of  his  writings:  1712,  June  28 — 
3778,  July  2;  b.  Geneva;  of  a  family  originally  French, 
which  had  been  settled  there  more  than  a  century  and 
a  half.  His  father  Isaac  K.  was  a  watchmaker.  De- 
prived of  his  mother  a  few  days  after  his  birth,  E.  was 
cared  for  by  his  father's  sister.  At  the  age  of  ten  he 
was  placed,  with  a  cousin,  under  the  charge  of  a  Prot. 
pastor  of  Bossey,  near  Geneva,  with  whom  he  remained 
two  years.  At  the  age  of  15  the  profession  of  procureur 
('  attorney ')  was  chosen  for  him,  and  he  was  sent  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  engrossing,  but  was  soon  dis- 
missed as  a  hopeless  subject.  In  1725,  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  an  engraver  of  Geneva,  Abel  Ducommun,  a 
harsh  and  violent  man,  from  whose  vulgar  tyranny  the 
sensitive  and  impulsive  youth  took  refuge  in  flight  (1728). 
Henceforth,  to  the  end  of  his  harassed  and  melancholy 
career,  he  was  a  wanderer ;  resting  for  a  brief  space  in 
many  homes,  and  making  many  friends,  but  always 
driven  from  the  homes,  and  robbed  (or  thinking  himself 
robbed)  of  the  friends.  His  first  protector  was  a  young 
widow,  Madame  de  Warens,  at  Annecy,  to  whose  house 
he  was  sent  in  view  of  his  abjuration  of  Protestantism, 
and  by  whose  exertions  he  was  placed  at  a  charity-school 
in  Turin.  This  protector,  nominally  a  convert  from 
Protestantism,  was,  after  the  fashion  of  the  women  of 
her  time,  really  a  deist  with  a  dash  of  sentimental 
theories,  aud  indulging  herself  in  easy  morals  and  good 
nature.  At  the  school  E.  was  so  miserable  that  he  ran 
off,  lived  ambiguously  for  some  time  with  the  wife  of  a 
merchant,  but  in  spite  of  his  1  innocent  passion '  was 
properly  kicked  out  of  doors  by  the  irritated  husband 
on  his  return ;  after  which  he  became  a  lackey  in  the 
house  of  the  Countess  of  Vercelli,  where  (as  stated  by 
himself  in  his  Confessions)  he  stole  a  silk  ribbon,  and 
then  accused  a  maid  of  the  theft — in  consequence  of 
which  both  were  dismissed.  Finally,  after  certain  vaga- 
bond adventures  he  returned  to  his  protectress,  Madame 
de  Warens,  then  at  Chambery;  but  again  fell  into 
irregular  courses,  whereupon  she  conceived  the  amazing 
idea  of  rescuing  the  youth  (now  in  his  21st  year)  from 
the  temptations  of  vice  by  becoming  his  mistress  her- 
self. To  preserve  appearances,  however,  E.  always 
addressed  her  as  Mamma.  In  1736,  she  took  E.  for 
his  health  to  a  country-house  at  Les  Charmettes, 
near  Chambery.  Here  (1738)  E.  fell  into  a  state  of 
hypochondria,  and  went  to  Montpeilier  for  medical 
treatment,  but  on  his  way  thither  fell  in  with  a  Madame 
de  Larnage  whose  charms  dissipated  all  his  morbid  de- 
lusions. On  his  return  he  found  that  Madame  de  Warens 
had  consoled  herself  during  his  absence  by  another  lover, 
whereupon  he  betook  himself  to  Lyon,  and  lived  as  an 
unsuccessful  house-tutor  for  three  years.  Thence  he 
proceeded  to  Paris,  not  without  some  letters  of  intro- 


EOUSSEAU. 

duction,  in  the  autumn  of  1741 — under  the  conviction 
that  he  had  made  certain  grand  improvements  in  musical 
notation  (of  which  in  fact  he  hardly  knew  the  elements), 
and  read  a  paper  on  the  subject  before  the  Academic  des 
Sciences,  but  was  told  that  his  'improvements*  were 
«  neither  new  nor  practicable.'  However  he  managed  to 
live  here  in  an  obscure  way  until,  through  Madame 
Dupin,  to  whose  house  he  had  obtained  entry,  he  got 
the  appointment  of  sec.  to  De  Montaigu,  French  ambas- 
sador at  Venice.  After  a  stay  of  18  months  in  the  city 
of  islands,  he  returned  to  Paris ;  and  having  found  his 
superior  intolerable,  quitted  him,  and  became  intimate 
with  Diderot,  Grimm,  D'Holbach,  and  Madame  d'Epinay, 
the  last  of  whom,  1756,  provided  a  charming  retreat  for 
him  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  called  the  Hermitage.  There 
he  lived  with  a  young  girl  Therese  le  Vasseur,  a  servant 
at  the  inn,  uneducated,  and  with  little  beauty,  who  bore 
him  five  children,  all  of  whom  were  sent  by  him  to  the 
Foundling  Hospital — perhaps  the  most  scandalous  act 
of  his  strange  life.  E.  late  in  life  married  Therese,  who 
seems  to  have  been  a  faithful  and  affectionate  creature. 
The  causes  of  his  rupture  with  the  clique  of  Parisian 
philosophers  and  fine  women,  to  which  he  had  been  in- 
troduced by  De  Mably's  letters,  have  been  the  subject  of 
envenomed  misrepresentation  in  France,  but  from  the 
thorough  researches  of  Morin  (see  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  le 
Caractere  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,  Paris  1851),  it  appears  that 
E.  was  the  victim  as  usual  partly  of  his  own  folly,  but 
also  more  in  this  case  of  an  odious  conspiracy.  The 
conduct  of  Grimm,  in  which  Madame  d'Epinay  was  in- 
volved, was  especially  shocking.  Driven  from  the  Her- 
mitage 1757,  he  found  temporary  asylum  with  the  ami- 
able Duke  and  Duchess  of  Luxembourg ;  but,  1762,  his 
writings  were  pronounced  immoral,  and  to  escape  arrest 
he  fled  to  Switzerland,  and  fixed  himself  at  Motiers- 
Travers  in  Neuchatel,  under  protection  of  Lord  Keith 
(Earl  Marischal),  gov.  of  that  Prussian  province.  The 
intrigues  of  his  enemies  pursued  him  even  thither,  and 
after  certain  paltry  persecutions,  lay  and  clerical,  he  ac- 
cepted the  offer  of  David  Hume  to  visit  England  1766. 
As  so  often  in  similar  cases  previously,  his  caprices 
caused  misunderstandings  with  the  Scotch  philosopher 
and  his  other  English  friends ;  and  in  the  following  year 
E.  returned  to  France,  and  was  installed  in  the  castle  of 
Trye  by  the  Prince  of  Conti.  He  did  not  remain  long 
there,  nor  did  he  find  peace.  Gross  calumnies  were 
circulated  against  him,  and  once  more  he  sought  secu- 
rity in  precipitate  flight.  In  1770,  he  reappeared  in 
Paris,  where  he  lived  in  obscurity,  but  not  in  tranquil- 
lity, for  eight  years,  when  M.  de  Girardin  offered  him  a 
refuge  at  his  estate  of  Ermenonville,  near  the  capital,  in 
the  beginning  of  1778 ;  and  here  the  unhappy  E.  died, 
probably  from  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  in  the  same  year. 

E's  personal  character  is  a  puzzle  to  moralists.  There 
is  no  denying  the  vices  and  meannesses  which  stained 
it :  these  rest  on  the  most  unimpeachable  testimony— 


ROUSSEAU. 

his  own.  They  are  set  forth  with  copious  and  melan- 
choly sincerity  in  his  Confessions,  and  the  very  incidents 
that  lead  us  to  condemn  him  most  severely  would  never 
have  been  knoAvn  to  the  world  had  he  not  chosen  to  reveal 
them.  But  he  does  not  exculpate  himself  (as  many  sup- 
pose) ;  on  the  contrary,  he  covers  himself  often  with 
bitter  and  sad  reproaches.  On  the  whole,  we  may  in- 
cline to  believe  that  he  was  a  warm-hearted,  impulsive 
creature — free  from  trickiness  and  suppleness ;  but  full 
of  jealousy  and  caprice,  and  with  a  morbidly  excitable 
natural  temperament,  aggravated  by  long  persecutions 
into  actual  insanity.  The  errors  of  such  a  volatile  and 
irascible  nature,  unchecked  by  a  moral  will,  are  scandal- 
ous; and  R.'s  great  defect  was  in  strength  of  will.  <  A 
man  in  convulsions,'  says  Carlyle,  speaking  of  R.  (Heroes 
and  Hero-worship),  «  is  not  strong,  though  six  men  can- 
not hold  him;'  and  all  through  R.'s  spasmodic  life,  and 
the  splendid  sentimentalism  of  bis  writings,  we  are  con- 
scious of  a  *  forcible  feebleness,'  a  lack  of  genuine  intel- 
lectual power  and  insight.  He  was  thoroughly  a  senti- 
mentalist— that,  rather  than  a  deist,  as  he  has  often  been 
classed ;  knowing  no  religion  but  a  transient  emotion- 
alism, and  no  morality  which  was  not  a  mere  embroidery 
on  that  thin  fibre.  He  must  be  deemed  probably  insane 
during  the  last  15  years  of  his  life.  His  opinions  in  a 
philosophical  point  of  view  are  valueless ;  men  of  any 
vigor  or  acuteness  care  nothing  for  his  notions  about 
the  social  contract — influential  though  they  once  were 
during  that  period  of  crazy  enthusiasm  and  sham  spec- 
ulation, the  French  Revolution ;  nor  for  his  shallow  par- 
adox of  panegyrics  on  the  *  Savage  State;'  but  when 
he  paints  the  emotions  of  love,  the  rose-colored  charm 
of  his  genius  is  irresistible ;  in  this  limited  field  he  holds 
a  high  place  in  literature.  The  most  famous  of  his  pro- 
ductions are  Discours  sur  VOrigine  et  les  Fondements  de 
VInegalite  parmi  les  Hommes  (Amst.  1755) ;  Julie,  ou  la 
Nouvelle  Heloise  (1760) ;  Da  Contrat  Social,  ou  Principes  du 
Droit  Politique  (Amst.  1762) ;  Emile,  ou  de  V Education 
(Am st.  1764) ;  and  Les  Confessions,  suivies  des  Reveries  d'un 
Promeneur  Solitaire  (Geneva  1782 ;  posthumous) ;  but 
beside  these  he  wrote  a  vast  number  of  miscellaneous 
essays,  letters,  and  treatises.  His  (Euvres  Completes 
have  gone  through  innumerable  editions.  See  Morley's 
monograph  (1873). 

ROUSSEAU,  Lovelij  Harrison:  soldier:  1818,  Aug. 
4 — 1869,  Jan.  7  ;  b.  Lincoln  co.,  Ky.  He  left  school  when 
quite  young,  but  after  attaining  his  majority  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1841 ;  was  a  member  of  the 
Indiana  legislature  1844-5 ;  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  afterward  was  in  the  Indiana  senate  two  terms.  He 
was  a  successful  lawyer  in  Louisville  1849-61,  was  a 
member  of  the  state  senate  at  the  opening  of  the  civU 
war,  used  his  influence  to  keep  the  state  loyal  to  the 
Union,  resigned  his  seat  1861  and  organized  troops  for 
the  Federal  army,  served  with  great  credit  during  the 
war,  and  reached  the  rank  of  maj.gen.  vols.    He  was 


ROUSSEAU-  K0U1\ 
elected  to  congress  1865,  became  brig.gen.  U.  S.  army 
1867,  was  on  duty  at  Alaska  1867-8,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  assigned  to  the  department  of  Louisiana.  He 
died  at  New  Orleans. 

ROUSSEAU,  Philippe:  French  genre  painter:  b. 
Paris  1808.  He  exhibited  landscapes  first,  after  study 
in  various  lines  under  leading  masters,  buc  afterward 
applied  himself  much  to  animal  painting,  especially  in 
illustrating  fables,  like  those  of  La  Fontaine.  Amoug 
his  pictures  are  The  Rat  of  the  Town  and  the  Rat  of  the 
Country  ;  the  Wolf  and  the  Lamb  ;  The  Photographic  Ape 
(1868).  His  productions  were  often  engraved  for  illus- 
tration of  books,  and  thus  became  familiar  to  the  public. 

ROUSSEAU,  Theodore:  French  landscape  painter: 
1812,  July  15—1867,  Dec.  22;  b.  Paris.  He  studied 
nature,  with  scarcely  any  instruction  from  a  master,  and 
is  eminent  as  the  pioneer  of  the  contemporary  realistic 
school  of  landscape,  the  leader  in  discarding  the  old 
formal,  classical,  and  mythological  school,  that  esteemed 
a  Greek  temple,  or  god,  or  hero,  a  necessary  adjunct  of 
every  scene.  His  style,  however,  was  not  photographic, 
but  an  energetic,  sometimes  apparently  rough  and  care- 
less rendering  of  effect,  rather  than  of  detail.  He  exhib- 
ited first  1834.  His  subjects  were  mostly  woodland 
and  river,  often  with  bold  Turneresque  effects  of  light. 
He  died  at  Barbison,  in  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau, 
which  he  loved  to  paint. 

ROUSSE't'TE' :  see  Kalong. 

ROUSSILLON,  ro-sel-yong/  or  ro-se'-yong':  formerly  a 
province  of  France,  bounded  n.  by  Languedoc,  e.  by  the 
Mediterranean,  s.  by  the  Pyrenees,  w.  by  the  county  of 
Foix.  It  now  forms  the  French  dept.  of  the  Pyrenees 
Orientales.  In  ancient  times  the  cap.  was  Ruscino,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Perpignan. 

ROUSTABOUT,  n.  rowst'a-bowt  [prob.  from  roost  and 
about] :  laborer  employed  in  loading  and  unloading  heavy 
freight  on  board  a  steamer. 

ROUT,  n.  rowt  [OF.  route,  a  discomfiture :  It.  rotta,  the 
overthrow  of  an  army :  L.  ruptus,  broken  (see  Rout  4)]  : 
the  defeat  of  an  army  or  body  of  troops ;  the  confusion 
and  disorder  attending  a  defeat :  V.  to  break  the  ranks 
of  a  body  of  troops,  and  put  them  to  a  disorderly  flight ; 
to  put  to  confusion  by  a  repulse  or  a  defeat.  Rout'ing, 
imp.  Routed,  pp. — Syn.  of  'rout,  v.' :  to  defeat;  dis- 
comfit ;  beat ;  overpower ;  overthrow ;  conquer. 

ROUT,  v.  rowt  [see  Root]  :  to  search  and  grub  in  the 
ground,  as  swine.  Routing,  imp. :  Adj.  searching  or 
grubbing  in  the  ground.    Rout'ed,  pp. 

ROUT.  v.  rowt  [Icel.  rauta,  to  roar,  bellow] :  in  OEu 
to  snare ;  to  bellow,  as  oxen. 


BOUT — ROVE. 

BOUT,  n.  rowi  [prov.  F.  rota,  tumult :  OF.  route,  over- 
throw, a  disorderly  crowd :  Ger.  rotte,  a  gang,  a  crowd  : 
L.  ruptus,  broken — from  rumpere,  to  break]  :  tumultuous 
clamorous  crowd ;  rabble. — Rout  was  one  of  the  absurd 
names  in  London  at  the  end  of  the  18th  and  in  the  early 
part  of  the  19th  c.  for  a  fashionable  assembly  or  large 
evening-party  now  known  as  a  '  soiree,'  or  an  *  at  home.' 
At  these  entertainments,  as  many  as  2, 003  or  3,000  ladies 
and  gentlemen  were  invited,  and  when  the  apartments 
were  not  sufficiently  spacious  for  the  company,  tempo- 
rary rooms  were  erected  in  the  rear  of  the  house,  and 
elegantly  fitted  up.  For  an  amusing  account  of  routs, 
see  Mrs.  Stone's  Chronicles  of  Fashion,  II.,  262.  To  rout 
about,  to  move  about  uneasily ;  to  make  a  disturbance. 

ROUTE,  n.  rot  [F.  route  ;  OF.  rote,  a  trace,  a  way—* 
from  mid.  L.  rupta,  a  road — from  L.  ruptus,  broken; 
rumpere,  to  break] :  the  road  or  way  which  has  been 
travelled  or  is  to  be  passed ;  course ;  road ;  journey. 

ROUTINE,  n.  ro-ten'  [F.  routine,  rote — from  OF.  rote* 
F.  route,  a  road — from  mid.  L.  rupta,  a  road — from  L. 
ruptus,  broken ;  rumpere,  to  break]  :  the  round  or  daily 
course  of  business  or  official  duties ;  any  regular  habit 
which  does  not  accommodate  itself  to  circumstances. 

ROUX,  n.  ro  [F.  roux ;  It.  rosso,  red  russet — from  L, 
russus,  red] :  mixture  of  flour  and  butter  baked  together, 
used  to  thicken  soups  or  gravies.  White  R.  is  prepared 
by  putting  butter  into  a  well-tinned  stew-pan,  and  dis* 
solving  it  gently  over  the  Are  until  it  begins  to  simmer, 
when  fine  flour  is  dusted  in  with  a  dredge,  and  carefully 
incorporated  to  thicken  it  sufficiently.  The  brown  R.  is 
made  by  keeping  the  R.  longer  over  the  fire. 

ROVE,  v.  rov  [connected  with  Eng.  reeve  2,  and  ravel: 
Scot,  rove,  to  card  wool  into  flakes :  Icel.  rifa,  to  tear 
asunder]  :  to  draw  through  an  aperture  or  eye,  as  wood 
or  cotton:  in  Scot.,  to  card  wool  or  cotton  into  flakes; 
in  prov.  Eng.,  to  turn  into  thread,  as  *  to  rove  a  stock- 
ing ' :  N.  a  roll  of  wool  drawn  out  and  slightly  twisted. 
Ro'ving,  imp. :  N.  the  operation  of  giving  the  first  twist 
to  yarn  by  drawing  it  through  an  eye  or  aperture  (see 
Spinning).  Ro'vings,  n.  plu.  -vingz,  the  threads  which 
come  from  the  ends  of  ribbons  or  other  silken  materials. 
Roved,  pp.  rovd.  Roving-frame,  the  machine  emploved 
in  roving  wool  or  cotton. 

ROVE,  v.  rov  [Dut.  roover,  a  robber,  a  pirate ;  rooven, 
to  rob :  Icel.  rafa,  to  wander  about]  :  to  move  about 
without  certain  direction  in  any  manner ;  to  wander ;  to 
ramble ;  to  wander  over.  Ro'ving,  imp. :  N.  act  of  one 
who  roves ;  a  rambling ;  a  wandering.  Roved,  pp.  rovd. 
Ro'ver,  n.  ~ver,  one  who  wanders  about ;  a  pirate.  Ro'- 
viNGiiY,  ad.  -Vi.  Ro'vingness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of 
roving.— Syn.  of  'rove':  to  wander;  ramble;  stroll; 
roam ;  range ;  move  about. 


ROVE  BEETLE — ROVIGNO. 
ROVE  BEETLE,  or  Cocktail  (Staphylinus) :  genus  of 
coleopterous  insects,  type  of  a  family,  Staphylinidce,  to 
very  many  of  which  the  same  English  names  are  often 
extended ;  belonging  to  the  section  Coleoptera  Pentamera, 
tribe  Brachelytra,  of  which  a  chief  characteristic  is  the 
short  square  elytra,  which  leave  the  greater  part  of  the 
abdomen  exposed.  The  abdomen  is  soft  and  flexible, 
and  these  insects  have  a  habit  of  turning  up  the  point  of 
it,  particularly  when  annoyed,  whence  the  name  Cocktail. 
They  feed  on  carrion ;  their  larvaB,  however,  frequently 
choose  vegetable  food,  e.g.,  young  wheat — cutting  the 
stem  underground  with  their  strong  mandibles.  The 
bite  of  some  of  the  species  is  popularly  believed  to  cause 
bad  sores.    The  species  are  numerous,  both  in  Europe 


Rove  Beetle  (Staphylinus  olens). 
Oy  Insect  with  tail  cocked ;  6,  insect  wtth  wings  expanded  ; 
c,  head,  magnified  to  show  the  opened  jaws  and  other  parts 
of  the  mouth.— (Copied  from  Morton's  Gyclopcedia,  of  Agricult- 
ure.) 

and  America.  Many  have  a  fetid  odor;  afSw  have  odors 
resembling  those  of  fruits  and  flowers. 

ROVEREDO,  rd-va-ra'dd  :  city  of  Austria,  in  the  Tyrol, 
in  a  beautiful  and  picturesque  site  in  the  Lagerthal,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Leno,  close  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige, 
12  m.  s.  of  Trient  by  railway.  R.  is  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  towns  in  the  Tyrol,  and  centre  of  the  silk- 
trade.  It  contains  60  factories,  employing  2,300  hands. 
There  is  some  trade  in  wine  and  an  active  transit-trade. 
R.  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  French  and 
Austrians  1796,  Sep.  3,  4,  in  which  the  latter  were  de- 
feated.—Pop.  10,200. 

ROVIGNO,  to  ven'yo :  trading-town  and  seaport  of 
Istria,  on  a  rocky  promontory  which  forms  a  double  har- 
bor 45  m.  s.  of  Trieste.  The  best  Istrian  wine  is  grown 
in  the  vicinity,  which  is  abundantly  productive  also  of 
oil ;  30,000  casks  of  olive  oil  are  exported  annually.  Ship- 
building, and  tunny  and  sardine  fisheries  are  chief  indus- 
tries. Pop.  10,200. 
Vol.  32—18 


ROVIGO-ROW. 
RO  VIGO,  rd-ve'gd :  city  in  Italy,  cap.  of  the  province 
of  R. ;  on  the  Adigetto,  38  m.  s.w.  of  Venice.  It  is  a 
handsome  fortified  city;  has  a  cathedral  which  contains 
some  fine  paintings,  and  a  picture-gallery.  Pop.  about 
8,000. 

ROVFGO,  Duke  of:  see  Savary. 

ROVUMA,  rd-vd'ma  :  river  of  s.e.  Africa,  which  enters 
the  Indian  Ocean  by  a  spacious  bay  n.  of  Cape  Delgado. 
Only  a  small  portion  near  its  mouth  was  known  to  Euro- 
peans till  1861,  when  Drs.  Livingstone  and  Kirk  as- 
cended it  about  30  m.  In  1862,  with  two  ships'  boats, 
they  reached  the  rapids  which  limit  the  navigation,  more 
than  100  m.  from  the  coast,  and  half-way  to  the  Nyassa 
Lake.  Passing  through  gloomy,  unhealthful  forests  of 
mangroves,  they  entered  a  healthful  plain,  covered  with 
heavy  timber  and  brilliantly  flaming  tropical  plants ; 
but  the  country  was  infested  by  the  'tsetse  fly,'  a  seri- 
ous obstacle  to  its  development.  The  river  abounded 
with  hippopotami.  R.  is  joined  by  the  Niende,  a  large 
affluent  from  the  s.w. ;  while  the  main  stream  comes 
from  the  w.  and  n.w.  As  the  R.  is  navigable  only 
a  few  months  of  the  year,  it  offers  little  advantage 
for  commerce :  but  it  affords  an  entrance  for  exploring 
the  regions  between  the  Nyassa  and  Tanganyika  lakes. 
In  1878  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  sent  an  expedition  to  the 
Upper  R.  to  settle  disputes  between  the  tribes  there ; 
and  at  the  same  time  he  succeeded  in  establishing  a 
station  on  the  river.  Both  Dr.  Livingstone  and  Dr. 
Kirk,  who  were  unable  to  pass  the  rapids  which  obstruct 
it,  concluded  that  water-carriage  to  the  Indian  Ocean  by 
the  R.  was  impossible.  The  reported  coal  of  the  R.  was 
found  1881  to  consist  of  a  bituminous  shale  of  no  com- 
mercial value* 

ROW,  v.  ro  [Dut.  roede,  a  rod,  an  oar ;  roeden,  to  row : 
Ger.  ruder,  an  oar:  Sw.  ro ;  Dan.  roe;  AS.  rowan,  to 
row] :  to  propel  with  oars,  as  a  boat;  to  labor  with  the 
oar :  N.  an  excursion  in  a  boat  with  oars.  Rowing, 
imp.  :  N.  the  act  or  practice  of  one  who  rows.  Rowed, 
pp.  rod.  Rower,  n.  rd'er,  one  who  rows.  Rowlock,  n. 
ro'lok,  the  part  on  which 
the  oar  rests  in  rowing. 
Rowport,  one  of  the 
little  openings  in  small 
vessels  of  war  for  row- 
ing in  calms. 

ROW,  n.  ro  [AS.  rcewe  ; 
Ger.  reihe,  a  row  or  line : 

It.  ruga;  F  rue,  a  row  of  ,  ghip,s  Boat 

houses  — from  mid.   L.  a,  a,  Rowlocks  (notched). 

ruga,  a  furrow,  a  path, 

a  street]  :  a  line  ;  a  file  ;  a  series  of  persons  or  things 
placed  in  a  straight  line  ;  a  line  of  houses  ;  a  street. 


HOW— ROWAtt. 

BOW,  n.  row  [Swiss,  rauen,  to  make  a  dull,  holloif, 
muttering  sound:  Low  Ger.  ruse  noise,  tumult  (see 
Rouse  1)]  :  &  noisy  disturbance ;  a  riotous  noise ;  a  broil ; 
a  tumult :  N.  to  scold  noisily.  Row'ing,  imp.  Rowed, 
pp.  rowd.  Rowdy,  n.  row'di,  a  riotous,  turbulent  fellow. 
Row'dy-dow,  n.  -dow  [an  imitative  word]  :  a  word  ex- 
pressive of  continuous  noise.  Row'dyish,  a.  -ish,  char- 
acterized by  the  manners  of  a  rowdy.  Row'dyism,  n. 
conduct  of  a  rowdy;  noisy  riotous  blaek-guardism. 

ROW,  v.  row  [a  form  of  Roll]:  in  Scot,  to  roll; 
revolve. 

ROWAN,  ro'an,  Stephen  Clegg:  1808,  Dec,  25—1890, 
Mar.  31 ;  b.  near  Dublin :  naval  officer.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  early  boyhood ;  was  appointed  midship- 
man in  the  U.  S.  navy  1826;  was  promoted  passed  mid* 
shipman  1832,  lieut.  1837,  commander  J855,  capt.  1862, 
commodore  1862,  rear-admiral  1866,  and  vice-admiral 
1870;  and  was  retired  1889.  He  was  on  sea  duty  25 
years,  shore  and  other  duty  30  years,  and  unemployed  10 
years.  R.  was  active  in  the  naval  operations  in  the 
Mexican  war;  commanded  in  the  first  naval  action  in  the 
civil  war ;  took  part  in  the  combined  army  and  navy 
attack  on  Roanoke  Island ;  captured  or  destroyed  the 
Confederate  works  and  fleet  in  Albemarle  Sound  ;  forced 
the  surrender  of  the  works  at  Newbern,  N.  C. ;  com- 
manded the  New  Ironsides  in  the  operations  in  Charleston 
harbor ;  and  received  a  vote  of  thanks  from  congress  fo* 
his  naval  services. 


Rowan,  or  Mountain  Ash  {Pyrus  aucuparia% 

ROWAN,  ro-an,  Tree,  or  Mountain  Ash,  or  Quicken 
Tree,  sometimes  Ro'an  Tree  (Pyrus  aucupana  ;  Sorbus 
aucwparia  of  many  botanists) :  tree  abundant  in  Britain, 


ROWDY— ROWE. 
©specially  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  in  many  parts 

of  continental  Europe.  It  does  not  attain  a  great  size, 
has  in  general  a  very  straight  erect  stem,  and  is  distin- 
guished from  other  species  of  Pyrus  (q.v.)  by  pinnated 
glabrous  leaves,  terminated  by  a  single  leaflet,  serrated 
leaflets,  corymbs  of  small  flowers,  and  small  globose 
fruit.  The  wood  is  valued  for  its  compactness.  The 
inner  bark  and  sap  wood  have  a  very  peculiar  smell.  In 
the  superstitions  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and  also  of 
the  Lowlands,  a  peculiar  importance  was  assigned  to 
the  rowan  tree,  a  mere  twig  of  which  was  supposed  to 
have  great  efficacy  in  scaring  away  evil  spirits.  It  is 
very  ornamental,  especially  when  in  fruit.  The  fruit 
(Rowan  berries)  is  sometimes  used  for  preserves  :  it  has 
much  acidity,  and  a  peculiar  bitterness.  It  is  generally 
red ;  but  there  is  a  variety  with  3rellow  fruit ;  and  a  very 
nearly  allied  species,  P.  Americana,  native  of  North 
America,  has  purple  fruit. 

ROWDY,  ROWDYISH,  etc. :  see  under  Row  3. 

ROWE,  ro,  Nicholas:  1674,  June  30—1718,  Dec.  6;  b. 
at  Little  Barford,  Bedfordshire :  dramatic  poet  and 
translator,  contemporary  and  friend  of  Congreve,  Addi- 
son, Steele,  and  the  other  w  its  of  the  Queen  Anne  period. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster,  and  studied  law  in 
the  Middle  Temple ;  but  inheriting  a  small  competency 
by  the  death  of  his  father^  he  engaged  in  literature. 
1700-14,  he  produced  eight  plays,  of  which  three  were 
long  popular — Tamerlane,  1702;  The  Fair  Penitent,  1703; 
and  Jane  Shore,  1714.  The  character  of  Lothario  in  the 
Fair  Penitent  was  the  prototype  of  Lovelace  in  Richard- 
son's Clarissa  Harlowe*  and  the  name  is  still  the  synonym 
for  an  accomplished  rake.  R.  translated  Lucan's  Phar- 
salia,  and  his  translation  was  so  highly  valued,  that 
after  his  death  his  widow  received  a  pension  expressly 
for  this  service  to  literature  by  her  husband.  He  was 
also  the  first  editor  of  Shakespeare,  1709.  The  popular 
talents  and  engaging  manners  of  R.  procured  him  many 
friends.  The  Duke  of  Queensberry  made  him  his  under- 
sec,  of  state.  In  1715,  lie  succeeded  Tate  as  poet- 
laureate  ;  and  the  same  year  was  appointed  one  of  the 
, land-surveyors  of  the  customs  of  the  port  of  London  • 
the  Prince  of  Wales  made  him  clerk  of  his  council ;  and 
the  Lord  Chancellor  Parker  created  him  clerk  of  the 
presentations.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
As  a  dramatist,  R.  is  characterized  by  easy  and  elegant 
diction  and  versification,  but  has  no  originality,  subtlety, 
or  force  in  delineation  of  character  or  passion.  In  the 
construction  of  his  dramas,  *  there  is  not,$  as  Johnson 
remarks,  «  much  art; '  but  there  is  no  gross  violation  of 
taste  or  decorum,  and  he  excels  in  scenes  of  domestic, 
tenderness. 


ROWEL— ROWING. 

ROWEL,  n.  row' el  [F.  rouelle — dim.  of  roue,  a  wheel, 
any  small  hoop  or  ring  movable  in  the  place  which 
holds  it:  mid.  L.  rotella,  a  little  wheel — from  L.  rota,  a 
wheel:  Venetian,  rodela,  the  rowel  of  a  spur]  :  the  little 
star-like  wheel  of  a  spur;  a  little  ring  or  wheel  on  a 
horse's  bit;  in  surg.,  a  roll  of  hair,  silk,  or  lint  put  into 
a  wound  to  keep  it  open:  V.  to  insert  a  little  ring  or 
wheel  in.   Row'elling,  imp.    Row'elled,  pp.  -eld. 

ROWEN,  n.  roiv'en  [said  to  be  a  corruption  of  rough- 
ings]  :  the  aftermath;  a  field  left  untilled  till  after 
Michaelmas,  that  the  grain  left  on  the  ground  may 
sprout  and  produce  green  herbage  for  cattle  or  sheep; 
the  grass  on  it. 

ROWING:  The  method  of  propelling  a  boat  by  the 
use  of  oars.  It  consists  of  two  parts — the  stroke,  and 
the  feather,  which  are  executed  by  a  series  of  very 
complicated  motions  designed  to  apply  a  maximum  of 
available  motive  energy  in  pushing  the  boat  through 
the  water,  and  at  the  same  time  insure  the  least  amount 
of  deviation  from  a  straight  course. 

In  preparing  to  row,  the  oarsman  sits  on  the  thwart, 
facing  the  stern  and  exactly  opposite  the  handle  of  his 
oar,  the  loom  of  which  rests  in  the  rowlock  with  the 
button  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thole  pin.  To  obtain 
the  maximum  effect  from  the  power  exerted,  he  should 
sit  about  two  inche3  from  the  after  edge  of  the  thwart, 
the  body  being  held  square  and  upright,  the  back 
straight  and  rigid,  the  feet  pressed  firmly  against  the 
opposite  stretcher  or  foot  board  with  the  heels  close 
together  and  the  toes  apart,  so  as  to  keep  the  knees 
separate.  The  handle  of  the  oar  should  be  held  firmly 
by  both  hands  which  should  be  about  three  inches  apart, 
with  the  outside  one  close  to  the  end  of  the  handle,  the 
fingers  being  above  and  the  thumb  underneath.  The 
grasp  should  be  a  flexible  hold  with  the  fingers  and 
not  a  clutch  with  the  whole  hand.  The  forearms  should 
be  kept  below  the  level  of  the  handle,  with  the  elbows 
down,  close  to  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  wrists  should 
be  relaxed  and  dropped,  so  that  the  oars  will  lie  flat 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  stroke  is  characterized  by  three  distinct  phases 
— the  beginning,  the  pulling  through,  and  finishing, 
and  the  '  recovery '  which  includes  the  *  feather/  In 
taking  the  stroke,  the  body  is  inclined  forward,  the 
backbone  being  kept  straight  and  rigid,  the  chest  thrown 
forward  and  held  up  as  high  as  possible,  while  the  stomach 
is  kept  well  out  and  down  between  the  legs.  The  arms 
should  reach  out  perfectly  straight  from  the  shoulders 
to  the  wrists,  and  the  action  of  the  shoulder  joints  and 
the  hips  should  be  perfectly  free  and  easy.  In  reaching 
forward,  the  oar  handle  is  grasped  firmly  by  the  fingers, 
and  the  hands  are  shot  out  quickly  straight  from  the 


ROWING. 

body,  and  as  soon  as  the  oar  has  passed  over  the  knees, 
the  wrists  are  raised  so  as  to  bring  the  blade  at  right 
angles  to  the  surface  of  the  water  and  preparatory  to 
dipping  it,  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  when  the  arms 
reach  the  extreme  limit  of  their  forward  movement 
directly  over  the  stretcher.  At  this  instant,  the  hands 
are  raised  and  the  blade  is  dropped  firmly  into  the 
water  and  buried  until  it  is  covered  up  to  the  shoulder. 
The  stroke  is  pulled  through  by  bracing  the  muscles 
of  the  back,  loins,  and  shoulders,  and  by  swinging  the 
body  backward,  with  the  feet  pressing  hard  against 
the  stretcher,  and  the  arms  held  perfectly  rigid.  The 
weight  of  the  body  is  thus  transferred  from  the  seat  to 
the  stretcher  and  the  handle  of  the  oar,  and  when  the 
body,  in  swinging  backward,  has  reached  a  perpen- 
dicular position,  the  oar  handle  is  pulled  back  home  to 
the  chest  until  the  knuckles  almost  touch  the  bottom 
of  the  breast  bone,  by  the  action  of  the  shoulders  and  a 
gradual  bending  of  the  elbow  joints,  while  the  forearms 
are  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  horizontal  position. 

At  the  finish  of  the  stroke,  the  whole  strength  of 
the  arms  and  shoulders  is  exerted,  but  care  is  taken  not 
to  use  the  biceps,  which  if  exerted,  would  tend  to  raise 
the  arms  and  consequently  bury  the  blade.  At  this 
point,  the  body  is  not  allowed  to  '  wait/  but  is  con- 
tinued to  swing  back  until  it  is  overtaken  by  the  hands. 
When  the  hands  reach  the  breast  bone,  they  are  dropped 
quickly  about  two  inches  so  as  to  lift  the  blade  out  of 
the  water,  then  turned  backward  at  the  wrists  until  the 
knuckles  touch  the  breast,  so  as  to  produce  the 
'  feather/  in  which  the  flat  of  the  blade  is  made 
parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  water;  then  the  arms 
are  shot  forward  again  close  along  the  legs,  accompanied 
by  the  forward  swing  of  the  body,  in  the  *  recovery.' 
A  quick  recovery  is  effected  by  keeping  the  back  straight 
and  rigid,  the  knees  not  dropped  too  low,  and  by  bra- 
cing the  muscles  of  the  body,  and  especially  those  of  the 
stomach. 

The  operations  of  rowing  from  a  fixed,  or  from  a  slid- 
ing seat,  are  very  much  the  same.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  stroke  is  taken  by  extending  the  arms  to  their  full 
length,  and  swinging  the  body  forward,  simultaneously, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  foot  straps  on  the  stretcher, 
the  knees  being  kept  slightly  apart  and  the  back 
straight.  When  the  oar  is  dipped  at  the  beginning  of 
the  stroke,  the  knees  are  straightened  out  gradually, 
and  the  body  thrown  backward,  simultaneously,  so  that 
at  the  finish  of  the  stroke,  the  legs  are  straight  and  the 
body  and  shoulders  thrown  well  back.  The  recovery 
is  effected  by  bringing  the  body  to  the  upright  position 
by  the  action  of  the  hips,  and  then  the  motions  de- 
scribed above  are  repeated  in  taking  another  stroke. 


^6XBUli(ffi~MSBTTll'G]  1 1  .AC  EM. 


ROXBURGH,  rdks'bur-ruh :  county  in  Scotland,  com- 
prising the  districts  Teviotdale  and  Liddesdale,  with 
part  of  Tweeddale;  length  about  40  m.,  breadth  28  to  30 
m. ;  bounded  e.  and  s.  by  Northumberland  and  Cumber- 
land; s.  w.  by  Dumfriesshire;  w.  by  Selkirk;  n.  by 
Berwickshire ;  670  sq.  m.,  or  428,494  acres.  The 
physical  aspect  of  the  county  is  varied  and  picturesque, 
having  the  Cheviot  (highest  point  2,382  ft.)  and  Lar- 
riston  hills  bounding  a  considerable  portion  of  its 
uorders.  Hawick  is  noted  for  hosiery  and  woolen 
manufactures.  The  chief  river  is  the  Tweed,  which 
flows  through  the  n.  districts  of  the  county.  The  Teviot 
flows  through  the  county  40  m.  and  falls  into  the  Tweed 
at  Kelso.  There  are  several  other  streams  of  note,  the 
Allan,  the  Slitrig,  etc.  R.  has  an  interesting  history  in 
connection  wTith  border  feuds  of  former  days;  and  it 
has  many  magnificent  remains  of  monastic  life  and 
institutions,  with  numerous  legends  and  traditional 
stories.  The  proprietors  are  not  numerous — the  Dukes 
of  Roxburghe  and  Buccleuch,  the  Marquis  of  Lothian, 
the  Earl  of  Minto,  and  a  few  others  holding  a  great 
proportion  of  it.  To  the  eye  of  a  traveller,  R.  is  the 
county  of  Perth  in  miniature.  The  total  acreage  under 
all  kinds  of  crops,  bare  fallow,  and  grass  averages  an- 
nually 181,600.  The  interior  has  generally  a  good  soil, 
and  many  of  the  farms  are  large  and  are  managed  with 
great  skill  and  intelligence.  The  county  town  is  Jed- 
burgh.   Pop.  (1901)  48,804. 

ROX'BURGHE  CLUB:  literary  society  in  Scotland, 
named  from  John,  Duke  of  Roxburghe,  collector  of 
ancient  literature.  It  originated  in  the  interest  caused 
by  the  sale  of  the  duke's  library  at  his  death  1812,  when 
the  prices  realized  for  some  books  were  unprecedented; 
e.  g.,  a  copy  of  the  first  work  printed  by  Caxton  1471, 
Recuyell  of  the  History es  of  Troye,  sold  for  £1,050,  10s. 
($5,110.75)  ;  and  a  volume  of  the  first*  ed.  of  Boccaccio's 
Decameron  was  nought  by  the  Marquis  of  Blandford 
(afterward  Duke  of  Marlborough)  for  £2,260  ($10,994- 
.90),  the  greatest  price  till  then  ever  paid  for  a  single 
printed  volume.  The  R.  C.  has  printed,  for  its  mem- 
bers only,  many  impressions  of  MSS.,  and  many  rare 
works — numbering  about  80  in  all.  It  may  be  regarded 
as  the  parent  of  many  similar  literary  societies. 

ROXBURGHIACEiE,  roks-ber-t-d'se-e:  natural  order 
of  plants,  belonging  to  the  Dictyogens  (q.v. )  of  Lindley, 
twining  shrubs  with  reticulated  leathery  leaves  and 
large,  showy,  solitary,  fetid  flowers;  the  perianth  of 
four  divisions,  the  stamens  four,  hypogynous,  the  ovary 
one-celled,  the  ovules  numerous;  the  pericarp  one-celled, 
2-valved,  with  two  clusters  of  seeds  at  the  base;  the 
seeds     attached     to     long     cords.      The     stems  of 


ROXBURGH-STYLE— ROY. 
Roxburghia  viridiflora,  native  of  Chittagong,  the  Malay- 
an Islands,  etc.,  are  sometimes  100  fathoms  long.  The 
roots  are  boiled  and  soaked  in  lime-water,  to  remove 
their  acridity,  and  are  then  preserved  in  syrup,  and 
eaten. 

ROXBURGH-STYLE,  n.  rdka'bur-ruh-atil  [after  John 
Ker,third  Duke  of  Roxburghe,a  noted  bibliophile,  because 
first  employed  in  his  library]  :  style  of  bookbinding  con- 
sisting of  a  plain  leather  (generally  morocco)  back,  with 
the  lettering  in  gold  high  up,  plain  cloth  or  marbled 
paper  sides,  the  top  of  the  book  gilt-edged,  but  the  front 
edge  and  bottom  of  the  book  left  white,  and  trimmed, 
not  cut. 

ROXBURY,  roks'ber-%:  formerly  a  city  in  Suffolk  co., 
Mass. ;  since  1867  constituting  the  13th,  14th,  and  15th 
wards  of  Boston ;  locally  known  as  Boston  Heights.  It 
was  settled  1630 ;  was  the  birthplace  of  Gens.  Warren 
and  Heath  of  the  revolutionary  army ;  was  the  home  of 
John  Eliot,  Thomas  and  Joseph  Dudley,  and  Robert 
Williams;  established  a  free  school  1642;  was  occupied 
by  the  American  army  prior  to  Washington's  investment 
of  Boston ;  was  chartered  as  a  city  1846 ;  was  a  terminus 
of  the  first  street  railroad  (horse)  in  New  England  1855 ; 
had  a  portion  of  its  territory  set  off  as  W.  Roxbury  1851, 
and  the  remainder  was  annexed  to  Boston  1867.  In  its 
present  status  as  part  of  Boston,  it  is  connected  with  the 
heart  of  the  city  by  numerous  street  railroads ;  has  more 
than  20  churches,  several  banks,  a  Rom.  Cath.  nunnery, 
and  a  number  of  institutions  for  reformation  of  way- 
ward children  and  for  Rom.  Cath.  orphans.  It  is  lighted 
with  gas  and  electricity ;  and  has  important  industries, 
including  brewing,  milliug,  tanning,  foundrying,  watch- 
making, beef-packing,  rubber-making,  and  the  manu- 
fn^tnre  of  oro-anc?  pnd  lo^orvmtiv^  "P^r>  ^1846^  17.000: 
(1870)  34,772;  (1890)  66,791;  (1900)  63,988. 

ROY,  William  :  major-general  in  the  Brit,  army : 
1726,  May  4—1790,  July  1 ;  b.  Milton  Head,  the  parish  of 
Carluke,  Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  He  was  the  first  of 
British  geodesists.  At  the  age  of  20  he  began  the  sur- 
vey of  the  mainland  of  Scotland.  In  1756  he  was  made 
lieut.  in  the  army.  R.'s  most  notable  operation  was 
measuring  a  base-iine  (see  Ordnance  Survey)  on  Houns- 
low  Heath,  of  27,404|  ft.,  or  about  5J  m.,  which,  though 
the  first  measurement  of  the  kind  in  Britain  which  pre- 
tended to  accuracy,  was  executed  with  such  care,  that, 
on  remeasurement  after  R.'s  death,  the  difference  between 
the  two  results  was  found  to  be  only  2%  inches.  For 
this  splendid  labor,  R.  received  the  Royal  Society's 
Copley  medal.  His  elaborate  work  on  the  camps  and 
other  Roman  remains  in  Scotland,  illustrated  by  draw- 
ings, was  pub.  (1793)  by  the  Soc.  of  Antiquaries.  R. 
was  surveyor-gen.  of  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain.  His 
abilities  as  a  milit.  draughsman  procured  him  high  pro- 
motion. 


ROYAL— ROYAL  FAMILY. 

ROYAL,  a.  roy'al  [F.  royal ;  OF.  real,  roial,  royal  or 
regal— -from  L.  regalis,  kingly — from  rex  or  regem,  a 
king]  :  becoming  or  like  a  king ;  pertaining  to  a  king ; 
kingly;  majestic;  illustrious;  specially  patronized  by 
the  sovereign,  or  in  his  service :  N.  a  large  kind  of 
paper;  in  a  ship,  a  small  sail  spread  immediately  above 
the  top-gallant  sail  (see  Royal-mast)  ;  one  of  the  shoots 
of  a  stag's  head  ;  a  gold  coin  at  one  time  current  in  Eng- 
land (see  Rial  2) ;  in  artillery,  a  small  mortar.  Roy'- 
ally,  ad.  -II,  as  becomes  a  king;  regally.  Roy'als,  n. 
-alz,  name  given  to  the  first  regt.  of  foot  in  the  British 
army,  now  called  the  Royal  Scots ;  supposed  to  be  the 
oldest  regular  troops  in  Europe.  Royalty,  n.  -ti,  the 
character,  status,  or  office  of  a  king;  the  person  of  a 
king  or  one  of  royal  rank ;  share  or  portion  due  to  a  king 
or  to  a  superior,  or  to  an  inventor  for  the  use  of  his 
patent,  or  to  a  landowner  for  the  privilege  of  working 
mines  on  his  estate.  Royalties,  n.  plu.  roy'al  tlz,  em- 
blems of  royalty  ;  rights  of  a  king.  Royalize,  v.  roy'al- 
tz,  in  OE. ,  to  make  royal.  Roy'alizing,  imp.  Roy'al- 
ized,  pp.  -Izd.  Royalist,  n.  -1st,  an  adherent  of  the 
king ;  one  attached  to  a  kingly  government.  Roy'alism, 
n.  -izm,  attachment  to  the  principles  or  cause  of  royalty. 
Royal  Academy,  in  England,  corporate  body  of  40 
members  founded  1768  for  promotion  of  the  fine  arts: 
the  public  school  of  art,  where  the  annual  exhibitions  of 
paintings  by  living  artists  are  held.  Royal  Academi- 
cian, a  member  of  the  Royal  Acad.  Royal  antler, 
the  third  branch  of  the  horn  of  a  deer.  Royal  arch, 
a  degree  in  freemasonry.  Royal  assent  (see  Parlia- 
ment). Royal  fern,  a  large  and  handsome  British 
species,  the  Osmun'da  regalis.  Royal  oak,  an  oak  in 
Boscobel  Wood  in  which  Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  found 
concealment  after  the  battle  of  Worcester.  Royap 
Society,  the  oldest  scientific  society  in  London,  incor- 
porated by  royal  charter  in  1662.  Royal-yard,  the 
fourth  yard  from  the  deck,  on  which  the  royal  is  set  (see 
Royal-mast). — Syn.  of  '  royal ' :  kingly  ;  regal ;  princely ; 
majestic;  superb;  imperial;  monarchical;  kinglike; 
august;  splendid;  nobie;  illustrious. 

ROYAL  FAMILY  of  Great  Britain:  in  its  more 
restricted  signification,  including  only  the  queen-con- 
sort and  queen-dowager,  and  the  children  or  other  de- 
scendants of  the  sovereign :  in  a  larger  sense,  compre- 
hending all  the  British  descendants  of  the  royal  house ; 
or  more  properly,  as  indicated  by  Blackstone,  all  who 
may  by  possibility  succeed  to  the  throne.  With  regard 
to  the  position  and  rights  of  a  queen-consort  and  queen- 
dowager,  see  Queen.  The  husband  of  the  queen-regnant 
is  not  as  such  a  member  of  the  royal  family ;  but  the 
style  of  Royal  Highness,  and  a  precedence  next  to  the 
queen,  were  conferred  on  the  late  prince-consort  by 
statute.  The  Prince  of  Wales  (q.v.),  or  heir-apparent 
to  the  throne,  and  the  Princess  of  Wales,  are  distin- 
guished by  law  from  the  rest  of  the  royal  family.  By 


ROYAL  GEORGE, 
statute  25  Edw.  III.,  to  compass  the  death  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  or  violate  the  chastity  of  the  Princess  of 
Wales,  is  high  treason.  The  eldest  daughter  of  the 
sovereign  is  styled  the  Princess  Royal.  The  heir-pre- 
sumptive to  the  throne  has  no  special  rank  or  precedence 
as  such,  as  his  position  may  be  altered  by  the  birth  of 
an  heir-apparent. 

The  younger  sons  and  daughters  of  the  sovereign  are, 
as  'the  king's  children,'  entitled  to  a  peculiar  place  in 
the  house  of  lords;  and  it  has  been  held  that,  under 
the  description  of  the  king's  children,  grandsons  are  in- 
cluded. 

The  education  and  care  of  the  king's  grandchildren, 
when  minors,  also  the  approval  of  their  marriages,  be- 
long to  the  king,  even  during  their  father's  lifetime  :  it 
is  likewise  with  the  heir-presumptive.  There  are  fre- 
quent instances  of  the  crown's  interposition  in  the  case 
also  of  nephews  and  nieces,  and  a  few  in  the  case  of  more 
distant  collaterals.  Questions  regarding  the  marriages 
of  the  royal  family  are  now  further  regulated  by  the 
Royal  Marriage  Act  (q.  v.).  The  Prince  of  Wales,  besides 
an  income  from  the  revenues  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall, 
has  settled  on  him,  by  civil  list  1901,  an  annuity  of  £20,- 
000,  and  the  Princess  of  Wales  £10,000,  to  be  increased 
to  £30,000  in  case  of  her  widowhood.  The  king's  three 
daughters  have  an  annuity  of  £6,000;  the  Queen,  in  case 
of  her  widowhood,  of  £70,000. 

On  the  consolidated  funds  are  charged  £25,000  to  the 
Duke  of  Connaught,  £8,000  to  the  Crown-Princess  of 
Prussia,  £6,000  to  the  Princess  Helena  of  Waldeck,  the 
Duchess  of  Albany,  £6,000  to  Princess  Christian  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  £6,000  to  Princess  Louise,  Duchess 
of  Argyll,  £6,000  to  Princess  Henry  (Beatrice)  of  Bat- 
tenberg,  £3,000  to  the  Grand-Duchess  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  £12,000  to  George,  Duke  of  Cambridge. 

ROYAL  GKURG-bi:  tfntisn  man-of-war,  of  108  guns, 
which  sank  suddenly,  1782,  Aug.  29,  in  Portsmouth  Har- 
bor, England,  with  all  on  board.  While  undergoing 
repairs  near  the  keel,  she  was  too  much  heeled  over,  so 
that  the  water,  rushing  through  the  port-holes  of  the 
depressed  side,  speedily  filled  her,  and  she  sank  with 
all  on  board,  including  the  admiral  Kempenfeldt,  the 
capt.,  officers,  crew,  and  about  300  women  and  children, 
who  happened  to  be  on  board  at  the  time — 1,100  in  all : 
of  these,  however,  200  were  saved.  A  small  vessel,  an- 
chored near,  was  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  R.  G.'s 
descent,  and  swallowed  up  (see  the  elegy  by  Cowper). 
After  unsuccessful  attempts  to  raise  the  ship,  the  mass 
was  blown  to  pieces  by  explosion  of  large  metal  cases 
filled  with  gunpowder,  1839.  Most  of  the  valuables 
which  had  gone  down  in  the  ship  were  brought  up,  and 
the  brass  guns  recovered  defrayed  the  cost  of  the  opera- 
tion. 


ROY  ALL— ROYAL  SOCIETY. 

ROYALL,  roy'al,  Isaac:  soldier:  about  1720-81;  b. 
Mass.  For  a  long  time  he  resided  in  Mediord,  which 
town  he  repeatedly  represented  in  the  legislature.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  executive  council  more  than  20 
years,  and  was  the  first  native  of  New  England  to  be 
appointed  brig.gen.,  which  title  he  received  1761  in  the 
old  French  war.  Though  he  was  proscribed  for  his 
sympathy  with  England  in  the  revolution,  and  his  large 
estate  wTas  confiscated,  he  left  funds  to  endow  a  law 
professorship  in  Harvard  College.  Royalston,  Mass., 
was  named  in  his  honor.    He  died  in  England. 

ROYAL  MARRIAGE  ACT,  in  Great  Britain :  Act  12 
Geo.  III.  c.  2,  enacting  that  no  descendant  of  the  body 
of  George  II.,  other  than  the  issue  of  princesses  married 
into  foreign  families,  shall  be  capable  of  contracting 
marriage  without  previous  consent  of  the  sovereign, 
signified  under  the  great  seal ;  and  any  marriage  con- 
tracted without  such  consent  is  declared  void.  But  such 
descendants,  if  above  the  age  of  25,  may,  after  12  months' 
notice  to  the  privy  council,  contract  marriage  without 
consent  of  the  crown,  unless  both  houses  of  parliament 
shall,  before  expiration  of  the  year,  expressly  declare 
their  disapproval  of  such  intended  marriage.  The  Royal 
Marriage  Act  is  heartily  disapproved  by  many  as  impoli- 
tic and  despotic,  and  as  tending  to  immorality  and  scan- 
dalous conduct,  and  was  not  passed  withou^  great  resist- 
ance in  parliament. 

ROYAL-MAST,  in  Shipping:  fourth  mast  from  the 
deck,  and  usually  the  highest  carried.  It  is  usually  made 
in  one  piece  with  the  top-gallant  mast.  It  carries  the 
royal-yard,  which  bears  a  sail  called  the  *  royal.'  The 
royal-mast  is  surmounted  by  the  truck,  at  which  the 
pendant  or  other  flag  is  displayed  when  necessary. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  (of  Edinburgh)  :  society  for  in- 
vestigation in  every  branch  of  science,  erudition,  and 
taste ;  incorporated  by  charter  1783.  It  owed  its  origin 
to  Principal  Robertson,  the  historian,  who  took  as  its 
model  the  Berlin  Acad.  The  meetings  are  on  the  1st 
and  3d  Mondays  of  every  month,  Dec.  to  July.  The 
papers  read  before  this  learned  body  are  published  in  its 
Transactions,  thus  far  more  than  30  vols,  quarto. 
Abstracts  of  the  papers  appear  in  its  Proceedings. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  (of  London)  :  society  for  promotion 
of  science,  whose  origin  may  be  traced  back  to  the  years 
of  civil  strife  that  brought  in  the  Commonwealth.  In 
1645  *  divers  worthy  persons '  met  weekly  in  London 
to  discuss  *  natural  philosophy  and  other  parts  of 
human  learning.'  Among  these  were  some  medical  men  ; 
Dr.  Wilkins,  afterward  bp.  of  Chester;  Foster,  prof,  of 
astronomy  in  Gresham  College ;  Wallis  the  mathema- 
tician, and  others ;  and  out  of  their  meetings  arose  the 
now  famous  Royal  Soc.  Wallis  records  that  the  subjects 
discoursed  of  were  1  the  circulation  of  the  blood ;  the 
valves  in  the  veins;  the  venae  lacteea;  the  lymphatic 


EOYAL  SOCIETY, 
vessels ;  the  Copernican  hypothesis ;  the  nature  of  comets 
and  new  stars;  the  satellites  of  Jupiter;  the  oval  shape 
of  Saturn ;  the  spots  in  the  sun,  and  its  turning  on  its 
own  axis;  the  inequalities  and  selenography  of  the 
moon ;  the  several  phases  of  Venus  and  Mercury ;  the 
improvement  of  telescopes,  and  grinding  of  glasses  for 
that  purpose ;  the  weight  of  air ;  the  possibility  or  im- 
possibility of  vacuities,  and  nature's  abhorrence  thereof ; 
the  Torricellian  experiment  in  quicksilver ;  the  descent 
of  heavy  bodies,  and  the  degrees  of  acceleration  therein ; 
and  divers  other  things  of  like  nature.' 

In  1662  the  philosophers  were  incorporated  by  charter 
from  King  Charles  II.,  who  subsequently  granted  two 
other  charters  conferring  additional  privileges.  They 
are  inscribed  in  the  Charter  Book,  which,  containing,  as 
it  does,  the  sign-manual  of  royal  personages,  and  of 
nearly  every  fellow  elected  into  the  soc,  presents  a 
collection  of  autographs  unequalled  in  the  world.  In 
1664-5,  March,  they  published  the  first  number  of  Philo- 
sophical Transactions  ;  and  thus  began  a  record  of  their 
labors  and  researches,  and  a  history  of  science,  of  the 
highest  value,  comprising  more  than  170  quarto  vols. 
Besides,  the  soc,  publish  an  octavo  serial,  Proceedings, 
giving  account  of  the  ordinary  meetings,  beginning  with 
1800,  and  filling  more  than  30  vols.  Another  publication, 
in  about  ten  quarto  vols.,  is  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers, 
containing  the  titles  of  scientific  papers  published  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  since  1800 — invaluable  for  reference. 
These  works  are  sold  to  the  public. 

By  increase  of  numbers — including  scientific  men  or* 
the  continent,  elected  as  foreign  members — the  soc, 
widened  their  sphere  of  usefulness.  They  promoted  tho 
publication  of  Newton's  Principia  and  optical  works; 
they  lent  instruments  to  Greenwich  Observatory  in  iti 
early  days,  and  were  appointed  visitors  of  that  establish- 
ment by  Queen  Anne — a  function  which  they  still  ex- 
ercise ;  they  aided  travellers  and  scientific  investigators ; 
through  force  of  circumstances,  they  became  the  ad- 
visers of  the  govt,  on  scientific  subjects ;  Cook's  cele- 
brated voyage  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  was  un- 
dertaken at  their  instance ;  and  most  of  the  great  British 
scientific  expeditions  have  been  equipped  under  their 
advice.  Since  1857  they  have  been  domiciled  in  Burling- 
ton House.  Their  session  commences  on  the  3d  Thurs- 
day in  Nov.,  and  ends  on  the  3d  Thursday  in  June, 
Duringthis  period,  meetings  are  held  weekly  at  4  :30  p.m. 
for  reading  and  discussion  of  papers.  At  the  anniversary 
meeting,  Nov.  30,  the  soc.  elect  a  council  of  21  persons, 
including  the  officers,  to  carry  on  their  work  through  the 
ensuing  year.  There  are  about  550  fellows,  including 
50  foreign  members.  There  is  a  library  of  30,000  vols. 
In  fulfilment  of  trusts,  the  soc.  award  annually,  in  rec- 
ognition of  scientific  work  and  discoveries,  the  Copley 
medal  and  two  royal  medals;  the  Rumford  medal  every 
two;v°ars  for  researches  in  light  or  heat;  and  the  Davy 
medal  tor  chemical  investigations 


ROYER-COLLA  LID. 

RGYER-COLLARD,  rwa-ya'ko-lar',  Pierre  Paul: 
French  statesman:  1763,  Jane  21—1845,  Sep.  2 ;  b.  at 
Sompuis  (Mame).  He  was  sent  to  college  atChaumont, 
aad  afterward  at  Saint-Omer,  and  passed  as  advocate  at 
an  early  age.  From  the  first  days  of  the  Revolution  he 
was  involved  in  the  events  of  that  time,  having  been 
elected  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  Commune  of 
Paris.  1790-92  he  acted  as  joint-sec.  of  the  municipality, 
when  he  was  connected  with  Petion  and  Danton.  Fad- 
ing it  necessary  at  length  to  remove  from  Paris,  he  lived 
in  obscurity  in  Sompuis  during  the  whole  time  of  the 
Reign  of  Terror.  In  1797  the  electors  of  his  dept. 
chose  him  to  represent  them  io  the  Council  of  the  Five 
Hundred.  R.-C.  was  one  of  those  honest  men  who,  prefer- 
ring  monarchy,  but  fearing  a  violent  counter-revolution, 
consented  to  try  the  republic  with  a  moderate  govern- 
ment, hoping,  meantime,  for  an  ultimate  restoration. 
The  18th  Fructidor  completely  dispelled  his  illusions. 
Then  turning  to  what  he  believed  to  be  the  only  hope  of 
France,  he  began  a  correspondence  with  Louis  XVIII., 
which,  however,  ceased  toward  the  epoch  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Empire.  For  some  years  he  refrained 
from  politics.  He  accepted  after  much  hesitation  the 
chair  of  philosophy  (1809)  offered  by  Napoleon,  in  the 
new  Univ.  of  France,  and  in  this  chair  he  exercised 
great  influence  on  the  philosophy  of  France.  Rejecting 
the  purely  sensuous  system  of  Condillac,  he  proceeded 
eclectically,  giving  special  prominence  to  the  principles 
of  the  Scottish  school  of  Reid  and  Stewart.  He  origi- 
nated the  *  Doctrinaire '  school,  of  which  JoufTroy  and 
Cousin  were  chief  representatives. 

At.  the  restoration,  the  Bourbons  did  not  overlook  the 
man  who  had  maintained  their  cause ;  but  R.-O.,  who  had 
all  along  dreamed  of  the  union  of  hereditary  monarchy 
with  enlightened  liberty,  was  ill  fitted  to  act  with  the 
royalist  fanatics  who  then  became  dominant  in  France. 

R.-C.  was  appointed  pres.  of  the  Commission  of  Public 
Instruction  1815,  which  office  he  held,  with  the  title 
Councilor  of  State,  till  1820,  when  he  resigned,  not 
wishing  to  associate  himself  with  the  politics  of  the 
ministry.  In  1815  the  electors  of  Marne  chose  him  to 
represent  them  in  the  famous  '  Chambre  Introuvablc ' 
(q.v.).  He  remained  steadfastly  attached  to  the  king, 
but  energetically  opposing  the  ultra  party.  In  the  next 
parliament,  he  rejected,  with  energy,  the  idea  of  confid- 
ing public  instruction  to  the  clergy.  Though  R.-C.  once 
more  supported  the  govt,  in  a  new  discussion  against 
the  predominance  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church,  yet  from 
1819  his  rupture*with  it  was  complete.  He  presented 
then  the  singular  spectacle  of  a  devoted  royalist  second- 
ing the  efforts  of  the  liberals.  In  1828  he  became  pres. 
of  the  chamber  of  representatives,  and  had  to  present 
the  famous  address  of  the  221  deputies  (1830,  Mar.),  re- 
fusing their  support  to  the  govt.,  which  the  king  refused 
to  hear  read.  R.-C.  was  re-elected  1830,  June ;  and  in  1842 
be  with4^w  from  parliamentary  life,  au4  afterward  lived 


BOYNE — BUB. 
in  retirement  until  his  death  at  his  estate  of  Chateau- 
vieux. 

Although  B.-C.  had  a  considerable  fortune,  he  never  de- 
parted from  the  greatest  simplicity  in  living.  He  re- 
ceived with  politeness,  but  with  a  certain  coldness  which 
he  could  never  lay  aside.  His  salon  was  frequented  by 
the  political  world.  Every  Sunday,  the  principal  leaders 
of  the  moderate  opposition  assembled  there — Cousin, 
Guizot,  the  Dukede  Broglie,  Casimir  Perier,  De  Barante, 
Villemain,  Ampere,  Andral,  De  Bemusat,  De  Barthelemy, 
Gabriel,  and  many  others.  B.-C.  exercised  on  his  contem- 
poraries a  powerful  influence,  more  by  his  uprightness, 
firmness,  and  extreme  earnestness,  than  by  genius  or 
original  intellectual  power.  His  chief  work  in  philoso- 
phy was  to  import  into  France  the  philosophy  of  the 
Scotch  school.  See  the  biograpMes  by  Philippe  (1857), 
and  Barante  (new  ed.  1878). 

BOYNE,  v.  royn  [F.  rogner,  to  pare) :  in  OE.,  to  gnaw. 

BOYNISH,  a.  royn'ish  [F.  rogneux,  scabby,  mangy; 
rogne,  itch — from  JL.  roblgo  or  robiginem,  rust] :  in  OE., 
mangy ;  scabby ;  mean  ;  paltry ;  rude ;  base. 

BOYSTEBING,  BOYSTEBEB:  another  spelling  of 
Botster,  which  see. 

BSHEW,  or  Bjev,  rzhev ;  town  of  European  Bussia,  in 
the  govt,  of  Tver,  and  80  m.  s.w.  from  Tver,  on  the 
Volga,  which  passes  through  it.  It  is  a  place  of  'much 
commerce ;  has  salt  and  corn  magazines,  and  two  great 
annual  fairs.    Pop.  (1880)  18,732;  (1885)  35,810. 

BUATAK,  r6-a-tan',  or  Battan,  rat  tan':  island  in  the 
Bay  of  Honduras,  Caribbean  Sea;  hit.  16°  30'  n.,  long. 
86°  30'  w. ;  30  m.  long  by  9  broad  in  its  widest  part.  Its 
dependencies  are  Bonacca,  Utiila,  Helena,  Barbarette, 
and  Morat :  the  whole  comprise  the  colony  of  the  Bay 
Islands ;  and  were  formerly  part  of  the  Brit,  dominions, 
but  were  surrendered  1860  to  the  republican  govt,  of 
Honduras.  The  island  has  a  fine  climate,  with  prolific 
soil.  Pop.  (principally  emigrants  from  the  Caymans) 
estimated  about  2,000  of  whom  about  200  are  whites, 
including  nearly  100  Spaniards. 

BUB,  v.  rub  [W.  rhwbio;  Gael,  rub,  to  rub:  Icel.  rubba, 
to  move  a  thing  from  its  place,  to  rub :  Sw.  rubba,  to 
disorder:  Dan.  rubbe,  to  rub  or  scrub]:  to  move  one 
body  along  the  surface  of  another  with  pressure;  to 
clean ;  to  scour ;  to  remove  by  friction ;  to  fret ;  to 
chafe :  N.  act  of  rubbing;  friction ;  hindrance;  difficulty; 
pinch;  sarcasm;  in  OE.,  inequality  of  ground  that 
hinders  the  motion  of  a  bowl.  Bub'bing,  imp. :  N.  act 
of  scouring  or  polishing.  Bubbed,  pp.  rubd.  Bubber, 
n.  rub'ber,  he  who  or  that  which  rubs ;  difficulty  ;  hard- 
ship ;  collision  ;  a  polishing  substance  of  various  kinds ; 
a  coarse  file,  or  a  whetstone;  two  games  out  of  three  in 
whist ;  a  contest,  consisting  of  three  games ;  the  game  de- 
ciding  the  contest;  the  cushion  of  an  electrical  machine; 
lxijia-rubber.     Bubstone,  a  kind  of  sandstone  used  for 


BUB  AGE — RUBBLE. 

scouring.  '  To  bub  down,  to  clean  by  rubbing,  as  a 
horse.  To  bub  off,  to  clean  anything  "by  rubbing.  To 
bub  on,  to  live  with  some  difficulty.  To  bub  out,  to 
erase ;  to  obliterate.  To  bub  up,  to  polish ;  to  clean ; 
to  refresh,  as  knowledge. 

RUBACE,  n.  rd'bds,  or  Rubasse,  n.  ro'bas  [F.--from 
L.  ruber,  red] :  name  given  by  French  jewellers  and 
lapidaries  to  a  variety  of  rock-crystal  with  rose-colored 
cracks;  cut  and  polished  quartz  slightly  tinged  with 
violet,  and  besprinkled  internally  with  minute  brown 
spangles  of  specular  iron.  An  artificial  R.  is  made  by 
heating  very  pure  rock-crystal  red-hot,  and  repeatedly 
plunging  it  into  a  colored  liquid. 

RUBATO,  ro-ba'tb,  Tempo  [It.,  stolen  time]:  in 
music,  capricious  style  of  performance  in  which  some 
notes  are  prolonged  beyond  their  legitimate  time,  while 
others  are  curtailed,  the  aggregate  value  of  the  bar  re- 
maining unaltered.  It  is  a  style  apt  to  be  abused  by 
inferior  players  and  singers. 

RUB'BER,  Indian  :  see  Caoutchouc. 

RUBBISH,  n.  rub'bish  [F.  rabdcher,  to  repeat  con- 
tinually :  Low  Ger.  rabakken,  to  rattle — the  idea  being 
a  rattling,  crashing,  or  falling  down — same  origin  as 
rubble]  :  the  mixed  materials  of  ruined  or  crumbling 
buildings ;  waste  fragments ;  any  mingled  mass ;  any- 
thing valueless ;  nonsense ;  confusion.  Rub'bishy,  a.  -i, 
abounding  in  or  having  the  nature  of  rubbish.  Note. 
— In  his  remarks  on  the  etymology  of  rubbish,  Skeat 
compares  It.  robaccia,  old  goods,  filth,  rubbish ;  robiccia, 
trifles,  trash — both  being  derived  from  O.  It.  robba,  a 
gown,  mantle,  trash,  pelf :  see  Robe. 

RUBBLE,  n.  rWbl  [Dut.  rabbelen ;  Ger.  rappeln,  to 
rattle  (see  Rubbish)]  :  name  given  by  quarrymen  to 
the  upper  fragmentary  matter  of  rocks.  In  masonry,  R. 
is  a  coarse  kind  of  work,  in  which  the  stones  are  irregu- 
lar in  size  and  shape.  Walls  faced  with  ashlar  are  gener- 
ally packed  with  R.  at  the  back.  R.  is  of  various  kinds, 
according  to  the  amount  of  dressing  given  to  the  stones, 
and  in  some  forms  and  situations  is  quite  effective  and 
picturesque.  Common  R.  is  built  with  stones  left  almost 
as  they  come  from  the  quarry.  Hammer-dressed  R.  is 
so  called  when  the  stones  are  squared  with  the  mason's 
hammer;  coursed  R.  when  the  stones  are  squared  and 
equal  in  height,  etc.  Rub'bly,  a.  -bli,  resembling  or 
abounding  in  rubble  Rubble-wobk,  walls  built  of  rub- 
ble-stokes. 


RUBEFACIENT— RUBENS. 

RUBEFACIENT,  n.  ro'be-fa'shi-ent  [L.  ruber,  red; 
faclo,  I  make]  :  that  which  produces  redness  and  heat, 
when  applied  to  the  skin,  without  blistering:  Adj. 
making  red. — A  Rubefacient  is  an  external  agent  employed 
in  medicine  for  stimulating,  and  consequently  redden- 
ing, the  part  to  which  it  is  applied.  All  agents  which, 
after  a  certain  period,  act  as  blisters,  may  be  made  to  act 
as  rubefacients,  if  their  time  of  action  is  shortened. 
The  mildest  are  hot  poultices,  cloths  soaked  in  very  hot 
water,  moderately  stimulating  liniments — e.g.,  soap- 
liniment,  with  various  proportions  of  liniment  of  am- 
monia, or  chloroform,  etc.  Spanish  fly  in  the  form  of  Em- 
plasirum  Calif aciens,  or  warm  plaster,  in  which  the  active 
ingredient  is  blunted  by  free  admixture  of  soap-plaster, 
resin-plaster,  etc.,  is  a  good  form  of  this  class  of  agents. 
Capsicum  or  Cayenne  pepper,  in  the  form  of  a  poultice,  is 
a  good  R.,  much  used  in  the  W.  Indies.  Mustard  in  the 
form  of  Cataplasma  Sinapis,  or  mustard  poultice,  and  oil 
of  turpentine,  are  perhaps  the  best  of  the  ordinary  rube- 
facients. The  former  is  applied  to  the  soles  of  the  feet 
and  the  calves  of  the  legs  in  the  low  stage  of  typhus 
fever,  in  apoplexy  and  coma,  in  narcotic  poisoning,  etc. : 
it  is  applied  also  to  the  chest,  with  much  advantage,  in 
many  cases  of  pulmonary  and  cardiac  disease,  and  to  the 
surface  of  the  abdomen  in  various  affections  of  the  ab- 
dominal viscera.  The  best  method  of  employing  tur- 
pentine is  to  sprinkle  it  freely  on  three  or  four  folds  of 
clean  flannel,  wrung  out  of  boiling  water:  the  sprinkled 
surface  of  this  pad  is  placed  on  the  skin,  and  a  warm 
dry  towel  is  laid  over  the  flannel.  Two  or  three  such 
applications  will  produce  a  powerful  R.  effect.  Turpen- 
tine thus  applied  is  serviceable  in  all  the  cases  men- 
tioned in  the  remarks  on  Mustard,  as  well  as  in  sore 
throat,  chronic  rheumatism,  neuralgia,  etc. 

RUBEL,  n.  ro'bl :  see  Rouble. 

RUBELLITE,  n  ro'bel-it  [L.  rubel'lus,  ruber,  reddish; 
Gr.  litkoSy  a  stone] :  red  tourmaline,  containing  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  manganese,  generally  occurring 
in  closely  aggregated  crystals,  varying  from  a  slight 
tinge  of  red  to  a  fine  pink. 

RUBENS,  ro'benz,  Peter  Paul:  most  eminent  of 
Flemish  painters,  and  one  of  the  great  painters  of  the 
world  :  1577,  June  29—1640,  May  30 ;  b.  prob.  at  Siegen, 
in  Westphalia;  son  of  John  R.,  a  druggist.  His  parents 
had  fled  from  Antwerp  (where  John  R.  was  an  al- 
derman) in  fear  of  death  during  the  persecution  by 
the  Duke  of  Alva — for  they  had  become  upholders 
of  the  Reformation.  They  settled  in  Cologne  1568, 
Oct. ;  but  for  reasons  discreditable  to  the  father, 
he  was  in  compulsory  residence  two  years  at  Siegen. 
In  1587  R.'s  father  died,  and  his  mother  removed 
with  her  family  to  Antwerp.  Already  R.  was  a  #ood 
Latin  scholar;  and  he  soon  added  a  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish, French,  German,  Dutch,  and  Italian.  He  was 
placed  first  imcier  Yerhaagt,  a  landscape-painter;  bow* 


RUBENS. 


RUBENS. 


aver,  inclining  more  to  historical  painting,  he  became  v 
pupil  of  Van  Noort,  but  soon  quitted  his  school  for  that 
of  Otho  Van  Veen,  or  Voenius,  who  then  had  very  high 
reputation ;  and  after  studying  four  years  with  that 
esteemed  painter,  went  to  Italy  1600.  Recommended  to 
Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  Duke  of  Mantua,  he  was  given  a 
place  in  the  duke's  household,  and  was  sent  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Philip  III.  of  Spain ;  and  during  a  year  at 
Madrid  painted  several  portraits  of  Spanish  noblemen. 
He  also  spent  considerable  time  at  Venice  and  Rome, 
making  copies  for  the  duke,  and  executing  independent 
works,  which  added  largely  to  his  reputation.  In  1608  R. 
returned  to  Antwerp  on  account  of  his  mother's  illness  ; 
but  she  died  before  he  had  reached  her.  His  stay  with  the 
Duke  of  Mantua,  who  was  princely  in  his  encouragement 
of  art,  was  an  important  element  in  the  formation  of  his 
style.  He  intended  to  return  to  Mantua,  but  was  in- 
duced to  remain  by  the  Archduke  Albert,  gov.  of  the 
Netherlands.  In  Antwerp,  R.  married  Isabella  Brant, 
1609,  Oct.  In  1621  he  visited  Paris  by  invitation  of 
Marie  de'  Medici;  and  1625  completed  the  series  of 
sketches  for  the  pictures  destined  to  adorn  the  palace  of 
the  Luxembourg.  At  this  period  he  had  gained  a 
renown  equalled  by  no  painter  then  in  Europe.  R.  was 
sent  by  the  Infanta  Isabella,  widow  of  the  Archduke 
Albert,  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Philip  IV.  of  Spain, 
1628;  and  in  the  following  year,  on  a  similar  mission  to 
Charles  I.  of  England,  by  whom  he  was  knighted  1630 : 
also  Cambridge  Univ.  gave  him  the  degree  a.m.  R.'s 
success  as  a  political  diplomatist  is  worth  noting,  and 
seems  to  indicate  an  unusually  large,  solid,  and  practi- 
cal nature.  In  1630,  having  been  four  years  a  widower, 
he  married  Helena  Fourment,  a  beautiful  girl  of  16 
years.  R., having  been  long  the  acknoAvledged  head  of  the 
Flemish  school  of  art,  died  leaving  a  very  large  estate. — 
By  the  expression  of  powerful  and  energetic  action,  and 
strongly  marked  character — by  great  breadth  and  bril- 
liant coloring,  R.  successfully  embodied  the  tendencies 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  to  pleasures  of  sense, 
strong  passion,  and  stirring  action;  and  while  admit- 
ting the  coarseness,  and  almost  grossness,  of  his  sub- 
jects, especially  where  the  nude  figure  is  introduced,  we 
are  in  a  manner  carried  away  by  the  spirit  of  joyous- 
ness  and  an  animal  vigor  conspicuous  in  his  works,  and 
the  truthful  manner  in  which  he  viewed  nature.  His 
portraits  rank  with  the  highest  efforts  in  that  walk 
of  art.  He  painted  animals  admirably;  and  his 
landscapes  possess  great  brilliancy  and  natural  effect. 
He  was  perhaps  the  greatest  master  in  the  mechanical 
part  of  the  art.  His  style  has  had  much  influence  on  the 
English  school. — Rubens  believed  that  painters  could  do 
most  justice  to  their  art  in  pictures  on  a  large  scale. 
Such  are  his  24  paintings  illustrating  the  life  of  Marie 
de'  Medici,  now  in  the  Louvre ;  these,  in  the  manner  of 
his  time,  include  many  allegorical  figures,  such  as  the 
Fates ;  the  Graces ;  the  Greek  gods  and  goddesses ;  au4 


RUBEOLA— RUBIACE2E. 
personations  of  Justice,  Fidelity,  Plenty,  etc.  Of  his 
work  in  religious  art,  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  is  a 
notable  example;  it  still  adorns  the  high  altar  of  the 
Antwerp  cathedral,  for  which  it  was  designed,  and  rep- 
resents the  Virgin  ascending  in  a  flood  of  glory.  The 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  in  the  Munich  gallery,  repulsive 
to  many  on  account  of  its  subject,  is  vigorously  true  to 
its  revolting  theme.  His  portraits  include  many  of 
the  royal  personages  of  his  time,  and  more  than  20  of 
his  beautiful  second  wife ;  who  appears  also  in  twice 
that  number  of  compositions,  such  as  the  Feast  of  Venus, 
now  in  the  Vienna  gallery,  and  the  Judgment  of  Paris, 
at  Madrid.  In  the  last-mentioned  work,  and  the  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.Peter  (now  at  Cologne)  and  the  Martyrdom  of 
St.  Thomas  (at  Prague),  his  latest  productions,  he  was 
still  in  the  exercise  of  his  best  powers.  The  Flemish 
school,  of  which  he  was  the  master,  restored  to  glowing 
life  and  nature,  though  with  much  absence  of  refine- 
ment, the  frigid  stiffness  of  the  Italian  school.  'His 
pure  fancy  subjects,  as  the  Garden  of  Love  (Madrid  and 
Dresden)  and  the  Village  Feast  (Louvre),  have  never  been 
equalled.'  To  the  more  refined  Van  Dyck  he  led  the 
way,  and  for  a  century  shaped  the  Flemish  school. 
Winckelmann,  historian  of  art,  says  that  *  Rubens  is  the 
glory  of  art,  of  his  school,  of  his  country,  and  of  all 
coming  centuries.'  J.  Smith's  Catalogue  describes  more 
than  1,300  of  his  compositions.  The  Madrid  gallery  pos- 
sesses a  hundred,  and  many  are  found  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe.  The  tercentenary  of  R.'s  birth  was 
celebrated  at  Antwerp  1877  with  great  enthusiasm.  See 
Kett's  R.  (Lond.  1879). 

RUBEOLA,  n.  ro-be'o-la  [L.  ruber,  red] :  term  often 
used  for  measles,  but  now  restricted  to  an  eruptive 
disease  which  presents  the  characters  of  both  measles 
and  scarlet  fever.  RubeijOID,  a.  ro'be-loyd  [Gr.  eidos, 
resemblance]  :  resembling  the  eruptive  disease  rubeola. 
— See  Measles. 

RUBESCENT,  a.  ro-bes'sent  [L.  rubes'cens  or  rubescen'- 
tem,  becoming  red ;  rubes' 'co,  I  become  red — from  ruber, 
red] :  becoming  red ;  tending  to  a  red  color. 

RUBEZAHL,  n.  ru'be-zal  [Ger.] :  Number  Nip,  a 
famous  mountain-spirit  of  Germany,  sometimes  friendly, 
sometimes  mischievous,  corresponding  to  English  Puck, 

RUBIACEiE,  ro-bx-afse-e :  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  in  which,  according  to  many  botanists,  the  Cin- 
chonaceai  are  included  as  a  sub-order ;  but  which,  as  re- 
stricted by  others  (Stellatce  of  Ray,  Galiacece  of  Lindley), 
consists  entirely  of  herbaceous  plants,  with  whorled 
leaves,  angular  stems,  and  numerous  very  small  flowers ; 
calyx  superior,  with  4,  5,  or  6  lobes,  or  almost  lacking ; 
corolla  wheel-shaped  or  tubular,  regular,  inserted  into 
the  calyx,  and  with  the  same  number  of  divisions  as  the 
calyx ;  stamens  equal  in  number  with  the  lobes  of  the 
corolla ;  two  styles ;  fruit  a  dry  pericarp  with  two  cells, 
fund  one  seed  in  each  cell.    There  are  300-400  kncTvr 


BUBIACIN— RUBIDIUM, 
species,  abounding  chiefly  in  n.  parts  of  the  n.  hemi- 
sphere, and  on  mountains  in  tropical  regions.  The  most 
important  plant  of  the  order,  as  above  restricted,  is  Mad- 
der (q.v. ).  To  this  order  belong  also  Bedstraw  (q.  v.)  and 
Woodruff  (q.v.) ;  also,  if  the  family  Cinchonacece  be  in- 
cluded, the  Peruvian  Bark  tree;  the  showy  Button-bush 
of  our  fields ;  the  Georgia  Bark,  Coffee-tree,  Cape  Jas- 
mine, Bouvardia,  the  common  Bluets  (Houstonia),  etc. 

RUBIACIN,  n.  ro-Wa-sm  [L.  ruber,  red]  :  an  orange 
colored  pigment  obtained  from  madder,  Rubvx  tinctdrum. 

RUBIAN,  n.  ro'bi-an  [L.  ruber,  red]  :  a  bitter  principle 
of  madder. 

RUBICAN,  a.  ro'bi-kan  [F.  rubican — from  L.  rubere,  to 
grow  red ;  ruber,  red]  :  of  a  bay,  sorrel,  or  black  color, 
with  a  light-gray  or  white  on  the  flanks,  but  the  gray  or 
white  not  predominant  there. 

RUBICELLE,  n.  ro'bi-sel  [F.  rubicelle — from  L.  ruber, 
red]  :  a  gem,  a  variety  of  ruby,  of  a  yellow  or  orange  red. 

RUBICON,  rd'bi-kon  or  ru'bi-kon :  small  stream  of 
central  Italy,  falling  into  the  Adriatic ;  with  a  prover- 
bial celebrity  from  the  well-known  story  of  its  passage 
by  Julius  CaBsar,  who  by  crossing  this  river — which,  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  between  him  and  Pompey, 
formed  the  s.  boundary  of  his  province — virtually  de- 
clared war  against  the  Republic.  Hence  the  phrase, 
*  to  cross  the  Rubicon,'  has  come  to  mean  to  take  an 
irrevocable  step,  committing  one's  self  to  a  difficult,  mo- 
mentous, and  hazardous  enterprise.  The  modern  Luso, 
called  by  the  peasants  on  its  banks  11  Rubicone,  has 
claims  to  being  the  ancient  R. ;  but  arguments  prepon- 
derate in  favor  of  the  Fiumicino. 

RUBICUND,  a.  ro'bi-kund  [L.  rubicun'dus,  red— from 
ruber,  red :  It.  rubicondo  :  F.  rubicond]  :  inclining  to  red. 
ness ;  ruddy.  Ru'bicundly,  ad.  -li.  Ru'bicund'ity,  n- 
-i-ti,  inclination  to  redness ;  ruddiness. 

RUBIDIUM,  n.  'ro-bid'mm  [L.  rubldus,  dark  red--from 
rubeo,  I  am  red ;  ruber,  red]  :  elementary  body,  a  metal 
analogous  to  potassium,  with  such  intense  affinity  for 
oxygen  that  it  burns  spontaneously  in  contact  with 
either  air  or  water.  Rubidium  (sym.  Rb,  at.  wt.  85-4)  and 
CiESiUM,  sefzi-um  (sym.  Cs,  at.  wt.  133),  are  two  alkaline 
metals,  discovered  1860-1,  by  Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff,  by 
means  of  spectrum  analysis.  They  resemble  potassium 
more  nearly  than  any  other  substance,  and  their  names 
[from  rubidus,  dark  red,  and  ccesius,  sky-colored]  are 
from  two  red  lines  of  remarkably  low  refrangibility 
present  in  the  spectrum  of  the  former,  and  two  charac- 

r £  a  b-lue  UneS  in  that  of  the  latter-  They  are  widely 
diffused  in  nature,  but  occur  only  in  very  small  quan- 
tities. They  have  been  detected  in  many  mineral 
waters,  and  in  certain  minerals;  e.g.,  lithia-mica,  lepido- 
lite,  petolite,  and  felspar;  and  they  have  been  found  in 
the  alkaline  ashe,.  of  the  beet-root.    The  best  material 


BUBIED — RUBINSTEIN, 
for  the  preparation  of  rubidium  is  lepidolite,  which 
will  sometimes  yield  as  much  as  0-2  per  cent,  of  the 
metal.  For  some  time  the  principal  source  of  ceesium 
was  the  brine  of  Diirkheim,  in  which  both  these  metals 
were  originally  found ;  every  ton  of  the  water  containing 
about  three  grains  of  chloride  of  caesium,  and  rather 
less  than  four  grains  of  chloride  of  rubidium.  It  is  now 
ascertained  that  the  mineral  Pollux,  found  only  on  the 
island  of  Elba,  contains  no  less  than  34  01  per  cent,  of 
oxide  of  caesium.  Both  metals  are  so  analogous  to  pot- 
assium that  they  cannot  be  distinguished  either  from  it 
or  from  one  another  by  reagents,  or  before  the  blow- 
pipe. Like  potassium,  they  form  double  salts  with  bi- 
chloride of  platinum,  which  are  much  more  insoluble 
than  the  corresponding  potassium  salt ;  and  it  is  on  this 
property  that  the  separation  of  these  metals  from  pot- 
assium is  based.  Rubidium  is  electro-positive  toward 
potassium,  and  caesium  is  electro-positive  toward  rubid- 
ium and  potassium,  being  thus  the  most  electro-pos- 
itive of  the  known  elements. 

Indium  is  another  metal,  very  rare,  discovered  by 
Reich  and  Richter  in  the  Freiberg  arsenical  ores.  Its 
most  striking  property,  and  that  which  led  to  its  dis- 
covery, is  the  indigo-blue  line  which  all  its  compounds 
(so  far  as  investigated)  show  in  the  spectroscope.  Its 
at.  wt.  is  113-4;  its  sp.  gr.  varies  fromv7*l  to  7-3;  its 
color  is  between  those  of  tin  and  silver ;  it  is  exceedingly 
soft  and  very  ductile ;  its  f using-point  is  about  that  of 
lead. 

RUBIED,  RUBIFORM,  RUBIOUS :  see  under  Ruby. 

RUBIGINOUS,  a.  ro-bijl-nus,  or  Rubig'inose,  a. 
-i-nds  [L.  rubiglnosus,  abounding  in  rust — from  rubUgo  or 
rubiginem,  rust,  mildew]  :  in  hot.,  of  a  brownish-red  tint; 
red,  with  much  gray ;  having  the  color  of  rust. 

RUBINI,  ro-be'ne,  Giovanni  Batttsta  :  singer : 
1795-1854,  Mar.  2;  b.  Italy.  In  his  boyhood  he  showed 
no  talent  for  singing,  but  after  years  of  close  study  he 
made  a  successful  appearance  at  Brescia  1815.  Ten 
years  later  he  appeared  in  Paris,  and  soon  became  the 
leading  tenor  singer  of  his  day.  He  sang  in  the  large 
cities  of  Europe  1831-46,  retiring  in  the  latter  year  with 
a  large  fortune.  His  voice  was  of  remarkable  compass 
and  wonderful  sweetness.  As  an  actor  he  had  very  little 
ability. 

RUBINSTEIN,  rd'btn-stin,  Anton  Gregor  :  pianist  and 
composer :  b.  Wechwotynetz,  Roumania,  1829,  Nov.  18. 
He  received  his  preliminary  musical  education  from  his 
mother;  made  his  first  public  appearance  in  piano  con- 
cert when  8  years  old  ;  continued  his  studies  in  Moscow, 
Paris,  and  Berlin ;  and  after  teaching  in  Berlin  and 
Vienna,  settled  in  St.  Petersburg  1848,  and  founded  a. 
conservatory  of  music  1850.  He  became  pianist  to  the 
Grand- Duchess  Helena  and  director  of  the  concerts  of  the 
Russian  musical  Soc,    After  1867  he  spent  his  time  trar- 


RUBLE— RUBRUQUIS. 
elling,  playing,  and  composing.  He  visited  the  United 
States  1872-3  ;  and  resigned  the  directorship  of  the  St. 
Petersburg  conservatory  of  music  1890.  He  was  ennobled 
1869,  awarded  the  French  decoration  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  1877,  and  was  given  a  jubilee  fete  in  St.  Petersburg 
1889.  He  published  Autobiography  of  Anton  Rubinstein  • 
1829-1889  (1890).  He  d.  1894,  Nov.  20. 
RUBLE,  n.  rd'bl:  see  Rouble. 

RUBRIC,  n.  ro'brik  [F.  rubrique,  chalk, rubric— fiom  L. 
rubrica,  red  chalk,  the  title  of  a  law  so  named  from  being 
written  in  red — from  ruber,  red]  :  the  directions  printed 
in  prayer-books,  which  were  formerly  in  red  letters;  in 
anc.  canon-law  books,  title  or  heading  of  a  chapter,  printed 
in  red  letters ;  the  rule  of  law  ;  the  authoritative  direction  ; 
an  explanation  or  direction.  Ru'brics,  n.  plu.  directions ; 
in  mediaeval  and  modern  use,  restricted  to  directions 
in  the  service-books  of  the  church,  as  to  the  ordering  of 
the  several  prayers,  and  performance  of  the  ceremonial. 
The  same  name,  with  the  usage  itself,  is  retained  in  the 
Church  of  England  and  in  the  Prot.  Episc.  prayer-books; 
the  name  being  retained  even  where  the  direction  is  not 
printed  in  red  ink,  in  which  case  the  rubric  is  distinguished 
from  the  text  by  italics,  or  other  variety  of  print.  In 
the  Rom.  Cath.  Church,  a  controversy  exists  as  to 
whether  the  rubrics  of  the  missal,  the  ritual,  and  the 
breviary  are  preceptive,  or  only  directive.  A  similar 
controversy  has  arisen  at  various  times  in  the  English 
Church.  The  science  of  rubrics  is  with  Rom.  Catholics 
a  special  study,  the  chief  authorities  on  which  are 
Gavanti,  Merati,  Cavalieri,  and  more  compendious 
writers.  Ru'brical,  a.  -bri-kal,  pertaining  to  a  rubric. 
Ru'bricaire,  n.  -kdr,  or  Ru'bricist,  n.  -sist,  one  versed 
in  ancient  rubrics.  Rubricate,  a.  -kat,  marked  with 
red  :  V.  to  mark  or  distinguish  with  red.  Rubricating, 
imp.    Rubricated,  pp. 

RUBRUQUIS,  ru-bru-kte'  (usual  name  for  William 
of  Rubruk):  distinguished  mediaeval  traveller:  b. 
in  the  first  half  of  the  13th  c,  prob.  in  the  village 
of  Rubrouck,  in  what  is  now  the  French,  dept.  Nord 
fq.v.).  He  entered,  while  very  young,  into  the  Francis- 
can order,  and  being  hindered  in  his  favorite  scheme  of 
missionary  labor  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  going  instead  to 
central  Asia,  he  was  made  by  Louis  IX.  of  France 
bearer  of  proposals  for  an  alliance  with  Sartak,  son  of 
Batu  Khan  of  Kiptchak,  a  supposed  Christian  sovereign, 
against  the  infidels  who  held  the  Holy  Land.  Taking 
Constantinople  as  the  starting-point,  R.,  with  two  com- 
panions, also  Franciscans,  sailed  for  Soldaia — now  Sou- 
jac — near  Cherson,  made  his  way  across  the  steppes 
between  the  Dnieper  and  the  Don,  and  crossing,  the 
latter  river,  reached,  1253,  Aug.  2,  the  camp  of  Sartak, 
who  was  now  discovered  not  to  be  a  Christian,  and  by 
whom  they  were  sent  forward  to  his  father,  Batu. 
"When  they  reached  the  encampment  of  Batu,  on  the 


RUBUS. 

Volga,  near  its  mouth,  that  prince  refused  to  treat  with 
them,  and  sent  them  forward  to  the  Tartar  emperor, 
Mangu  Khan,  whom  they  reached  Dec.  27.  At  this  rude 
court  they  remained  several  months,  and  accompanied 
it  about  Easter  to  Karakorum,  where  they  found  a  few 
Europeans.  Some  time  afterward,  R.,  being  charged 
with  having  spoken  of  the  emperor  as  an  infidel,  though 
he  defended  himself  courageously,  was  compelled  to 
return,  but  was  treated  with  a  degree  of  rude  considera- 
tion. Proceeding  along  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  he 
penetrated  the  difficult  defiles  of  the  Caucasus,  proceeded 
through  Armenia,  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor,  to  Syria, 
arriving  at  Tripoli  1255,  Aug.,  having  spent  two  years 
and  a  half  in  his  eastern  travel.  As  King  Louis,  by  whom 
the  mission  had  been  accredited,  had  meanwhile  returned 
to  France,  R.  requested  permission  to  follow  him,  to 
report  the  result ;  but  the  Franciscan  provincial  refused 
to  permit  him  to  leave  the  East,  and  directed  him  to 
report  in  writing.  To  this  fortunate  severity  we  owe 
the  interesting  and  curious  account  which  he  drew  up 
and  of  which  a  lucid  summary  is  in  Lardner's  Cyclopae- 
dia, Inland  and  Maritime  Discovery,  I.,  261,  and  following. 
Of  the  later  history  of  R.,  the  only  fact  known  is,  that 
he  was  living  1293,  when  Marco  Polo  was  returning 
from  the  East.  His  narrative  is  among  the  most  plain 
and  sober  in  its  tone  of  all  that  have  come  down  to  us 
from  the  adventurous  voyagers  of  the  13  c.  He  was 
evidently  honest  and  sagacious ;  and  is  generally  accepted 
by  scholars  as  trustworthy. 

RUBUS,  ro'bui :  genus  of  plants  of  nat.  order  Rosa- 
cece,  distinguished  by  a  5-lobed  calyx  without  bracts, 
and  the  fruit  formed  by  aggregation  of  small  drupes  ad- 
hering to  each  other  on  a  long  torus.  The  fruit  is  eat- 
able in  all,  or  almost  all,  the  species,  which  are  very 
numerous,  and  natives  chiefly  of  the  coIcIdi-  parts  of  the 
n.  hemisphere,  though  some  are  natives  of  warm  cli- 
mates, and  are  seen  occasionally  in  our  hothouses.  Some 
of  them  are  herbs  with  perennial  roots,  some  are  shrubs 
with  sub-ligneous — often  only  biennial — stems,  and  they 
have  digitate,  pinnate,  or  lobed  leaves.  They  cause  great 
difficulty  to  botanists,  the  varieties  being  extreme^  nu- 
merous, and  the  specific  distinctions  very  uncertain.  The 
Raspberry  (q.v.)  and  Blackberry  (q.v.)are  well-known 
fruits.  The  Dewberry  (q.v.)  and  Flowering  Bramble 
or  Brier  Rose  also  belong  to  this  genus.  Beside^  these, 
and  the  species  most  nearly  resembling  them,  and  which 
have  been  described  with  them,  notice  may  be  taken  of 
R.  spectabilis,  a  shrubby  species,  with  leaves  of  three 
leaflets,  and  line  large  dark-purple  fragrant  flowers,  pro- 
duced singly  on  long  terminal  flower-stalks;  native  of 
the  banks  of  the  Columbia  river.  The  fruit  is  about  the 
size  of  a  raspberry,  dark  yellow,  acid,  and  somewhat 
-astringent,  making  excellent  tarts. — R.  saxatilis,  called 
sometimes  the  Stone  Bramble,  is  a  perennial  herbaceous 
plant,  with  slender  stem,  leaves  of  three  leaflets,  email 
greenish-yellow  flowers,  and  pleasant  fruit  of  very  few 


RUBY. 

rather  large  drupes.  It  is  a  native  of  stony  places,  in 
mountainous  parts  of  Britain. — R.  arcticus  is  a  small 
herbaceous  plant  with  creeping  roots,  slender  stems 
2-6  inches  high,  each  with  three  or  four  leaves,  which 
have  three  leaflets ;  the  flowers  large  and  of  deep  rose 
color,  and  a  purplish-red  fruit  of  exquisite  flavor.  This 
interesting  plant  is  abundant  in  Norway  and  Sweden, 
Siberia,  and  other  arctic  countries.  In  Siberia,  it  is 
known  by  a  name  signifying  Prince-berry.  A  syrup,  a 
jelly,  and  a  wine  are  made  of  it.  The  fruit  is  highly 
esteemed. 

RUBY,  n.  ro'bx  [F.  rubis;  Sp.  rubi,  the  ruby — from  L. 
ruber,  red :  It.  rubino]  :  precious  stone,  varying  in  color 
between  a  bright  carmine  and  crimson :  redness ;  any- 
thing red :  a  blotch  ;  a  carbuncle :  among  printers,  a 
letter  of  a  small  size :  Adj.  of  the  color  of  the  ruby ; 
red :  V.  to  make  red.  Rubying,  imp.  Rubied,  pp. 
-bid :  Adj.  red  as  a  ruby.  Ru'biform,  a.  -fawrm  [L. 
forma]:  having  the  character  of  redness,  or  approaching 
to  it.  Ru'bious,  a.  -bl-us,  in  OE.,  ruddy;  red. — The 
Ruby  is  a  gem  much  prized,  inferior  in  value  to  only  the 
diamond,  or  perhaps  also  to  the  sapphire.  It  is  re- 
garded by  mineralogists  not  as  a  distinct  species,  but  as 
a  mere  red-colored  variety  of  Sapphire  (q.v.)  or  of 
Spinel.  The  Balas  R.  is  rose-red.  The  Almandine  R. 
is  tinged  with  violet  or  brown.  The  finest  red  rubies 
are  generally  known  as  oriental  rubies,  and  are  in- 
deed brought  from  the  East,  chiefly  from  Ceylon  and 
the  Burman  empire.  The  best  generally  come  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Syriam,  in  Pegu.  In  Ceylon,  rubies  are 
found  in  remarkable  abundance  in  alluvial  deposits, 
which  have  been  searched  for  them  for  ages,  while  the 
natives  seem  never  to  have  thought  of  digging  in  the 
rock  of  the  mountains ;  but  Dr.  Gygax  found  innumer- 
able small  rubies,  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  falling  to 
powder,  in  a  stratum  of  gray  granite,  with  iron  pyrites 
and  molybdena;  and  Sir  James  E.  Tennent  thinks  that 
mines  might  be  opened  with  confidence  of  success.  Sir 
Alexander  Burnes  describes  a  ruby  mine  at  Badakhshan, 
in  Bactria.  Tavernier  states  that  the  throne  of  the 
Great  Mogul  was  adorned  with  108  rubies,  of  100  to 
200  carats  each.  The  king  of  Aracan  is  said  to  have 
possessed  a  R.,  in  the  form  of  a  six-sided  prism,  about 
an  inch  in  diameter,  terminated  by  a  six-sided  pyramid. 
But  the  greatest  R.  ever  heard  of  was  that  possessed 
by  the  king  of  Ceylon,  which,  according  to  Marco  Polo, 
was  a  span  in  length,  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm, and  with- 
out a  flaw.  Kublai  Khan  sent  an  ambassador  to  demand 
this  R.,  offering  the  value  of  a  city  as  its  price ;  but  the 
Ceylonese  monarch  refused  to  sell  it.  What  has  be- 
come of  it  is  not  known. 

Rubies  were  discovered  in  N.  Carolina  1871  in  consider- 
able quantities,  associated  with  other  corundum  gems. 
Rubies  and  sapphires  have  been  found  also  at  Vernon, 
N.  J. ;  near  Helena,  Mont. ;  at  Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex. ;  in  s. 
Colo. ;  and  in  Arizona. 


BUCHE — RUCKERT. 

Rubies  have  been  produced  artificially  by  chemical  re- 
actions, but  the  gems  so  produced  have  been  of  minute 
size.  Fremy  and  Verneuil,  chemists,  announce  (1891) 
production  of  rubies  of  merchantable  size.  Their  process 
consists  in  heating  alumina  and  a  minute  quantity  of 
potassium  bichromate  with  barium  fluoride  to  a  high  tem- 
perature for  several  days  :  the  addition  of  a  small  amount 
of  potassium  carbonate  promotes  crystallization. 

RUCHE,  n.  rosh,  or  Rucheing,  or  Ruching,  n.  roshlng 
[F.  ruche,  a  bee-hive,  from  the  quillings  resembling  honey- 
combs] :  quilled  or  gauffered  net,  lace,  silk,  and  the  like, 
used  as  trimming  for  ladies'  dresses  and  bonnets. 

RUCK,  n.  ruk  [Icel.  hrucka,  to  wrinkle :  Dut.  kreuk,  a 
wrinkle :  Norw.  rukka,  a  crease]  :  a  crease  or  wrinkle  in 
cloth  :  V.  to  crease,  as  linen.  Ruck'ing,  imp.  Rucked, 
pp.  rukt.    Ruckle,  v.  ruk'l,  to  rumple  into  wrinkles. 

RUCK,  v.  ruk  [Gael,  roc,  to  croak :  Dan.  skrukke,  to 
cluck] :  in  OE.,  to  squat  or  cower  down  as  a  hen  over  her 
chickens;  to  sit  close.  Ruck'ing,  imp.  Rucked,  pp. 
rukt.  Rucking  hen,  a  brooding  hen  which  clucks. 

RUCK,  n.  ruk  [see  Rick]  :  a  heap,  as  of  stones ;  a  dis- 
orderly mass;  the  herd  or  multitude  that  have  no  inde- 
pendent opinions;  the  fag-end.  Ruckle,  n.  ruk'l,  a 
loose  heap ;  a  confused  mass. 

RUCKERT,  ruk'kert,  Friedrich  :  German  lyric  poet : 
1788,  May  6—1866,  Jan.  31 ;  b.  at  Schweinf urt.  He  studied 
at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  town,  and  at  Jena  Univ. 
In  1826  he  was  nominated  prof,  of  oriental  languages 
at  Erlangen ;  went  1840  to  Berlin,  as  prof,  and  privy 
councilor,  but  resigned  1849,  and  lived  on  his  estate  of 
Neuses  in  Coburg.  R.  began  his  literary  career  under 
the  pseudonym  Freimund  Ruimar  with  his  Deutsche  Ge- 
dichte  (German  Poems,  Heidelb.  1814),  and  Napoleon,  eine 
politische  Komodie  in  drei  Stucken  (Napoleon,  a  Political 
Comedy  in  Three  Parts,  Stuttg.  1816).  Under  his  own 
name  he  published  :  Kranz  der  Zeit  (A  Wreath  of  the 
Time,  Stuttg.  1817) ;  Oestliche  Rosen  (Eastern  Roses,  Leip. 
1822);  Gesammelte  Gedichle  (Collected  Poems,  6  vols.  Eri. 
1834-38).  Fruits  of  his  oriental  studies  are  his  numer- 
ous translations,  and  several  of  his  many  original  poems. 
He  published  also  four  dramas:  Said  und  David  (Erl. 
1843) ;  Herodes  der  Grosse  (2  vols.  Stuttg.  1844) ;  Kaiser 
Heinrich  IV.  (2  vols.  Frank.  1845) ;  Cristoforo  Colombo 
(2  vols.  Frank.  1845). — R.  was  one  of  the  most  learned, 
versatile,  and  sprightly  lyrists  of  modern  times.  He 
tried  all  sorts  of  meters,  the  Greek  hendecasyllabic,  the 
old  Norse  alliterative  verse,  the  old  German  couplet, 
the  Nibelungen  strophe,  the  popular  ballad,  the  delicate 
yet  stately  measure  of  the  eastern  gazelle  (sonnets),  and 
every  kind  of  European  quatrains,  distiches,  etc. ;  and 
he  succeeded  in  all.  Perhaps  his  fancy  and  wit  were 
more  remarkable  than  his  depth  of  lyric  feeling,  yet  the 
simple  pathos  of  such  pieces  as  the  Aus  der  Jugendzeit 
could  hardly  be  surpassed. 


RUDD— RUDDILY. 

RUDD,  n.  rud  [W.  rhudd,  crimson :  AS.  rudu,  redness]  : 
river-fish  of  reddish-golden  hue,  and  with  red  eyes — 
named  also  Red-eye  (q.v.). 

RUDDER,  n.  rud'der  [original  Eng.  word] :  in  a  ship 
or  boat,  that  part  of  the  steering  apparatus  which  is  in 


A,  brace ;  B,  pintle, 


immediate  contact  with  the  water.  It  is  shaped  as  at 
A  (fig.  1),  hung  to  the  stern-post  by  pintle  and  brace 
hinges  (fig.  2),  and  the  upper  end 
passing  into  the  vessel  is  acted 
V->^  on  by  ^ne  tiller.  So  long  as  the 
rudder,  AB  (fig.  3),  is  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  keel,  the 
water  which  the  vessel  leaves  be- 
hind acts  equally  on  both  sides, 
producing  equilibrium ;  but  if  the 
rudder  be  turned,  as  AB',  it  will 
be  relieved  from  the  pressure  on 
the  side  DC,  while  that  on  the 
side  DE  will  act  with  greater 
force,  and  cause  the  ship  to  revolve 
round  the  centre  of  gravity,  G. 
When  the  head  has  turned  suffi- 
ciently, as  to  D',  the  rudder  is  again 
put  in  line  with  the  keel :  see 
Helm.    Ruddeeless,  a.  without  a  rudder. 

RUD'DER-FISH :  fishes  of  the  Rudder-fish  family, 
Stromateidce  ;  especially,  as  bearing  the  name,  the  Black 
R.-F.  (Zdrus  perciformis),  called  also  Log-fish,  and  Barrel- 
fish,  because  usually  found  near  floating  spars  and 
casks,  as  well  as  near  rudders  and  under  boats.  It 
attains  a  length  of  10-12  in.,  undergoes  considerable 
change  of  color  from  time  to  time,  and  is  of  excellent 
flavor.  Its  probable  range  is  from  Halifax  to  Cape  Hat- 
teras.  The  Banded  R.-F.  (Seriola  zonala)  is  of  the 
Amber-fish  family,  6-8  in.  long,  of  beautiful  colors,  good 
flavor,  and  named  from  its  resemblance  to  the  Pilot-fish 
(Naucrates  ductor),  which  also  is  called  R.-F.,  and  has  the 
singular  habit  of  keeping  company  with  large  fish,  es- 
pecially sharks,  and  also  with  ships,  which  it  sometimes 
follows  into  our  harbors. 
RUDDILI,  RUDDINESS:  see  under  RUDP£, 


RUDDIMAN— BUDE. 
RUDDIMAN,  rud'di-man,  Thomas:  greatest  of  Scot- 
tish grammarians:  1674,  Oct. — 1757,  Jan.  19;  b.  Raggai, 
Banffshire,  Scotland.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  clas- 
sical education  at  the  parish  school;  and  at  16  years  of 
age  went  to  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  took 
his  degree  M.A.  four  years  later.  On  leaving  the  univ. 
he  became  tutor  in  a  private  family,  and  afterward  par- 
ish schoolmaster  of  Laurencekirk.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  physician  and  Latinist  Dr.  Archibald  Pit- 
cairne,  R.  was  appointed  assistant-keeper  of  the  Advo- 
cates' Library,  Edinburgh;  but  the  remuneration  was 
so  small,  that  1707  he  began  business  as  an  auc- 
tioneer. He  then  began  his  career  as  an  editor;  and  in 
1714  appeared  his  well-known  work,  Rudiments  of 
the  Latin  Tongue,  a  text-book  from  which,  under  vari- 
ety of  forms,  his  countrymen  are  still  initiated  into 
classical  literature.  In  1715  he  published  his  great  ed. 
of  Buchanan's  works  (2  vols,  folio) ;  and  in  that  year 
exchanged  the  calling  of  an  auctioneer  for  the  more 
congenial  one  of  printer,  having  his  brother  as  partner. 
In  1725  he  published  the  first  part  of  his  great  gram- 
matical work,  Grammatical  Latinaz  Institutiones,  treating 
of  the  Etymology  of  the  language ;  and  1732  the  second 
part,  which  treats  of  the  Syntax.  His  philological  rep- 
utation rests  mainly  on  this  work,  re-edited  in  Germany 
by  Stallbaum,  and  repeatedly  referred  to  in  the  Latin 
Lexicon  of  Freund.  He  was  next  made  principal  keeper 
of  the  Advocates'  Library.  While  in  this  post,  he  com- 
pleted (with  appendices  and  learned  Latin  introduction) 
Anderson's  magnificient  Diplomata  et  Numismata  Scotia 
(folio  1739).  He  pub.  1751  an  ed.  of  Livy  4  vols.  12  mo, 
a  gem  of  typography,  still  known  as  the  1  immaculate  ' 
edition,  from  its  entire  exemption  from  errors  of  the 
press.  R.  died  in  Edinburgh  in  his  83rd  year.  In  poli- 
tics, he  was  an  ardent  toryand  Jacobite;  in  private  life, 
most  upright  and  estimable.  He  founded  the  Caledo- 
nian Mercury  newspaper,  and  pub.  or  edited  a  multitude 
of  minor  tracts  and  books.  See  his  life  by  Chalmers 
(1794). 

RUDDLE,  n.  rud'dl  [W.  rhuddell,  ruddle:  AS.  rudu, 
redness] :  a  species  of  red  earth;  red  chalk;  red  ochre: 
V.  to  mark  with  ruddle,  as  sheep.  Rud'dling,  imp. 
Rud'dled,  pp.  -did.    Same  as  Reddle  and  Raddle, 

which  see. 

RUDDOCK,  n.  rud'duk  [AS.  rudduc;  W.  rhuddog,  a  rud- 
dock— from  rhndd,  crimson] :  the  robin-redbreast. 

RUDDY,  a.  rud'di  [Low  Ger.  rood;  W.rhudd;  AS. 
rudu,  redness — akin  to  Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose :  Gael,  ruadh, 
red] :  tinged  with  red  ;  of  the  color  of  the  human  skin  in 
high  health.  Rud'dily,  ad.  -di-li.  Rud'diness,  n.  -nes, 
a  lively  flesh  color ;  that  redness  of  the  face  which  in- 
dicates perfect  health. 

RUDE,  a.  rod  [F.  rude — from  L.  rudis,  rough,  raw, 
wild :  It.  rude] :  unformed  by  art ;  such  as  may  be  done 


RUDENTURE — RUDIMENT, 
by  strength  without  the  aid  of  art ;  shapeless  ;  untaught; 
rough  ;  inelegant ;  coarse  in  manners  or  behavior ;  imper- 
tinent ;  not  polished  or  refined ;  boisterous ;  harsh ; 
inclement.  Rude'ly,  ad.  -II,  unskilfully;  coarsely;  un- 
civilly ;  violently  ;  fiercely.  Rude'ness,  n.  -nes,  the  state 
of  being  rude;  coarseness  of  manners;  incivility;  un- 
skilfulness  ;  inelegance  ;  violence  ;  impetuosity. — Syn.  of 
*  rude  ' :  rough  ;  coarse  ;  uncivil ;  impolite  ;  brutal ;  violent ; 
tumultuous;  boisterous;  turbulent;  inclement;  harsh: 
untaught ;  raw  ;  ignorant ;  rugged  ;  uneven  ;  shapeless ; 
unformed  ;  inelegant ;  impertinent ;  un fashioned  ;  artless ; 
unpolished;  uncouth;  rustic;  vulgar;  clownish;  un- 
skilful ;  illiterate  ;  saucy  ;  impudent ;  insolent ;  surly  ; 
currish  ;  churlish  ;  uncivilized  ;  barbarous  ;  savage  ; 
fierce ;  impetuous ;  severe. 

RUDENTURE,  n.  ro-den'tur  [F.  rudenture,  rudenture 
— from  L.  rudens  or  ruden'tem,  a  rope  or  line]  :  in  arch., 
the  figure  of  a  rope  or  staff  with  which  the  flutings  of 
columns  are  sometimes  filled — usually  one-third  of  the 
height ;  called  also  cabling.  It  is  sometimes  plain,  some- 
times ornamental. 

RUDESBY,  n,  rodz'bi  [rude,  and  boy]  :  in  OE.,  an  un- 
civil turbulent  fellow. 

RUDESHEIM,  ru'des-him:  small  town  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau, 
opposite  Bingen.  Near  R.  is  grown  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  of  the  Rhine-wines  (q.v.),  Rudesheirner.  Here 
stands  the  great  German  national  monument  of  Ger- 
mania,  inaugurated  1883.    Pop.  3,600. 

RUDIMENT,  n.  ro'di-ment  [F.  rudiment — from  L.  rudi- 
men'tum,  a  first  attempt  or  trial — from  rudis,  unformed, 
unused  :  It.  rudimento]  :  a  first  principle  or  element ;  any- 
thing in  a  rude  imperfect  state.  Rudiments,  n.  plu. 
elementary  instruction.  Rudiment'al,  a.  -ment'al,  or 
Ru'diment'ary,  a.  -er-i,  pert,  to  first  principles;  in  ar 
original  or  simple  state;  in  bot.,  in  an  early  stage  oL 
development,  or  in  an  imperfectly  developed  condition. 


RUDOLF. 

RUDOLF,  ro'ddlf  (or  Ro'dolf),  of  Hapsburg,  German 
King  :  founder  of  the  imperial  dynasty  of  Austria,  which 
for  a  time  was  that  of  Germany  :  1218,  May  1 — 1291,  July 
15  (reigned  1273-91) ;  son  of  Albert,  Count  of  Hapsburg, 
and  Hedwig  of  Kyburg-Zaringen.  R.  early  showed  great 
personal  daring  and  military  skill,  and  acquired  celebrity 
in  his  native  canton  of  Aargau  for  prowess  in  repulsing 
the  many  banditti  who  infested  the  district.  The  death, 
1264,  of  his  uncle,  Hartmann  of  Kyburg,  to  whose  rich 
heritage  he  succeeded,  raised  him  from  a  poor  noble  to 
an  influential  lord  of  extensive  territories,  including  the 
greater  part  of  Aargau,  and  various  domains  in  the  can- 
tons of  Bern,  Lucerne,  Zug,  and  Zurich.  His  ability  in 
government  attracted  the  notice  of  some  of  the  great 
electoral  princes  of  Germany ;  and  on  the  death  of  Em- 
peror Albert  1273,  R.  was  elected  his  successor,  through 
the  instrumentality  chiefly  of  his  powerful  friend,  the 
abp.  of  Mainz.  The  ratification  by  Pope  Gregory  XI.  of 
R. 's  title  was  obtained  by  various  concessions — e.g.  renun- 
ciation of  jurisdiction  in  Rome,  and  of  feudal  superiority 
over  Spoleto  and  the  Marches  of  Ancona;  with  the  ces- 
sion of  all  right  on  the  part  of  the  emperor  and  his  suc- 
cessors to  interfere  in  ecclesiastical  elections,  or  in  the 
internal  administration  of  the  German  Church.  By  this 
agreement,  the  feuds  were  appeased  which  had  existed 
nearly  200  years  between  the  empire  and  the  see  of  Rome, 
and  R.  was  able  to  attend  to  the  settlement  of  the  inter- 
nal disturbances  of  Germany.  His  chief  enemy  was 
Ottocar,  King  of  Bohemia,  under  whom  he  had  once 
served  against  the  Prussians  and  Hungarians,  and  who 
now  refused  to  do  homage  to  him.  The  Bohemian  king 
was  twice  defeated,  and  was  killed  in  battle  (1278),  when 
the  emperor  seized  all  the  Austrian  territories  which 
Ottocar  had  possessed.  Wenceslaus,  son  of  the  slain 
king,  having  lost  no  time  in  tendering  homage  to  R.  for 
the  kingdoms  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  the  cause  of  the 
war  was  at  an  end  ;  and  R.  applied  himself  to  the  organ- 
ization of  the  state.  He  did  much  toward  breaking 
the  lawless  power  of  the  nobles,  by  compelling  them  to 
demolish  the  fortresses  and  strongholds,  from  which 
they  carried  on  plundering  expeditions  against  one  an- 
other, and  defended  themselves  from  the  power  of  the 
law ;  and  we  are  told  that  in  one  year  he  condemned  to 
death  30  refractory  nobles,  who  had  long  disturbed  the 
public  peace,  and  razed  to  the  ground  about  60  strong- 
holds. He  also  granted  charters  to  many  trading  towns 
and  municipalities,  and  thus  gave  considerable  impetus 
to  trade.  The  policy  of  his  rule  generally  was  to  favor 
the  burgher  and  working-  classes,  and  to  repress  the 
tyranny  of  the  powerful  nobles.  His  reign  commanded 
general  respect.  R.  was  succeeded  in  Austria  by  his 
son,  Albert  I.,  Duke  of  Austria.  See  Schonhuth,  Huber, 
Lorenz ;  also  Hirn,  R.  von  Habsburg  (1874). 


RUDOLF  II. — RUDOLSTADT. 

RU'DOLF  II.  (or  Ro'dolf  II.), Emperor  of  Germany  : 
1552,  July  18— 1612,  Jan.  20  (reigned  1576-1612);  eldest 
son  of  Emperor  Maximilian  II.  of  Germany.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Spanish  court  by  the  Jesuits.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  1576,  he  succeeded  to  the  imperial 
crown,  after  having,  during  the  lifetime  of  his  father, 
been  proclaimed  king  of  the  Romans  (1575).  This  first 
reigning  namesake  of  the  great  progenitor  of  the  Aus- 
trian dynasty  did  not  add  to  the  dignity  or  greatness  of 
the  Hapsburg  family ;  and  the  whole  of  his  reign  of  36 
years  was  marked  by  his  persecutions  and  intolerance, 
and  by  the  discontent  and  even  insurrection  of  his  sub- 
jects. His  bigotry  and  intolerance  in  forbidding  Prot- 
estants the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  led  them  to 
ally  themselves  with  their  co-religionists  in  the  Low 
Lands  and  in  France  (1608) ;  and  by  implicating  the  em- 
pire in  foreign  wars,  augmented  taxation,  and  increased 
the  monetary  difficulties  of  the  state.  R.,  who  was 
gloomy,  taciturn,  indolent,  and  bigoted,  died  uuregretted 
by  his  subjects,  leaving  no  issue,  and  bequeathing  to  his 
brother  Matthias,  who  succeeded  him,  an  impoverished 
and  distracted  state.  R.'s  taste  for  astrology  and  the 
occult  sciences,  and  his  anxious  desire  to  discover  the 
philosopher's  stone,  led  him  to  extend  his  patronage  to 
Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe,  whose  study  of  astronomy  wras 
thought  specially  to  qualify  them  for  that  much-coveted 
discovery ;  and  the  patronage  which  R.  extended  to  the 
Danish  discoverer,  when  the  latter  was  compelled  to 
leave  bis  own  country,  through  the  jealousy  of  his 
brother-nobles,  constituted  one  of  R.'s  few  claims  to  re- 
membrance in  later  times.  The  important  astronomi- 
cal calculations  begun  by  Tycho,  and  continued  by  Kep- 
ler, known  as  The  Rudolphine  Tables,  were  named  from 
R.,  who  originally  undertook,  but  subsequently  failed, 
for  lack  of  means,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  under- 
taking.   See  Gindely,  R.  II  und  seine  Zeit  (1865). 

RUDOLPHINE,  a.  rc-dol'/in  [in  honor  of  Rudolf  II., 
Emperor  of  Bohemia]  :  term  applied  to  certain  astronom- 
ical tables,  composed  by  Kepler  and  founded  on  the 
observations  of  Tycho  Brahe. 

RUDOLSTADT^  ro'dol-stat:  chief  town  of  the  princi- 
pality of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  charmingly  situated 
in  a  hill-girt  valley,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saale,  18  m. 
s.  of  Weimar.  The  chronicles  of  R.  date  back  to  800; 
it  became  a  possession  of  Schwarzburg  1355,  and  its 
castle  has  been  the  residence  of  the  successive  heads  of 
the  reigning  family  since  1599.  The  city  has  a  palace 
with  a  museum  of  natural  history,  a  national  seminary, 
gymnasium,  public  library,  and  among  the  churches, 
is  the  beautiful  Stadtkirche  dating  from  the  13th  c, 
rebuilt  in  the  17th  c.  and  restored  in  1879.  R.  manu- 
factures porcelain,  wooden  and  metal  ware,  toys,  pianos, 
etc.    Pop.  12,400. 


RUDRA— RUE. 

RUDRA,  ro'dra,  in  Vedic  Mythology  :  collective  name 
of  the  gods  of  the  tempest,  or  Maruts,  Rudra  (in  the 
singular)  being  the  name  of  their  father.  (See  John 
Muir's  Contributions  to  a  Knowledge  of  the  Vedic  Theogony 
and  Mythology,  in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Soc,  new 
series,  I.,  part  4,  London  1864.)  In  later  and  Puranic 
mythology  (see  Im>i  A— Religion :  Pukan'a),  R.  (the 
terrible)  is  a  name  of  Siva,  and  the  Rudras  are  his  off- 
spring. According  to  the  Vishn'u-Puran'a,  R.  sprang 
from  Brahma's  forehead,  radiant,  fierce,  and  vast,  of  a 
figure  half  male,  half  female.  *  Separate  yourself,'  Brah- 
ma said  to  him,  and  disappeared  :  obedient  to  which  com- 
mand, Rudra  became  twofold,  disjoining  his  male  and 
female  natures,  which  he  again  divided  into  several 
persons,  males  and  females — some  beautiful,  some  hid- 
eous ;  some  black,  some  white. 

RUE,  v.  ro  [AS.  hreowan,  to  be  sorry  for,  to  lament: 
Ger.  reue,  repentance ;  reuen,  to  repent :  Icel.  hryggr, 
sorrowful] :  to  regret;  to  lament;  to  grieve  for;  in  OE., 
to  have  compassion;  to  repent:  N.  in  OE.,  sorrow;  re- 
pentance. Ru'ing,  imp.  Rued,  pp.  rod.  Rue'fuij,  a. 
-ful,  woful ;  sad ;  mournful ;  expressing  sorrow.  Rue'- 
fully,  ad.  -B,  mournfully ;  sorrowfully.  Ruefulness, 
n.  -nes,  the  state  of  being  rueful;  sorrowfulness. 

RUE,  n.  ro  [F.  rue — from  L.  ruta ;  Gr.  rhute,  the  herb 
rue],  (Ruta) :  genus  of  perennial  plants,  of  nat.  order 
Rutacea3,  having  a  short  4-5-parted  calyx,  4  or  5  concave 
petals,  affixed  by  a  claw,  8  or  10  stamens,  and  a  4-5- 
lobed  germen,  with  8  or  10  nectariferous  pores  at  the 
base.  The  species  are  natives  of  s.  Europe,  n.  Africa, 
the  Canary  Isles,  and  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  They 
are  half  shrubby ;  and  have  alternate,  stalked,  repeatedly 
pinnate  leaves  with  translucent  dots ;  the  flowers  small, 
in  terminal  corymbs.  Common  R.,  or  Garden  R.  (R. 
graveolens),  grows  in  sunny  stony  places  in  countries 
near  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  greenish-yellow  flowers, 
and  glaucous  evergreen  leaves  with  small  oblong  leaflets, 
terminal  leaflets  obovate.  It  is  frequently  cultivated  in 
gardens  in  more  northern  countries.  It  was  formerly 
called  Herb  of  Grace  (see  Hamlet,  act  iv.,  scene  5),  because 
it  was  used  for  sprinkling  the  people  with  holy  water. 
It  was  in  great  repute  among  the  ancients,  having  been 
hung  about  the  neck  as  an  amulet  against  witchcraft  in 
the  time  of  Aristotle.  It  is  the  Peganon  of  Hippocrates. 
R.  is  still  used  in  medicine  as  a  powerful  stimulant; 
but  the  leaves  must  be  used  fresh,  as  they  lose  their 
virtues  by  drying.  The  smell  of  R.  when  fresh  is  very 
strong,  and  to  many  disagreeable ;  yet  the  Romans  used 
it  much  for  flavoring  food,  and  it  is  still  so  used  in  parts 
of.  Europe,  The  leaves  chopped  small  are  also  eaten 
with  bread  and  butter  as  a  stomachic,  but  they  must  be 
used  very  sparingly,  as  they  are  acrid  enough  to  blister 
the  skin  if  much  handled,  and  in  large  doses  act  as  a 


BUELLIA — BUFF, 
narcotic  poison.  All  their  properties  depend  on  an  acrla 
volatile  oil,  used  for  making  Syrup  of  Rue,  eight  or  ten 
drops  of  oil  to  a  pint  of  syrup ;  and  this,  in  doses  of  a 
teaspoonful  or  two,  is  a  useful  medicine  in  flatulent  colic 
of  children.  The  expressed  juice  of  R.,  mixed  with 
water,  and  employed  as  a  wash,  promotes  growth  of  the 
hair. — Some  of  the  species  found  in  n.  India  resemble 


Common  Rue  ( Ruta  graveoIensX 


Common  R.  in  their  properties,  and  are  used  for  the 
same  purposes. — The  Meadow  Hue  (Thalictrum)  of  several 
species  in  N.  America  is  of  another  family,  Ranunculacece, 
known  as  the  Crowfoot  family. 

RUELLIA,  ro-el'li-a:  genus  of  plants  of  nat.  order 
Acanthacece,  natives  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  Asia  and 
Australia.  Some  are  very  beautiful,  and  are  common 
ornaments  of  hothouses  in  western  countries.  In  parts 
of  China,  especially  in  the  province  of  Che-keang,  and  on 
the  mountains  west  of  Ningpo,  a  species  of  this  genus, 
R.  indigofera,  is  cultivated  for  the  excellent  indigo  which 
it  yields.  It  is  a  native  also  of  Assam,  and  is  cultivated 
there. — See  Fortune's  Residence  among  the  Chinese. 

RUFESCENT,  a.  ro-fes'sent  [L.  rufes'cens  or  rufescen'- 
Jem,  becoming  red  ;  rufesco,  I  become  red — from  rufus, 
red] :  growing  red ;  approaching  to  reddish  brown ; 
tinged  with  red. 

RUFF,  n.  ruf  [Dut.  ruyffelen,  to  rumple :  Port,  arru- 
farse,  to  curl,  as  the  surface  of  water:  Lang,  rufo,  a 
wrinkle  or  rumple]  :  a  collar  of  plaited  or  puckered 
linen ;  anything  puckered  or  plaited :  species  of  bird  like 
a  snipe  (see  below):  a  variety  of  pigeon:  V.  in  OE.,  to 
ruffle ;  to  disorder. 


RUFF. 

RUFF,  v.  raf  [Scot,  ruff,  a  roll  of  the  drum,  a  beating 
with  the  ieet  in  token  of  applause :  Port,  rufa  or  rufla, 
a  roll  of  the  drum]  :  in  Scot,  to  beat  with  the  hands  or 
feet,  or  with  both,  in  token  of  applause :  N.  a  beating 
with  the  hands  and  feet  as  expressive  of  approbation;  a 
roll  of  the  drum.  Ruff'ing,  imp. :  N.  applause  by  beat- 
ing the  hands  and  feet.    Ruffed,  pp.  ruft. 

RUFF,  n.  ruf  [Port,  rufa,  a  game  with  dice] :  formerly, 
a  popular  game  at  cards ;  the  act  of  winning  the  trick 
by  trumping  the  cards  of  another  suit :  V.  to  trump  any 
other  suit  of  the  cards  at  whist. 

RUFF  (Philomachus  pugnax) :  only  known  species  of 
its  genus;  bird  of  family  Scolopacidce,  and,  like  snipes 
and  many  others  of  the  family,  inhabitant  of  marshy 
places.  It  is  found  in  most  of  the  n.  parts  of  the  world, 
migrating  southward  in  autumn,  and  northward  in 


Ruff  and  Reeve  {Philomachus  pugnax). 


spring.  It  is  found  in  England  and  northern  Europe 
and  Asia,  migrating  south  in  the  cold  season.  It 
has  been  set  free  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  becoming  naturalized.  In  size,  the  R. 
is  considerably  larger  than  a  snipe,  and  is  about  12 
inches  in  entire  length  from  point  of  bill  to  tip  of  tail 
The  tail  is  short  and  pointed.  The  wings  are  long  and 
pointed.  The  legs  are  long  and  slender,  the  tibia  naked 
some  distance  above  the  tarsal  joint.  The  bill  is  straight, 
rather  slender,  as  long  as  the  head.  The  neck  of  the 
male  is  surrounded,  in  the  breeding  season,  with  a  ruff 
of  numerous  long  feathers,  whence  probably  the  English 
name.  The  males  are  remarkable  for  diversity  of  colors, 
no  two  specimens  being  ever  closely  alike;  but  ash- 
brown  prevails,  spotted  or  mottled  with  black ;  the  head, 
ruff,  and  shoulders  are  black,  glossed  with  purple,  and 
variously  barred  with  chestnut.  The  female  (the  Rteve) 
is  mostly  ash-brown,  with  spots  of  dark-brown,  much 
more  uniform  in  color  than  the  male.    Their  nest  is 


RUFF — RUFFLE, 
usually  on  a  tussock  in  a  moist,  swampy  place,  and  i* 
formed  of  the  coarse  grass  which  surrounds  it :  the  eggs 
are  four  in  number.  The  R.  is  taken  for  the  table  in 
spring,  but  the  young  birds  taken  in  autumn  are  prefer- 
able. They  are  often  fattened  after  being  taken,  and 
fed  for  market  on  bread  and  milk  with  bruised  hempseed. 

RUFF,  or  Ruffe,  ruf,  or  Pope,  n.  [origin  unknown], 
(Acerina  cernua) :  pretty  little  fish  of  the  Perch  family 
(Pereidce),  abundant  in  the  lakes,  slow  rivers,  and  ditches 
of  many  parts  of  middle  Europe  and  of  England.    It  is 


Ruff  or  Pope  {Acerina  cernua). 


never  more  than  five  or  six  inches  long.  In  shape,  it 
resembles  the  common  perch,  but  has  only  a  single  dor- 
sal fin.  The  R.  is  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  is  very 
easily  caught,  a  small  red  worm  being  used  as  bait. 

RUFFED  GROUSE  :  see  Bonasa. 

RUFFIAN,  n.  rufji-an  [OF.  rufien,  ruffien,  a  pander 
(see  also  Ruffle  3) :  It.  ruffiano ;  Sp.  rufian,  a  swag- 
gerer, a  bully]  :  a  brutal  fellow,  ready  for  any  desperate 
enterprise  or  crime:  Adj.  brutal;  savage:  V.  in  OE.t 
to  play  the  ruffian ;  to  rage ;  to  raise  tumults.  Ruf'- 
fianly,  a.  -ft,  or  Ruf'fian-like,  a.  like  a  ruffian ;  bold 
in  crimes;  violent.  Ruf'fianish,  a.  -ish,  having  the 
qualities  or  manners  of  a  ruffian.  Ruf'fianism,  n.  -tswi, 
the  act,  character,  or  conduct  of  a  ruffian. 

RUFFLE,  n.  ruffl  [from  Ruff  1,  which  see] :  a  strip 
of  cambric  or  fine  linen  plaited  or  contracted  into  wrin- 
kles, and  sewed  to  the  border  of  a  garment,  generally 
understood  of  ornaments  at  the  wrist;  disturbance; 
agitation :  V.  to  wrinkle  or  plait  a  strip  of  fine  cloth ; 
to  disturb  a  smooth  surface,  as  water ;  to  agitate ;  to 
disorder ;  to  discompose ;  to  put  out  of  temper.  Ruf'- 
flino,  imp.  -fling.  Ruf'fled,  pp.  -fid :  Adj.  furnished 
with  ruffles.    Ruffleless,  a.  ruffl-lte,  having  no  ruffles. 

RUFFLE,  n.  ruffl  [Port,  ruf  a  or  rufla,  a  roll  of  the 
drum :  F.  ronfler ;  Lang,  rouflar,  to  snore,  to  growl  J : 
in  mil.,  a  low  vibrating  roll — but  less  loud  than  the 
regular  roll — of  the  drum,  accompanied  with  the  pre- 
senting of  arms — a  compliment  to  officers,  and  at  milit. 
funerals:  a  kind  of  flourish  upon  a  drum:  V.  to  beat 
the  ruffle. 

Vol.  32  —  19 


RUFFLE— RUGBY. 

RUFFLE,  v.  ruffl  [O.  Dut.  roffelen,  roffen,  to  pander: 
Dan.  ruffer,  a  pander]  :  in  0E.y  to  bluster;  to  be  noisy 
and  turbulent ;  to  jar.  Ruf'fling,  imp.  -fling :  Adj. 
rough;  turbulent:  N.  commotion;  disturbance;  agita- 
tion. Ruf'fled,  pp.  -fid :  Adj.  rough ;  disordered ;  agi- 
tated.   Ruf'fler,  n.  -fler,  a  bully ;  a  blusterer. 

RUFIN,  n.  ro'fm  [L.  rufus,  red] :  a  red  substance 
formed  by  the  action  of  heat  on  phloridzin.  Ru'fous,  a 
-fus,  mbot.,  reddish;  orange-colored;  rusty. 

RUG,  n.  rug  [W.  rhuwch,  a  rug :  Sw.  rugg,  long  coarse 
hair :  Ger.  rauh,  hairy,  shaggy  (see  Rough)]  :  a  coarse, 
warm,  woolen  cloth  or  coverlet  having  a  long  shaggy 
nap ;  a  soft  woolly  mat  or  hearth-rug.  Rug-headed, 
having  rough  unkempt  hair ;  shock-headed. 

RUGJE,  n.  plu.  rd'je  [L.  rugae,  plaits  or  folds]  :  in 
anaL,  the  folds  into  which  the  mucous  membrane  of 
some  organs  is  thrown  by  the  contraction  of  the  ex- 
ternal coats.  Ru'gate,  a.  -gat,  wrinkled.  Rugosa,  n. 
plu.  rd-gd'aa,  an  extinct  ord.  of  corals.  Ru'gose,  a. 
-g08y  full  of  wrinkles ;  rough  with  wrinkles.  Rugosity, 
n.  rd-gosl-ti,  the  state  of  being  wrinkled.  Rugous,  a. 
rd'gus,  wrinkled.   Rugulose,  a.  rd'gu-lds,  finely  wrinkled. 

RUGBY:  colony  in  Morgan  co.,  Tenn. ;  7  m.  w.  of  the 
Cincinnati  New  Orleans  and  Texas  Pacific  railroad,  141 
m.  n.  of  Chattanooga.  It  is  on  the  famous  Cumberland 
plateau,  a  mining  and  agricultural  region  of  extraordi- 
nary richness;  and  owes  its  existence  to  a  series  of 
public  lectures  delivered  in  the  United  States  by  Thomas 
Hughes  (q.v.),  of  England.  A  company  was  formed  in 
New  England  to  acquire  land  for  a  farming  and  indus- 
trial colony,  and  subsequently  the  company  transferred 
its  rights  in  the  scheme  to  an  English  syndicate  organ- 
ized by  Mr.  Hughes  in  England  with  a  cap.  of  $750,000. 
A  tract  of  50,000  acres  was  purchased,  the  refusal  of  350,- 
000  more  secured,  a  number  of  English  farming  families 
were  sent  out,  and  the  settlement  of  the  colony  made 
with  impressive  ceremonies,  in  which  Mr.  Hughes, 
participated,  1880,  Oct.  5.  A  town  was  plotted,  a  hotel 
built,  several  industries  were  inaugurated,  Mr.  Hughes 
made  annual  visits  for  several  years ;  and  a  brother,  W. 
Hastings  Hughes,  became  gen.  supt.  and  manager ;  but 
the  scheme  never  realized  the  anticipations  of  its  pro- 
jectors. It  is  now  classed  as  a  health  resort  with 
permanent  pop.  200. 


RUGBY— RUGEN. 


RUGBY,  rug'bi;  market-town  of  England,  county  of 
Warwick,  15  m.  n.  e.  of  the  town  of  Warwick,  30  m. 
e.  s.  e.  of  Birmingham ;  pleasantly  situated  on  rising 
ground  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Avon.  It  is  reached  by 
five  railways.  It  derives  its  importance  and  celebrity 
from  its  grammar  school,  founded  1567  by  Lawrence 
Sheriff,  London  shopkeeper.  The  buildings  of  the 
school,  consisting  of  a  fine  Elizabethan  quadrangle,  with 
cloisters,  and  an  elegant  detached  chapel,  are  of  brick, 
with  stonework  around  the  windows  and  at  the  angles 
and  cornices.  The  chapel  contains,  among  other  monu- 
ments of  head-masters,  that  of  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold. 
Among  Dr.  Arnold's  successors  were  Tait,  Abp.  of 
Canterbury;  and  Temple,  Bp.  of  London.  The  school 
is  generally  attended  by  about  500  pupils.  The  endow- 
ment produces  about  £5,000  a  year,  and  it  offers  20 
exhibitions  of  values  from  £40  to  £80  a  year,  tenable  for 
four  years.  A  park  of  11  acres  is  set  aside  for  foot-ball, 
cricket,  and  other  games.  The  railways  and  the  school 
give-  rise  to  almost  all  the  trade  of  the  town.  Pop. 
16,850. 

RUGELEY,  ruj'U:  market-town,  county  of  Stafford, 
England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Trent.  There  are 
iron-works  in  the  town,  and  collieries  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  4,200. 

RUGEN,  ru'ghen:  island  belonging  to  Prussia,  largest 
of  the  islands  of  Germany;  in  the  Baltic,  off  the  coast 
of  Pomerania;  greatest  length  33  m.;  greatest  breadth 
28  m. ;  360  sq.  m.  It  is  separated  from  the  mainland, 
with  which  at  one  time  it  was  probably  connected,  by  a 
strait,  about  a  mile  wide.  The  island  is  so  deeply  in- 
dented on  all  sides  by  the  sea,  that  it  seems  formed  of 
several  narrow  tongues  of  land  attached  to  each  other, 
and  to  these  the  name  peninsulas  has  been  given.  On 
the  peninsula  of  Jasmund  is  the  precipitous  cliff  Stub- 
benkammer,  the  highest  point  of  which  (420  ft.)  is 
called  the  King's  Seat,  because  Charles  XII.  witnessed 
from  this  spot  a  sea  fight  between  the  Swedes  and 
Danes,  1715,  Aug.  8.  R.,  formerly  Swedish  territory, 
was  transferred  to  Prussia  1815.  Hertha  Lake,  in  this 
island,  is  believed  to  be  the  place  where,  according  to 
Tacitus,  the  goddess  Hertha  (Earth)  was  worshipped. 
The  soil  of  the  island  is  productive;  cattle  are  reared; 
and  the  fisheries  are  profitable.  The  scenery,  everywhere 
pleasing,  and  frequently  grotesque  and  romantic,  to- 
gether with  the  facilities  for  sea-bathing,  attracts 
numerous  summer  visitors.  Chief  town,  Bergen,  in  the 
middle  of  the  island;  pop.  4,000 — Pop.  of  island  about 
46,300. 


RUGER — KUHNKEN. 

RUOER,  r6'g4r,  Thomas  Howard:  milit.  officer:  b« 
Lima,  N.  Y.,  1833,  Apr.  2.  He  graduated  at  the  U.  fl. 
Milit.  Aead.  1854 ;  resigned  from  the  army  the  following 
year;  and  studied  law  and  practiced  in  Janesville,  Wis., 
till  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war.  In  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieut.col.  and  promoted  col.  of  the  3d  Wis.  vols. ; 
1862  promoted  brig.gen.  of  vols. ;  1864  brevetted  maj.- 
gen,  vols. ;  1866  appointed  col.  U.  S.  A. ;  1867  brevetted 
brig.gen.  U.  S.  A.  for  gallantry  at  Gettysburg;  1871-76 
vva-5  supt.  of  the  U.  S.  Milit.  Acad. ;  1886  promoted 
orig.gen.  U.  S.  A.;  and  1891,  Apr.  8,  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  division  of  the  Pacific.  He  was  promoted  [ 
major-gen.  1895,  and  retired  from  service  1897.  I 

RUGGED,  a.  rug'ged  [Sw.  ruggig,  rough,  shaggy:  \ 
Gael,  rug,  a  wrinkle]  :  rough ;  uneven ;  shaggy ;  full 
of  irregular  points  or  asperities;  rough  in  temper; 
harsh  ;  rocky  ;  inhospitable,  as  a  coast.  Rug'gedly,  ad. 
-ft.  Rug'gedness,  n.  -nea,  the  quality  or  state  of  being 
rugged ;  roughness  ;  harshness ;  coarseness ;  boister- 
ousness. — Syn.  of  *  rugged  ' :  rough ;  shaggy ;  irregular ; 
uneven;  savage;  brutal;  rude;  stormy;  tumultuous; 
tempestuous ;  turbulent ;  harsh  ;  sour ;  surly ;  discom- 
posed ;  violent ;  boisterous ;  wrinkled ;  cragged ;  coarse ; 
hard;  crabbed;  severe;  austere;  frowning;  inclement. 

RUGGLES,  rug'glz,  Samuel  Bulkley,  iiL.D. :  1800, 
Apr.  11—1881,  Aug.  28 ;  b.  New  Milford,  Conn. :  lawyer. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  1814,  studied  law  with  his  father, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
1821.  He  was  elected  to  the  assembly  1838;  a  commis- 
sioner to  locate  the  route  of  the  Erie  railroad ;  canal 
commissioner  1839,  and  pres.  of  the  canal  board  1840  and 
58;  commissioner  of  the  Croton  aqueduct  1842;  U.  S. 
delegate  to  international,  statistical  congresses  at  Ber- 
lin 1863  and  the  Hague  1869 ;  U.  S.  commissioner  to  the 
Paris  exhibition  and  delegate  to  the  international  mone- 
tary conference  1867 ;  and  a  trustee  of  Columbia  Col- 
lege from  1836  till  his  death.  He  had  for  many  years 
been  a  resident  of  New  York.  He  received  his  degree 
from  Yale  1859,  and  was  author  of  numerous  reports. 

RUGIN,  n.  rd'fin  :  rough,  nappy  cloth. 

RUGINE,  n.  rS'jen  [F.  rugine,  a  surgeon's  rasp] :  an 
instr.  for  removing  diseased  surfaces  of  bones;  a  sur- 
geon's or  dentist's  rasp. 

RUGOSE  :  see  under  Rug^j. 

RUHNKEN,  ron'ken,  David:  illustrious  scholar: 
1723,  Jan.  2—1798,  May  14;  b.  Stolpe,  in  Pomerania. 
He  received  his  academical  education  first  at  the  K6- 
nigsberg  gymnasium,  afterward  at  Wittenberg  Univ., 
where  he  graduated  1743;  after  which  he  went  to  Ley- 
den,  and  prosecuted  classical  studies  under  Hemsterhuie, 
giving  particular  attention  to  the  Greek  writers.  He 
collected  the  scholia  on  Plato,  and  published  an  excellent 
ed.  of  Timrous's  Lexicon  Vocum  Platonicarum  (Leyd.  1754; 


RUHR — RUIN, 
re-edited  and  much  improved  1789).  He  went  1765  to 
Paris,  for  prolonged  examination  of  MSS.  of  the  Royal 
Library  and  of  the  Library  of  St.  Germain.  Hemsterhuis 
then  procured  his  appointment  of  lector  (reader)  in  the 
Univ.  of  Leyden,  as  his  own  assistant  and  colleague. 
In  1761  he  succeeded  Oudendorp  in  the  chair  of  elo- 
quence and  history.  Id  1767  he  lost  his  friend  and 
master  Hemsterhuis ;  and  in  his  capacity  as  rector  of 
the  univ.  delivered  a  splendid  tribute  to  the  deceased 
(Leyd.  1768).  The  eity  of  Leyden  purchased  R.'s  great 
library  after  his  death,  and  gave  his  widow  an  annuity 
of  500  florins. 

R.  was  one  of  the  best  scholars  and  critics  of  the  18th 
c.  His  fine  taste  and  sagacity,  aided  by  an  astonishing 
memory  and  vast  learning,  enabled  him  to  illustrate  the 
authors  of  antiquity  with  wonderful  success.  He  was 
also  a  brilliant  prelector,  for  which  he  was  no  doubt  in- 
debted to  the  extreme  lucidity  and  grace  of  his  Latin 
style.  A  iist  of  his  works  would  occupy  much  space. 
Among  those  not  above  noted  are  his  ed.  of  vol.  II.  of 
Alberti's  Hesychius ;  of  Rutilius  Lupus ;  of  Velleius  Pa- 
terculus ;  of  Muretus,  etc. — See  his  Life  by  Wyttenbach 
(Leyd.  1799 ;  improved  ed.  Leips  1822,  Freiberg  1846). 

RUHR,  ror :  river  of  Prussia,  affluent  of  the  Rhine, 
rising  about  a  mile  from  Winterberg,  in  e.  Westphalia, 
flowing  w.n.w.,  and  entering  the  plain  of  the  Rhine  at 
Muhlheim.  It  joins  the  great  river  at  Ruhrort,  two  m. 
n.w.  of  Duisburg :  total  length  143  miles. 

RUHRORT,  rdr'drt :  small  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  63  m.  n.e.  of  Aix-la- 
Ohapelle  by  railway.  It  has  the  best  harbor  on  the 
Lower  Rhine,  possesses  many  large  ship-building  docks, 
is  the  seat  of  an  immense  coal-trade  with  Holland — the 
coal  being  derived  from  large  beds  of  the  mineral  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ruhr — and  has  large  carrying-trade  in  corn, 
timber,  and  wool,  and  in  miscellaneous  articles.  A  large 
fleet  of  steamers,  with  passengers  and  traffic,  ply  from 
R.  up  to  Strasburg,  and  down  to  Holland.  A  railway 
crosses  the  Rhine  here,  by  means  of  a  large  steam  ferry- 
boat on  which  the  cars  are  transported — being  lowered 
to  the  water  on  one  side,  and  lifted  to  the  railway  on 
the  other,  by  powerful  engines  in  two  towers  each  128  ft. 
high.    Pop.  12,400.. 

RUIN,  n.  ro'm  [F.  mint — from  L.  rwina,  a  rushing  or 
tumbling  down,  ruin — from  mere,  to  fall  with  violence : 
It.  mina] :  fall ;  destruction ;  overthrow ;  that  change 
of  a  thing  which  destroys  it,  which  entirely  defeats  its 
object,  or  which  unfits  it  for  use;  subversion;  that 
which  destroys ;  loss  of  happiness  or  fortune ;  mischief : 
Plu.  the  remains  of  any  decayed  or  demolished  place  or 
thing,  as  a  house  or  city  :  V.  to  demolish ;  to  destroy ; 
to  subvert ;  to  bring  to  an  end  in  any  manner ;  to  im- 
poverish ;  to  bring  to  misery  or  poverty.  Running, 
imp.  Ruined,  pp.  r&md  :  Adj.  demolished ;  destroyed ; 
reduced  to  poverty;  undone.    Ru'iner,  n.  -er,  one  who 


RUKH— RULE. 

ruins.  Ru'oous,  a.-ws,  entirely  gone  to  decay  ;  dilapi- 
dated; tending  to  ruin ;  pernicious;  baneful.  Ru'in- 
ously,  ad.  -II.  Ru'inousness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  or 
quality  of  being  ruinous.  Ruiniform,  a.  ro'in-i-fawrm 
(L.  forma,  a  shape]:  in  geol.,  having  the  appearance  of 
ruins.  Ruin-marble,  marble  whose  polished  surface 
presents  the  appearance  of  ruined  buildings. '  Ruinate, 
7.  ro'i-nat,  in  OE.,  to  subvert;  to  demolish;  to  destroy 
utterly.  Ru'inating,  imp.  Ruinated,  pp.  -m-a-ted, 
in  OE.,  ruined;  destroyed.  Ru'ina'tion,  n.  -a'shun,  in 
OE.,  and  now  familiarly,  subversion;  ruin;  utter  de- 
struction; a  state  of  misery  and  want;  overthrow. — 
Syn.  of  'ruin,  v.':  to  subvert;  demolish;  destroy;  im- 
poverish, dilapidate; — of  '  ruin,  n.' :  destruction;  over- 
throw ;  subversion  ;  downfall ;  waste ;  defeat ;  perver- 
sion ;  pest ;  mischief ;  bane ; — of  '  ruinous  ' :  decayed ; 
pernicious;  wasteful;  injurious;  mischievous. 
RUKH :  see  Roc. 

RULE,  n.  rol  [OF.  riule,riegle — from  L.  reg'ula,  a  rule; 
rego,  I  rule:  Prov.  regla ;  F.  regie,  a  straight  piece 
of  wood] :  an  instrument  by  which  straight  lines  are 
drawn,  or  short  lengths  measured;  that  which  is  estab- 
lished by  authority  for  guidance  and  direction ;  the  law 
of  a  society;  government;  supreme  command;  con- 
trol ;  a  prescribed  mode  of  operation  by  which  certain 
results  may  be  obtained;  an  order  of  a  superior  court; 
in  gram.,  a  statement  by  which  some  established  order 
in  the  construction  of  words  is  expressed;  in  arith.,  the 
prescribed  mode  for  performing  any  operation :  V.  to 
govern;  to  conduct;  to  direct;  to  determine,  as  a  court 
of  justice;  to  decide ;  to  lay  down  and  settle;  to  exer- 
cise supreme  authority.  Rul'ing,  imp. :  Adj.  having 
control  or  authority ;  marking  with  lines,  as  with  a  ruler ; 
predominant ;  controlling ;  reigning :  N.  a  rule  laid 
down  by  a  judge  or  court  of  law.  Ruled,  pp.  void. 
Ruler,  n.  rol'er,  a  governor;  an  instrument  with  a 
straight  edge  or  side  for  drawing  straight  lines.  Rul'- 
ingly,  ad.  ~U.  Ruling  elder,  in  the  Presb.  Ch.,  a 
member  of  the  lowest  ecclesiastical  court,  called  a 
•  kirk-session,'  a  layman,  whose  office  is  generally  to 
assist  the  minister  in  the  management  of  the  secular 
And  spiritual  interests  of  the  parish.  Rule  nisi,  rol 
ni'si  [L.  nisi,  unless]  :  in  law,  an  order  issued  by  a  court 
commanding  a  person  or  party  in  a  case  to  show  cause 
why  a  certain  thing  should  not  be  done ;  for  unless  good 
reasons  can  be  given  against  doing  the  thing,  the  nisi 
rule  shall  be  made  absolute  rule — i.e.,  the  person  or 
party  shall  be  compelled  to  do  the  thing.  To  procure 
such  an  order  is  the  first  step  in  a  certain  class  of  appli- 
cations to  a  court.  Rule  off,  to  detach  or  separate  by 
a  line  of  separation;  to  delete  or  deduct,  as  bad  debts. 
— Syn.  of  'rule,  n.':  regulation;  maxim;  canon;  law; 
precept ;  guide  ;  direction ;  method  ;  sway ;  empire ; 
government;  order;  control; — of  ' ruling,  a.':  predomi- 
nant; chief;  governing;  controlling;  prevailing;  prev- 
alent. 


«  KULE  BRITANNIA  ' — RULE  OF  FAITH. 
'  RULE  BRITANNIA  : '  one  of  th&  national  anthems 
of  Great  Britain,  which  has  been  described  by  Southey 
as  '  the  political  hymn  of  this  country  as  long  as  she 
maintains  her  political  power.'  Its  original  appearance 
was  in  a  masque  entitled  Alfred — words  by  James 
Thomson  the  poet,  and  David  Mallet,  music  by  Dr. 
Arne — performed  first  1740,  Aug.  1,  before  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales,  at  his  residence  at  Cliefden.  The 
words  of  the  ode  are  believed  to  be  the  composition  of 
Mallet.  Alfred  was  altered  by  Mallet  1751,  when  three 
stanzas  of  Rule  Britannia  were  omitted,  and  three 
others,  by  Lord  Bolingbroke,  substituted  for  them ;  but 
it  is  the  ode  in  its  original  form  that  has  taken  root. 

RULE  OF  FAITH,  in  Polemical  Theology :  term  for 
that  which  is  regarded  as  the  code  from  which  the  faith 
of  Christians  is  to  be  drawn.  One  of  the  most  vital  of 
modern  religious  controversies  turns  on  the  question: 
What  is  the  Christian  rule  of  faith?  The  Reformers, 
as  a  body,  laid  it  down,  as  a  first  principle,  that  the 
Word  of  God  alone,  by  which  they  meant  the  written 
word,  or  the  Scriptures,  could  safely  be  accepted  as 
a  rule  of  faith :  if  the  Fathers  could  be  received  at 
all,  it  is  only  in  the  light  of  witnesses,  and  fallible 
witnesses,  to  the  ancient  interpretation  of  the  Script- 
ures. The  Reformers,  however,  must  be  deemed  to 
have  allowed  to  the  human  reason  and  conscience  the 
eminent  office  of  deciding  what  writings  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  giving  adequate  evidence  of  being  Holy 
Scripture,  with  the  further  office  of  framing  the  principal 
truths  of  Scripture  into  a  system  of  doctrine ;  while  they 
must  be  deemed  to  have  allowed  to  the  church  also  the 
eminent  office  of  authenticating  and  of  enforcing  on  in- 
dividuals this  system  of  doctrine  as  a  rule  of  faith. — The 
whole  question  is  one  as  to  the  proper  balance  and  har- 
monizing of  various  elements  which  are  divinely  assigned 
to  the  work  of  discovering  and  presenting  to  men  the 
rule  of  faith.  The  view  of  the  Reformers  is  much 
modified  in  the  English  Church  of  the  Laudian  period, 
and  by  the  successors  of  that  school,  the  modern  Trac- 
tarians,  who  admit  the  «  consent '  of  the  Fathers  as  an 
authoritative  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  Rom. 
Catholics,  on  the  contrary,  while  they  admit  that  God's 
word  alone  is  the  rule  of  faith,  yet  contend  that  the 
Scriptures  are  not  to  be  considered  as  the  only  deposi- 
tory of  God's  word.  Much  of  the  Lord's  teaching  to  his 
apostles  was  not  committed  to  writing  in  these  authen- 
tic Scriptures ;  and  as  the  teaching  of  Christ,  wherever 
found,  is  God's  word,  even  as  much  as  what  is  written 
in  the  Scriptures,  they  hold  that  if  it  be  possible  to  find 
such  teaching  elsewhere  than  in  the  Bible,  the  teaching 
so  found  is  an  essential  part  of  the  rule  of  faith.  Now 
they  hold  that  the  traditions  of  the  church,  contained  in 
the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  in  the  cult,  the  liturgy, 
sacramental  practices,  and  the  like,  are  a  depository 
of  Christ's  teachings,  less  accessible  indeed,  but  not  less 


RULE  OF  THE  ROAD— RUM. 
certain,  than  the  Scripture  itself;  and  of  this  divinely 
traditional  character  they  regard  the  church  as  at  all 
times  the  authoritative  expositor. 

Protestants  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  oral 
teaching  of  Christ  himself,  and  of  his  apostles  or  others 
speaking  by  inspiration ;  but  by  reason  of  the  lack  of 
any  authoritative  or  trustworthy  record,  they  deny  that 
any  such  teaching,  not  recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  is  of 
any  value  to  us.  As  to  the  right  of  the  church  to  ex- 
pound authoritatively,  they  deny  it  altogether — i.e.,  they 
profess  to  deny  it;  though  in  effect  many  sects  prac- 
tically enforce  their  standards,  creeds,  or  confessions  as 
authoritatively  setting  forth  the  teachings  of  the  Bible. 

RULE  OF  THE  ROAD :  regulations  for  movements 
of  conveyances  or  of  persons  in  passing  one  another, 
either  on  land  or  at  sea. — On  Land:  Drivers  and  riders 
keep  the  side  of  the  road  next  their  right  hand  when 
meeting :  the  person  neglecting  this  rule  is  liable  for 
any  damage  through  such  neglect.  This  rule  in  the 
United  States  fs  exactly  contrary  to  the  rule  in  Great 
Britain,  where  passing  must  be  to  the  left-hand  side  of 
the  road. — The  rule  as  regards  equestrians  and  foot-pas- 
sengers is  practically  used  ;  but  has  been  held  not  legally 
compulsory.  It  is  not  so  compulsory  on  vehicles  that  it 
may  not  be  deviated  from  in  special  circumstances — due 
care  and  diligence  being  taken.  A  man  riding  against  a 
horse  that  is  standing,  or  a  conveyance  driving  against 
another  that  is  standing  still,  is  answerable  for  any 
damage. — At  Sea:  see  Navigation  Laws.  (Consult 
McCulloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce — art.  1  Collision.') 

RULE  OF  THREE,  in  Arithmetic  :  technical  term  for  a 
rule  in  arithmetic,  otherwise  called  Proportion  (q.v.), 
which  teaches  the  finding  of  a  fourth  number  pro- 
portional to  three  given  numbers.  The  term  1  rule  of 
three '  has  been  in  use  from  the  beginning  of  the  16th  c. ; 
and  from  the  great  utility  of  the  operation  in  commer- 
cial transactions,  it  received,  almost  from  the  com- 
mencement, the  name  of  the  Golden  Rule  (q.v.,  under 
Gold).  To  the  ordinary  *  rule  of  three  '  was  added  the 
backer  rule,  or  *  rule  of  three  inverse  '  (corresponding  to 
inverse  or  Reciprocal  [q.v.]  proportion),  and  the  *  double 
rule  of  three,'  in  which  two  or  more  ratios  are  given  as 
determining  the  number  to  be  found. 

RUM,  a.  rum  [rome  or  rum,  in  cant  or  gypsy  language, 
signified  '  good,  noted : '  in  the  primary  sense,  rum 
signifies  bad]  :  odd ;  queer ;  curious ;  out  of  the  way — all 
in  a  contemptuous  sense. 

RUM,  rum:  mountainous  island  of  Argyleshire, 
Scotland ;  of  the  group  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  15  m. 
n.n.w.  of  Ardnamurchan  Point.  It  is  m.  long,  8  m. 
broad ;  26,786  acres ;  about  6  per  cent,  of  which  is  under 
cultivation.  The  island  is  a  mass  of  high  sharp-peaked 
mountains,  rising  in  Haiskeval  to  the  height  of  2,659  ft. 
Pop.  below  100. 


RUM — RUMEN. 

RUM,  n.  rum  [in  the  gypsy  or  slang  tongue,  rum  booee, 
good  drink,  strong  drink :  derived  by  others  from  Mai. 
bram,  brum,  an  intoxicating  liquor :  It.  rum ;  Port,  rom  ; 
F.  rhum,  rum] :  spirits  distilled  from  any  of  the  product 
of  the  sugar-cane,  generally  from  the  refuse,  and 
molasses.  The  scummings  from  the  sugar-pans  give 
the  best  rum  that  any  particular  plantation  can  produce ; 
scummings  and  molasses  the  next  quality ;  molasses 
the  lowest.  Before  fermentation,  water  is  added,  till 
the  *  sett '  or  wort  is  of  the  strength  of  about  12  per  cent, 
of  sugar ;  and  every  ten  gallons  yields  one  gallon  of  rum, 
or  a  little  more.  The  flavor  of  rum  depends  mainly  on 
soil  and  climate,  and  is  not  good  where  canes  grow 
rankly.  Pineapples  and  guavas  are  at  times  thrown 
into  the  still ;  but  on  the  great  scale,  no  attempt  is  made 
to  flavor  artificially.  The  finest-flavored  rums  are  pro- 
duced by  the  old-fashioned  small  stills.  The  modern 
stills,  which  produce  a  strong  spirit  at  one  operation, 
are  unfavorable  to  flavor.  The  color  of  rum  is  imparted 
after  distillation  by  adding  a  certain  proportion  (vary- 
ing with  the  varying  taste  of  the  market)  of  caramel,  or 
sugar  melted  without  water,  and  thus  slightly  charred. 
Rum  is  greatly  improved  by  age,  and  old  rum  is  often 
very  highly  prized.  Rum  shrub,  liqueur  in  which  the 
alcoholic  base  is  rum,  and  the  other  materials  are 
sugar,  lime  or  lemon  juice,  with  the  rind  of  these  fruits 
added  for  flavor. 

RUMA,  ro'ma :  small  town  of  Austria,  in  Slavonia,  on 
an  affluent  of  the  Save,  35  m.  n.w.  of  Belgrade.  The 
chief  industries  are  wine-culture  and  the  rearing  of  horses. 
Pop.  7,800. 

RUMA'NIA:  see  Roumania. 

RUMB  :  for  Rhumb,  which  see. 

RUMBLE,  v.  rum'bl  [Dut.  rommelen;  Dan.  rumle;  Ger. 
rummeln,  to  rumble :  It.  rombare,  to  make  a  clattering 
noise]  :  to  make  a  low,  heavy,  continued  sound,  as  of 
broad,  heavy  wheels:  N.  a  hoarse,  low,  continued  sound; 
a  revolving  cask  or  shaking-machine  in  which  small 
cast-iron  articles  are  cleaned  and  rubbed  bright  by 
friction  against  one  another ;  a  seat  for  servants  behind 
a  carriage.  Rum'bling,  imp. :  Adj.  making  a  low, 
heavy,  continued  sound  :  N.  a  heavy  hoarse  sound. 
Rum'bled,  pp.  -bid.  Rum'blingly,  ad.  -II.  Rum'b:ler, 
n.  -bier,  he  who  or  that  which  rumbles. 

RUMEN,  n.  rd'men  [L.,  the  throat] :  the  first  cavity  of 
the  complex  stomach  of  ruminants— often  called  the 
paunch. 


RUMFORD. 

RUMFORD,  rum'ferd,  Count  (Sir  Benjamin  Thomp- 
son) :  philosopher  and  governmental  administrator :  1753, 
Mar.  26—1814,  Aug.  21 ;  b.  Woburn,  Mass.  He  was 
educated  at  a  common  school,  and  at  the  age  of  14  was 
proficient  enough  in  algebra,  geometry,  astronomy,  and 
the  higher  mathematics  to  calculate  an  eclipse  within 
four  seconds  of  accuracy.  He  entered  a  merchant's 
office  in  Salem,  Mass.,  at  the  age  of  13,  and  got  his  living 
as  a  clerk  and  school-teacher,  while  he  studied  medicine 
and  physics.  In  1770  he  was  engaged  as  teacher  of  an 
acad.  at  Rumford,  now  Concord,  cap,  of  N.  H. ;  and 
1772  married  a  rich  widow  of  that  place,  daughter  of  a 
minister;  and  was  made  major  of  militia  by  Wentworth, 
the  English  gov.  The  jealousy  of  officers  over  whom 
he  had  been  promoted,  and  charges  of  sympathy  with 
the  royal  cause,  at  this  period  of  the  outbreak  of  the 
American  revolution,  made  it  prudent  for  him  to  remove 
to  Boston,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  the  Brit, 
commander,  Gen.  Howe ;  and  when  Gen. Washington  com- 
pelled the  surrender  of  Boston,  Thompson  was  sent  to 
England  as  bearer  of  dispatches.  In  London,  he  so  won 
the  favor  of  the  govt,  by  his  intelligence,  as  to  be  ap- 
pointed under-sec.  of  state  in  the  colonial  office.  On  a 
change  of  ministry,  however,  he  returned  to  America,  and 
fought  in  the  royal  cause.  When  it  failed,  he  left  the 
j3rit.  army,  with  the  rank  of  lieut.  col.,  and  entered  the 
service  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  having  been  knighted  by 
George  III. ;  and  1784  he  was  settled  at  Munich  as  aide- 
de-camp  and  chamberlain  to  the  sovereign.  In  this  post 
he  evinced  the  energy  of  his  mind  and  the  fertility  of 
his  invention.  He  reorganized  the  army  and  improved 
its  tactics.  In  1790  he  suppressed  the  long-prevalent 
beggary  throughout  the  kingdom,  took  measures  for 
improving  the  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle,  and  laid  out 
a  park  for  Munich.  He  rapidly  rose  to  the  offices  of 
maj.gen.,  councilor  of  state,  lieut.gen.,  minister  of  war; 
and  was  created  Count  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  when 
he  chose  Rumford  (in  N.  H.),  where  his  fortunes  had  be- 
gun, as  his  titular  designation.  In  1795  he  visited 
London,  where  he  was  treated  with  much  attention ; 
and  finding  that  his  opinion  was  sought  on  technologi- 
cal subjects,  he  published  the  results  of  his  experience 
and  the  records  of  his  labors  in  Bavaria.  Having  long 
and  carefully  studied  the  phenomena  of  heat,  he  set 
himself  to  devise  a  remedy  for  the  smoky  chimneys, 
then  among  the  greatest  nuisances  in  England ;  and 
discovered  the  principles  on  which  fireplaces  and  chim- 
neys have  since  been  constructed.  Other  cases  in  which 
greater  economy  of  the  application  or  production  of 
heat  could  be  obtained,  as  cooking-ranges,  stoves,  etc., 
engaged  much  of  his  attention.  He  was  suddenly  re- 
called to  Bavaria,  from  whose  cap.,  Munich,  the  elector 
had  fled,  as  it  was  threatened  by  an  Austrian  and  a 
French  army.  R.'s  tact  and  energy  prevented  the 
hostile  occupation  of  the  city.    He  had  been  appointed 


RUMILI— RUMINANTIA. 
pres.  of  the  council  of  regency ;  and  soon  afterward 
was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of 
St.  James;  but  the  British  govt.,  holding  to  the  doctrine 
of  inalienable  allegiance,  refused  to  recognize  a  Brit,  sub- 
ject in  that  capacity.  He  declined  an  invitation  to 
revisit  America,  where  he  was  greatly  admired  in  spite 
of  his  former  loyalty  to  the  crown.  He  finally  settled 
in  Paris;  busied  himself  in  improvements  in  artillery 
and  illumination ;  founded  a  professorship,  in  Harvard 
College,  of  the  application  of  science  to  the  arts  of  liv- 
ing; married  for  his  second  wife  the  widow  of  Lavoi- 
sier; and  died  at  Auteuil,  near  Paris,  leaving  many  im- 
portant bequests  to  the  Royal  Soc.  of  London,  the  Amer. 
Acad,  of  Sciences,  and  Harvard  Univ.  See  Memoir  by 
Ellis  (1876). 
RU'MILI :  see  Roumelia. 

RUMINANT,  n.  ro'mi-nant  [F.  ruminant — from  L.  ru- 
minans  or  ruminan'tem,  bringing  up  from  the  throat, 
chewing  over  again — from  rumen,  the  throat  or  gullet :  It, 
ruminante]  :  animal  that  chews  the  cud — e.g.,  cow,  sheep, 
camel,  etc.  :  Adj.  having  the  property  of  chewing  the 
food  over  again ;  chewing  the  cud.  Ru'minantly,  ad. 
-U.  Ru'minate,  v.  -ndt,  to  pass  the  food  from  the 
stomach  in  order  to  chew  it  over  again ;  to  meditate ;  to 
think  again  and  again ;  to  muse  on ;  to  ponder  over. 
Ru'minate,  a.,  or  Ru'minated,  a.  in  bot,  applied  to  the 
hard  albumen  of  some  seeds  presenting  a  mottled  ap- 
pearance and  full  of  chalky  matter.  Ru'minating, 
imp.  Ru'minated,  pp.  Ru'mina'tor,  n.  -ter,  one  who 
ruminates  or  muses  on  any  matter.  Ru'mina'tion,  n. 
-na'shun  [F.— L.]  :  the  act  or  power  of  chewing  the  cud; 
a  musing  or  continued  thinking  on  a  subject. 

RUMINANTIA,  rd-mi-nan'shi-a :  group  of  animals, 
in  the  division  Artiodactyla  (q.v.)  of  order  Ungulata. 
Cuvier  treated  them  as  a  separate  order.  The  R.  are  an 
extremely  well-defined  group,  among  whose  individuals 
the  habit  of  rumination  or  chewing  the  cud  is  universal 
and  almost  peculiar.  The  R.  are  strictly  and  exclusively 
herbivorous, and  have  great  similarity  of  structure.  They 
have  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  whose  front  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  callous  pad.  *  The  grass  is  collected  and 
rolled  together  by  means  of  the  long  and  movable 
tongue  ;  it  is  firmly  held  between  the  lower  cutting  teeth 
and  the  pad,  the  cartilaginous  upper  lip  assisting  in 
this ;  and  then,  by  a  sudden  nodding  motion  of  the  head, 
the  little  roll  of  herbage  is  either  torn  or  cut  off,  or 
partly  both  torn  and  cut.' — Youatt.  In  the  lower  jaw, 
there  generally  appear  to  be  eight  incisors;  but  the 
two  outer  are  properly  to  be  regarded  as  canines, 
and  in  the  Camelidce  they  assume  the  ordinary  canine 
form.  Some  of  the  R.  have  canine  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  some  are  destitute  of  them.  In  front  of  the 
molar  teeth,  there  is  along  vacant  space  in  both  jaws. 
The  molars  are  six  on  each  side  in  each  jaw;  their  sur- 
face exhibits  crescent-shaped  ridges  of  enamel.  The 
head  is  elongated,  the  neck  is  aiways  of  considerable 


Ropemahinv 
Ruminant! : 


The  '  Whirl '  Used  in  Hand  Ropemaking-. 


American  Bopemaking  Machine. 


Stomach  of  Ruminantia. 

A,  Paunch,   B,  Honeycomb  Bag;   C,  ManypJies;   D,  Hennet 


RTTMINANTIA. 

length,  the  eyes  are  at  the  side  of  the  head,  and  the 
senses  of  smell  and  hearing,  as  well  as  of  sight,  are 
acute.  The  head  is  in  many  R.  armed  with  horns; 
which  in  some  are  found  in  both  sexes,  in  some  only  in 
the  male,  while  in  others  they  are  lacking;  and  this 
lack  characterizes  varieties  of  some  species — e.g.,  of  the 
sheep  and  ox,  in  which  they  are  ordinarily  present.  The 
horns  differ  very  much  in  different  families,  even  in 
their  structure,  some  being  hollow  (true  horns),  some 
solid  (antlers).  All  the  four  limbs  are  terminated  by 
two  large  toes  which  are  hoofed.  Behind  the  hoof  are 
always  two  small  spurs,  rudimentary  toes.  The  meta- 
carpal and  the  metatarsal  bones  are  united  into  one, 
the  cannon  bone.  The  legs  are  rather  long,  and  the 
spinal  column  is  very  flexible.  The  brain  of  the  R.  is 
small,  and  they  show  little  intelligence :  they  are  not 
distinguished  by  any  remarkable  instincts ;  and  though 
easily  tamed,  they  are  scarcely  susceptible  of  training 
or  education.  Very  few,  however,  of  the  numerous 
species  of  R.  have  been  truly  domesticated,  and  prob- 
ably much  is  yet  to  be  done  in  this  way. 

The  R.  are  generally  gregarious ;  they  are  distributed 
over  almost  the  whole  world ;  though  none  are  natives 
of  Australia.  They  are  found  in  the  warmest  and  the 
coldest  regions.  The  flesh  of  all  the  R.  is  fit  for  human 
food ;  the  fat  (tallow)  hardens  more  on  cooling  than  the 
fat  of  other  animals,  and  even  becomes  brittle.  The 
fat,  hide,  horns,  hoofs,  hair,  bones,  entrails,  blood,  and 
almost  all  parts  are  useful  to  man. 

The  intestines  are  long  in  all  the  Ruminantia.  The 
caecum  also  is  long.  The  complex  stomach,  adapted  to 
rumination,  consists  of  four  distinct  bags  or  cavities. 
The  first  of  these,  into  which  the  gullet  or  oesophagus 
enters,  is,  in  the  mature  animal,  by  far  the  largest ;  and 
is  called  the  Paunch  (L.  rumen) :  into  this  the  chief 
part  of  the  food  passes.  It  is  lined  with  a  thick  mem- 
brane, presenting  numerous  prominent  hard  papillae, 
secreting  a  fluid  in  which  the  food  is  soaked.  The 
second  cavity  is  the  Honeycomb  Bag  (L.  reticulum),  so 
called  from  being  internally  covered  with  a  network  of 
cells,  like  those  of  a  honeycomb.  This  second  cavity,  or 
stomach,  has  also  a  direct  communication  with  the 
oesophagus,  and  fluids  seem  in  general  to  pass  immedi- 
ately into  it,  but  sometimes  or  partly  also  into  the  other 
cavities ;  and  it  is  here  chiefly  that  the  cells  for  retain- 
ing water  are  found  in  the  camel.  The  third  cavity,  or 
stomach,  is  the  Manyplies  (L.  psalterium),  so  called  be- 
cause its  lining  membrane  forms  many  deep  folds,  like 
the  leaves  of  a  book,  beset  with  small  hard  tubercles : 
this  also  communicates  directly  with  the  oesophagus,  by 
a  sort  of  prolongation  of  it.  The  leaves  of  the  mem- 
brane seem  to  serve  for  the  absorption  of  superfluous 
fluid  from  the  food.  Finally,  the  food  passes  into  the 
fourth  cavity,  which  is  more  elongated  than  any  of  the 
others,  and  is  next  in  size  to  the  first.  This,  called  the 
Reed  or  Rennet  (L.  abomasus),  may  be  considered  as  the 


RUMMAGE— RUMOR, 
true  stom ach,homologous — if  any  one  of  the  four  parts  can 
be  so  regarded — to  the  simple  stomach  of  mammals  in 
general.  It  is  lined  with  a  velvety  mucous  membrane 
in  longitudinal  folds.  It  is  here  that  the  gastric  juice  is 
secreted.  In  young  animals,  it  is  the  largest  of  the  four 
cavities,  and  it  is  only  when  they  pass  from  milk  to 
crude  vegetable  food  that  the  paunch  becomes  enlarged, 
and  all  the  parts  of  the  complex  stomach  come  fully 
into  use.  It  seems  to  be  by  a  power  of  what  may  be 
called  instinctive  volition  that  the  animal  directs  what 
passes  through  the  gullet  into  the  first  cavity,  the  second, 
or  even  the  third.  It  has  been  found  by  Flourens,  who 
made  many  experiments  on  this  subject,  that  the  food 
consumed  by  ruminants  passed  chiefly  into  the  first 
cavity,  but  part  of  it  also  at  once  into  the  second,  and 
even,  when  given  in  a  mashed  or  in  a  much  comminuted 
state,  into  the  third. 

The  particular  means  by  which  hastily  swallowed  food 
is  brought  from  the  paunch,  formed  into  pellets  at  the 
base  of  the  oesophagus,  and  brought  up  into  the  mouth 
for  rumination,  or  second  and  more  thorough  mastica- 
tion, are  not  thoroughly  understood,  notwithstanding 
the  patient  investigations  by  Flourens.  He  ascribes  the 
formation  of  the  pellets,  however,  to  the  action  of  the 
muscular  duct  which  connects  the  oesophagus  with  the 
second  and  third  stomachs,  and  the  power  which  the 
animal  has  of  closing  or  opening  at  will  the  orifices  of 
these  cavities. 

Chewing  of  the  cud  is  performed  usually  in  an  attitude 
of  repose,  and  evidently  affords  pleasure  to  the  animal. 

The  R.  are  arranged  by  naturalists  in  seven  families, 
all  very  natural — Camelidce  (see  Camel),  Moschidce,  (see 
Musk),  Cervidce  (see  Deer),  Camelopardidce  (see  Gi- 
raffe), AntelopidcB  (see  Antelope),  Bovidce  (q.v.),  and 
Capridm  (q.v.).  For  the  most  important  genera  and 
species,  see  separate  titles. 

RUMMAGE,  v.  rum'maj  [Dut.  ruim,  room,  the  hold  of 
a  ship ;  ruimen,  to  make  room,  to  empty :  OF.  rum,  the 
hold  of  a  ship :  OE.  spelling,  romage]  :  to  search  thor- 
oughly among  the  things  stowed  in  a  given  receptacle  : 
N.  the  proper  stowing  of  merchandise  in  a  ship;  a 
searching  carefully  by  tumbling  over  things.  Rum'- 
mag-ing-,  imp.  Rum'maged,  pp.  -majd.  Rummage  sale, 
a  clearance-sale  of  unclaimed  goods  at  the  docks,  or  of 
the  remainder  of  a  warehouse  stock. 

RUMMER,  n.  rum'mer  fSw.  remmare  ;  Dut.  roemer ; 
Ger.  romer,  a  large  drinking-glass]  :  a  large  drinking- 
glass  standing  on  a  foot ;  a  drinking-cup. 

RUMOR,  n.  ro'mer  [F.  rumeur — from  L.  rumor,  a  re- 
peated saying  or  telling,  the  talk  of  the  many :  It. 
rumore]  :  a  story  passing  from  one  person  to  another 
without  any  known  authority  for  its  truth  ;  a  flying 
report :  V.  to  circulate  by  report.  Ru'moring,  imp. 
Ru'mored,  pp.  -merd,  reported.  Ru'morer,  n.  -mer-er, 
in  OE.,  a  spreader  of  news  or  rumors. 


BUMP— KUMP  PAKLIAMENT. 

BUMP,  n.  rump  [Ger.  rumpf ;  Dut,  rompe,  trunk,  body- 
separate  from  the  extremities:  Sw.  rumpa;  Gael. 
rumpal,  the  tail,  rump] :  the  end  of  the  backbone  of  an 
animal,  with  the  parts  adjacent;  the  fag-end  of  any- 
thing: in  Bag.  hist.,  name  applied  to  a  parliament  (see 
Rump  Parliament).  Rump'ers,  n.  plu.  -erz,  in  Eng. 
hist.,  adherents  or  favorers  of  the  Rump  Parliament. 
Rump'less,  a.  -les,  destitute  of  a  rump  or  tail.  Rump- 
steak,  n.  -stak,  a  choice  slice  or  piece  of  beef  cut  from 
the  thigh  near  the  rump. 

RUMPLE,  v.  rum' pi  [AS.  gehrumpen,  wrinkled;  hrim- 
pan,  to  wrinkle:  Dut.  rompelen,  to  wrinkle;  rompel,  a 
wrinkle] :  to  disorder  clothes  by  rough  usage ;  to 
pucker ;  to  wrinkle ;  to  crush  into  irregular  creases ;  to 
disorder:  N.  a  pucker;  a  fold  or  plait.  Rumbling, 
imp.  -pTmg,  forming  into  irregular  inequalities,  as  cloth. 
Rum'pled,  pp.  -pld.    Rum'ply,  a.  -pli,  having  rumples. 

RUMP  PARLIAMENT  :  in  English  history,  name  ap- 
plied in  contempt  to  the  remnant  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment after  the  expulsion  of  the  Presb.  members,  who 
were  deemed  injurious  to  the  popular  cause  by  reason 
of  their  open  or  concealed  sympathy  with  the  king, 
Charles  I.  Two  regiments  of  the  army  under  Cromwell 
were  sent  under  command  of  Col.  Pride  to  the  house  of 
commons,  1648,  Dec.  6 ;  and  41  members  of  the  Long 
Parliament  who  were  favorable  to  compromise  were  de-» 
tained  in  a  lower  room  of  the  house,  160  were  ordered 
to  go  home,  and  only  60  of  the  most  thorough  Independ- 
ents were  admitted.  The  clearance  was  called  Pride's 
Purge,  and  the  privileged  members  afterward  passed 
by  the  name  of  the  Rump,  forming  the  fag-end  of  the 
Long  Parliament.  This  assembly,  in  conjunction  with 
the  army,  brought  about  the  arraignment,  trial,  and 
condemnation  of  Charles  I.  Five  years  later,  the  Rump 
Parliament,  forgetting  that  it  was  the  creature  of  the 
army,  made  a  stand  against  certain  demands  of  the 
soldiers.  The  result  was  that  Cromwell  filled  the  house 
with  armed  men ;  the  speaker  was  pulled  out  of  the  chair, 
the  mace  taken  from  the  table,  the  room  cleared,  the  door 
locked,  and  the  parliament  declared  dissolved.  Supreme 
in  the  three  kingdoms,  Cromwell  convoked  an  assembly 
which  assumed  the  title  of  Parliament,  and  acquired 
from  the  name  of  one  of  its  most  prominent  members,  a 
leather-seller,  called  Praise-God  Barebone,  the  name  of 
the  Barebone' s  Parliament.  The  Barebone's  Parliament, 
after  five  months,  was  dissolved ;  and  Cromwell,  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  Protector,  convoked  two  parliaments,  and 
dissolved  them  for  questioning  his  authority  as  ruler. 
(For  a  brief  presentation  of  the  reasons  for  Cromwell's  ac- 
tion in  these  matters,  see  Cromwell,  Oliver.)  On  Oliver 
Cromwell's  death,  and  Richard's  succession  fco  the  pro- 
tectorate, the  military  malcontents,  coalescing  with  the 
Independents  in  Richard's  parliament,  declared  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Rump  illegal,  and  restored  that  assembly 


RUMPUS— RUMSEY. 

to  its  functions.  With  the  revival  of  the  Rump,  its  old 
quarrel  with  the  army  revived;  and  the  troops,  again 
surrounding  Westminster  Hall,  expelled  it  1659,  Oct.  13, 
a  provisional  government  of  army  officers  assuming  the 
direction  of  affairs.  But  the  general  dissatisfaction 
having  led  to  a  coalition  between  the  Presbyterians  and 
royalists,  the  army,  unable  to  carry  on  the  government, 
was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  once  more  restoring 
the  Rump,  twice  ignominiously  expelled.  The  advance 
of  Monk,  however,  with  the  army  of  Scotland,  led  to  a 
general  cry  throughout  the  country  for  a  free  parlia- 
ment. A  number  of  the  members  who  had  been  excluded 
by  Pride's  Purge,  reappearing  in  the  house,  placed  the 
Independents  in  the  minority;  and  1660,  Mar.  16,  the 
despised  and  derided  Rump  at  last  solemnly  decreed  its 
own  dissolution.  The  most  prominent  members  of  the 
Rump  Parliament  were  Vane  and  Hazlerig. 

RUMPUS,  n.  rum'pus  [It.  romhazzo,  a  clatter:  Swiss, 
rumpusen,  to  pull  one  another  about:  Icel.  rumr,  clash, 
noise]:  a  great  disturbance;  noise  and  confusion. 

RUMSEY,  rum'zi,  James:  inventor:  about  1743-1792, 
Dec.  23;  b.  Bohemia  Manor,  Md.  He  was  a  machinist, 
and  his  attention  was  early  turned  to  schemes  for  im- 
proving the  mechanism  of  grist-mills.  He  constructed 
'1784  a  model  of  a  boat  for  stemming  currents  by  the 
force  of  the  stream  acting  on  settling  poles.  He  was 
the  forerunner  of  inventors  of  methods  of  'jet  propul- 
sion'— the  method  of  propelling  vessels  by  discharging 
from  a  steam-pump  jets  of  water  against  the  wall  of 
water  astern;  he  exhibited  such  a  ' jet-propelled'  boat 
on  the  Potomac  1787,  Dec.  Of  the  'Rumsey  Soc.,' 
founded  at  Philadelphia  1788  to  promote  this  invention, 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  pres.  R.  went  to  England,  and, 
with  a  boat  constructed  on  his  plans,  there  navigated 
the  Thames,  1792,  Dec.  He  died  shortly  afterward.  He 
was  author  of  Short  Treatise  on  the  Application  of 
Steam,  (1788). 

RUMSEY,  William:  1841,  Oct.  18—1903,  Jan.  16: 
American  jurist:  b.  Bath,  Steuben  County,  N.  Y. ;  d. 
New  York.  He  was  educated  at  Williams  College, 
volunteered  in  the  Union  army  in  April  1861,  and  was 
granted  his  diploma  from  the  college  in  June.  He 
served  through  the  war,  attaining  rank  of  captain  of 
volunteers  in  1863,  major  in  1864,  and  brevet  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1865,  in  which  year  he  was  mustered  out  of 
service.  He  was  secretary  of  the  United  States  legation 
in  Japan  in  1865-6,  and  in  1880-1901  served  as  judge 
in  the  seventh  judicial  district  of  the  supreme  court. 
He  then  resigned  and  engaged  in  law  practice  until 
his  death. 


RUN. 

RUN,  v.  run  [AS.  rinnan,  to  run  :  Dut.  and  Ger..  ren- 
nm,  to  run :  Icel.  renna,  to  flow  :  Sw.  rinna ;  Dan.  rinde, 
to  flow]  :  to  go,  move,  or  pass  on  a  surface  in  almost 
any  manner ;  to  cause  to  move  swiftly ;  to  move  on  the 
ground  by  long,  quick  steps ;  to  rush  violently ;  to  fuse 
or  melt ;  to  become  liquid ;  to  take  a  course  at  sea ;  to 
drive  with  violence,  as  a  ship  ashore ;  to  ply  or  pass,  as 
a  coach  or  ship ;  to  move  or  flow,  as  water ;  to  pursue ; 
to  contend  in  a  race;  to  have  success;  to  strive  at, 
followed  by  after ;  to  contract,  as  a  debt,  followed  by 
into  or  in ;  to  pass  from  one  state  or  condition  to  an- 
other ;  to  fall ;  to  pass ;  to  make  transition ;  to  proceed ; 
to  discharge  matter,  as  a  sore ;  to  extend  to :  N.  flow ; 
course  ;  motion ;  a  pleasure-trip ;  continued  success ;  an 
unusual  demand  on  a  bank  for  payment  of  its  notes  and 
for  the  return  of  deposits ;  distance  sailed  by  a  ship ; 
a  voyage.  Run'ning,  imp. :  Adj.  in  succession ;  kept 
for  the  race;  being  in  motion;  flowing;  successive; 
continuous ;  easy ;  discharging  matter,  as  a  sore :  N. 
act  of  moving  on  with  celerity ;  the  discharge  of  a  wound 
or  sore ;  an  expeditious  way  of  joining  together  pieces  of 
material  in  sewing.  Run,  pp.  run.  Ran,  pt.  ran,  did 
run.  Runneb,  n.  run'ner,  he  who  or  that  which  runs ; 
a  messenger;  a  racer;  a  pulley;  a  wheel;  the  support 
of  a  sleigh;  in  bot,  a  leafy  shoot;  a  slender  prostrate 
stem  rooting  at  the  joints,  as  in  the  strawberry  (see 
below).  Runners  (see  Kidney-bean).  To  let  bun,  to 
allow  to  pass  or  move  freely.  To  bun  afteb,  to  pursue 
or  follow;  to  endeavor  to  obtain.  To  bun  amuck,  to 
run  wildly  and  madly ;  to  act  entirely  without  discrim- 
ination (see  Amuck).  To  bun  at,  to  attack  with  sud- 
den violence.  To  bun  away,  to  flee ;  to  elope.  To  bun 
away  with,  to  carry  off;  to  drag  rapidly  and  with 
violence,  as  a  horse  running  off.  To  bun  down,  to 
chase  to  exhaustion,  as  a  fox ;  to  crush  or  overthrow ; 
to  traduce  or  censure ;  to  attempt  to  lower  or  depreciate 
a  man  in  the  estimation  of  others.  To  bun  down  a 
coast,  to  sail  along  it.  To  bun  down  a  ship,  to  run 
against  her  and  sink  her.  To  bun  in,  in  slang,  to  take 
into  custody,  said  of  a  policeman.  To  bun  on,  to  con- 
tinue in  the  same  line  or  course ;  to  talk  unceasingly. 
To  bun  out,  to  waste ;  to  exhaust ;  to  come  to  an  end. 
To  bun  oveb,  to  overflow ;  to  recount  cursorily ;  to  go 
over,  as  by  riding  or  driving;  to  examine.  To  bun 
biot,  to  go  to  the  utmost  excess.  To  bun  thbough,  to 
expend  ;  to  waste ;  to  pierce,  as  with  a  sword.  To  bun 
up,  to  build  hastily,  as  a  house ;  to  swell  or  increase,  as 
an  account ;  to  erect.  In  the  long  bun,  at  last ;  in  the 
end  or  final  result.  The  common  bun,  the  generality 
of  people;  ordinary  course  or  kind.  A  sheep-bun,  a 
range  or  large  extent  of  ground  for  feeding  a  flock. 
Running  fight,  a  fight  between  a  party  pursuing  and  a 
party  fleeing.  Running  fibe,  the  fire  of  troops  in 
rapid  succession.  Running  knot,  a  kind  of  knot  made 
to  draw  or  slip  easily,  as  on  a  snare  for  catching  rab- 


RUNAGATE— RUNDLET. 

bits.  Running  rigging,  those  parts  of  a  ship's  rigging 
or  ropes  which  pass  through  blocks.  Running  title,  the 
title  of  a  book  continued  from  page  to  page  on  the  upper 
margin — called  also  a  heading.  Running  goods,  to  im- 
port or  export  them  without  paying  duty ;  to  smuggle. 
To  run  his  letters,  in  Scots  law,  a  process  by  which  a 
prisoner,  by  giving  notice  to  the  authorities,  may  insist 
upon  being  brought  to  trial  within  90  or  100  days  after 
intimation. — Syn.  of  '  run,  v.':  to  move  quickly;  pass; 
rush ;  flee ;  emit ;  go  away ;  flow ;  stream ;  melt ;  fuse ; 
proceed ;  vanish ;  fall ;  pierce ;  stab ;  incur ;  push. 

RUNAGATE,  n.  run'a-gat  [Eng.  run,  and  OE.  gate,  a 
way :  Skeat  identifies  runagate  with  renegade,  which  see] : 
a  refugee ;  a  fugitive ;  an  apostate ;  a  renegade. 

RUNAWAY,  n.  run'd-wa  [run,  and  away]  :  a  fugitive ; 
one  who  flies  from  danger  or  restraint. 

RUNOINATE,  a.  run'si-ndt  [L.  rundndtus,  planed  off; 
runclnd,  a  large  saw]  :  in  hot.,  applied  to  a  leaf  toothed 
like  a  large  pit-saw,  having  large  marginal 
pivisions  directed  in  a  curved  and  serrated 
manner  toward  the  base,  as  the  dande- 
lion. 

RUNCORN,  rung'Uawrn :  thriving  mar- 
ket and  manufacturing  town  and  river- 
port  of  Cheshire,  England ;  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Mersey,  12  m.  s.e.  of  Liver- 
pool.    There  is  a  station  of  the  North- 
western railway  on  the  Lancashire  side 
of  the  river,  and  the  town  is  the  terminus 
for  the  Bridgewater  and  the  Mersey  and 
Rnncinate     Irwe11  canals.    It  is  a  free  port,  has  a  cus- 
Leaf.        tom-house,  and  contains  iron-foundries, 
soap  and  chemical  works,  ship-building 
yards,  etc. ;  and  in  the  vicinity  are  collieries,  and  slate 
and  freestone  quarries.    Large  quantities  of  freestone 
are  shipped  to  distant  ports.    2,861  vessels,  of  237,000 
tons,  entered  the  port  (1880).    Pop.  (1851)  8,049 ;  (1871) 
12,443;  (1881)  15,113;  (1891)  20,050. 

RUNDLE,n.  rund'l  [Ger.  rund,  circular:  Eng.  round]  : 
a  round ;  a  step  of  a  ladder. 

RUNDLET,  n.  rund'let,  or  Runlet,  n.  run'let  [a 
dim.  of  Eng.  round  :  OF.  rondele,  a  rundlet] :  a  small 
cask  or  barrel. 


iHTne. 

*"  RUNE,  n.  ron  [Goth,  runa,  a  mystery,  a  furrow  or 
line:  Iceh  run,  plu.  runir,  runic  letters:  Gael,  run,  a 
secret  or  mystery :  Ger.  raunen,  to  whisper :  AS.  run,  a 
magical  character] :  secret  alphabet  or  system  of  writ- 
ing; a  runic  letter  or  character.  Runes,  n.  plu.  ronz, 
runic  letters  or  poetry.  Runic,  a.  rd'nik,  pert,  to  the 
anc.  Goths,  or  their  language  and  letters  :  N.  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  of  the  anc.  Scandinavians,  principally 
formed  of  straight  lines ;  also,  the  language. — Runes  is 
the  term  for  the  earliest  alphabet  in  use  among  the 
Teutonic  and  Gothic  nations  of  n.  Europe.  The  exact 
period  of  the  origin  of  these  characters  is  not  known : 
their  original  use  seems  to  have  been  for  secret  purposes 
of  divination.  The  resemblance  which  some  of  the 
runic  characters  bear  to  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  and 
others  derived  from  it,  has  led  to  the 
supposition  that  they  were  introduced 
by  Phoenician  merchants  who  traded 
with  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic;  and 
while  the  mass  of  the  people  were  al- 
lowed to  know  but  little  of  them,  the 
priests  systematized  them,  and  re- 
tained full  knowledge  of  them  for  use 
in  establishing  reputation  for  superior 
power  and  intelligence.  Scandinavian 
Part  of  Runic  Cross  and-Anglo-Saxon  legends  agree  in  as- 
M&SSm^  Dum*cribing  the  invention  of  runic  writing 
to  Odin  or  Wodin.  The  countries  in 
which  traces  of  the  use  of  runes  exist  include  Denmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Iceland,  Germany,  Britain,  France,  and 
Spain ;  and  they  are  found  engraved  on  rocks,  crosses, 
monumental  stones,  coins,  medals,  rings,  brooches,  and 
the  hilts  and  blades  of  swords.  Runic  letters  were  often 
cut  also  on  smooth  sticks  called  run-stafas,  or  mysteri- 
ous staves,  and  used  for  divination.  But  there  is  no  rea- 
son to  believe  that  they  were  at  any  time  in  such  familiar 
use  as  are  the  characters  of  a  written  language  in  modern 
times,  nor  have  we  any  trace  of  their  use  in  books  or  cn 
parchment.  We  have  an  explanation  of  the  runic  alpha- 
bet in  various  MSS.  of  the  early  middle  ages  prior  to  the 
time  when  runes  had  altogether  ceased  to  be  understood. 

The  systems  of  runes  in  use  among  the  different  branch- 
es of  the  Teutonic  stock  were  not  identical,  though  their 
strong  family  likeness  shows  their  common  origin.  The 
letters  are  arranged  in  an  order  distinct  t'lom  that  of  any 
other  alphabetical  system,  and  have  a  purely  Teutonic 
nomenclature.  Each  letter  is,  as  in  the  Hebrew-Phoeni- 
cian, derived  from  the  name  of  some  well-known  familiar 
object,  with  whose  initial  letter  it  corresponds.  Runes, 
being  associated  in  the  popular  belief  with  augury  and  div- 
ination, were  generally  discouraged  by  the  early  Christian 
missionaries,  who  sought  to  supplant  them  by  Greek  and 
Roman  characters.  But  it  was  not  easy  suddenly  to  stop 
their  use  and  runes  are  traced  in  early  Christian  inscrip- 
tions—especially in  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  of  Norfch- 
umbria,  Mercia,  and  East  Anglia,  from  the  middle  of  the 
7th  to  the  middle  of  the  10th  c.    The  prevalence  of  runic 


RUNE. 

writing  in  this  district  has  been  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that,  after  the  death  of  Edwin  and  the  flight  of  St.  Pau- 
linus,  the  restoration  of  Christianity  in  Northumbria  was 
by  missionaries  of  the  Irish  school,  whose  predecessors 
had  adopted  the  policy,  not,  like  Augustine  and  his  breth- 
ren, of  destroying  the  monuments  of  pagan  antiquity,  but 
of  allowing  them  to  remain,  and  consecrating  them  by 
marking  them  with  the  symbols  of  Christianity.  Runes 
are  said  to  have  been  laid  aside  in  Sweden  at  1001,  and 
in  Spain  they  were  officially  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Toledo,  1115. 

The  different  systems  of  runes,  all  accordant  up  to  a  cer- 
tain point,  have  been  classed  as  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  Ger- 
man, and  the  Norse,  each  containing  different  subordi- 
nate varieties.  The  Norse  alphabet  is  generally  consid- 
ered the  oldest,  and  parent  of  the  rest.  It  has  16  letters, 
corresponding  to  our  /,  u,  th,  o,  r,  k,  h,  n,  i,  a,  s,  t,  b,  I,  m,  y> 
but  has  no  equivalent  for  various  sounds  which  existed  in 
the  language,  in  consequence  f  which  the  sound  of  A;  was 
used  for g,  d  for  t,  b  for  p,  and  u  and  y  iorv:  o  was  expressed 
by  aw,  and  e  by  ai,  i,  oria ;  and  the  same  letter  otherwise 
was  made  to  serve  for  more  than  one  sound.  Other  expe- 
dients, in  the  course  of  time,  were  employed  to  obviate 
the  deficiency  of  the  system,  e.g.,  addition  of  dots,  and 
adoption  of  new  characters.  But  the  runic  system  received 
fuller  development  among  the  Germans  and  Anglo-Sax- 
ons, particularly  the  latter,  whose  alphabet  was  ex- 
tended to  no  fewer  than  40  characters,  in  which  seem  to 
have  been  embraced,  more  nearly  than  in  any  modern 
alphabet,  the  actual  sounds  of  a  language.  Till  recently 
the  Norse  runes  had  been  most  studied ;  out  of  late  the 
Anglo-Saxon  have  received  considerable  attention.  The 
following  table  exhibits  the  best-known  forms  ol  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  German,  and  Norse  runic  alphabets,  with 
the  names  and  the  power  of  the  several  letters : 


Anglo-Saxon. 

German. 

Norse. 

f  feoh 

f 

f 

feh 

u  (short) 

n 

UUP 

^  thorn 

th 

> 

dorn 

f>  thurs 

F»  P  OS 

o  (short) 

oos 

rad 

r 

R 

rat 

ridr 

h  ea&n 

k 

h 

cen 

X  fawn 

X  gyfti 

g 

? 

gebo 
huun 

•  wen 

w 

h 

H 

hagal 

^  nyd 

r. 

t 

nod 

K  naud 

1  is 

i  (short) 

1 

lis 

i  ia 

4  Rear 

y  (cons.) 

t 

ger 

A  ar 

RUNE. 


Anglo  Saxon. 

German. 

Norsk. 

eon 

e  (long) 

I 

ih 

lie" 

peorth 

P 

J 

perd 

T 

eolhx 

X 

X 

el  »x 

h 

sigel 

« 

h 

sigi 

r 

tir 

t 

r 

ti 

1  tyr 

beorc 

b 

& 

borg 

£  hiarkar 

ri 

eh 

e  (short) 

eh 

M 

man 

m 

man 

1  madr 

^ 

lagu 

1 

r 

lago 

(•  laugi 

N  J? 

irg 

inc 

H 

dseg 

d 

tag 

ft* 

cethel 

o  (long) 

ft 

odil 

ac 

a  (long) 

ac 

asc 

a  (short) 

asc 

h 

yr 

y 

t 

yur 

i 

ear 

au 

r 

der 

icr 

id 

queorn 

Q 

calc 

st 

gar 

dzh 

z 

8 

r\ 
N 

vutt 

M 

TIs^  Anglo-Saxon  runes,  as  here  given,  are  from  a  vari- 
ety of  MS.  authorities,  the  most  complete  containing  40 
characters,  while  some  extend  as  far  only  as  the  25th  or 
28th  letter.  Neither  the  name  nor  the  power  of  some 
of  the  later  letters  is  thoroughly  known,  and  they  are 
without  any  equivalents  in  the  Norse  runic  system. 
The  German  runes  are  from  a  MS.  in  the  conventual 
library  of  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland.  Though  the  various 
runic  alphabets  are  not  alike  copious,  the  same  order  of 
succession  among  the  letters  is  preserved,  except  that, 
in  the  Norse,  iaugr  precedes  madr.  although  we  have 


RUNE. 

placed  them  otherwise  with  the  view  of  exhibiting  the 
correspondence  of  the  three  systems.  The  number  of 
characters  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  is  a  multiple  of 
the  sacred  number  eight;  and  we  have  the  evidence 
both  of  a  Swedish  bracteate  containing  24  characters, 
and  of  the  above-mentioned  St.  Gall  MS.,  that  there  was 
a  recognized  division  of  the  alphabet  into  classes  of 
eight  letters — a  classification  which  forms  the  basis  of  a 
system  of  secret  runes  noticed  in  that  MS.,  of  which 
runes  there  are  several  varieties  specified. 

The  best-known  inscriptions  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  runic 
are  those  on  two  gravestones  at  Hartlepool  in  North- 
umberland, on  a  cross  at  Bewcastle  in  Cumberland,  and 
on  another  cross  at  Ruthwell  in  Dumfriesshire.  The 
inscription  on  the  w.  side  of  Bewcastle  cross,  which  we 
give  as  a  specimen  of  Anglo-Saxon  runes,  is  a  memorial 
of  Alcfrid,  son  of  Oswiu,  who  was  associated  with  his 
father  in  the  govt,  of  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria,  7th  C. 

PifhriT  TFN 
ffTMIrlJh 

IWriWHMfl 

Runes. 

It  has  been  thus  deciphered  into  the  Anglo-Saxon  dialecf 
of  the  period : 

-(-  THIS  SIGBECUN 

SETT^  HWiETRED 

EM  GMHFM  BOLDU 

MFTMU  BAUM 

YMB  CYNING  ALCFRJM2 

GICEGiED  HEOSUM  SAWLUWL 
Or,  in  modern  English  : 

This  memorial 

Hweetred  set 

and  carved  this  monument 
after  the  prince 
after  the  king  Alcfrid, 
pray  for  their  souls. 


RUNG— RUNIC  STAFF. 

The  inscription  on  the  Ruthwell  cross,  after  being 
long  a  puzzle  to  antiquaries,  was  deciphered  1838  by 
John  M.  Kemble,  eminent  Anglo-Saxon  scholar.  It  is 
written  alternately  down  one  side  of  the  stone  and  up 
another,  and  contains  a  portion  of  a  poem  on  the  subject 
of  the  Crucifixion.  Kemble's  interpretation  received 
satisfactory  confirmation  by  the  discovery  of  a  more 
complete  copy  of  the  same  poem  in  a  MS.  vol.  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  homilies  at  Vercelli. 

D.  H.  Haigh,  whose  researches  have  added  much  to 
our  knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon  runes,  has  endeavored 
to  set  up  for  them  a  claim  of  priority  over  the  Norse 
characters :  his  arguments  are  worthy  of  consideration, 
but  can  scarcely  be  called  conclusive. 

The  Scandinavian  kingdoms  contain  numerous  runio 
monuments,  some  written  boustrophedon,  or  with  the 
lines  beginning  alternately  from  the  right  and  left ;  and 
there  are  many  interesting  inscriptions  on  Swedish  gold 
bracteates.  The  Celtic  races,  from  their  connection 
with  the  Scandinavians,  became  acquainted  with  their 
alphabet,  and  used  it  in  writing  their  own  language ; 
hence  in  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland,  and  in  the 
Isle  of  Man,  are  runic  inscriptions,  not  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  but  in  the  Norse  character,  with  a  few  peculiar- 
ities. 

We  find  the  Norse  runes  sometimes  denoting  numer- 
als, in  which  case  the  16  characters  stand  for  the  num- 
bers from  1  to  16. 

See  Planta's  essay,  On  the  Runic  or  Scandinavian 
Language;  W.  C.  Grimm,  Ueber  Deutsche  Runen;  Archce- 
ologia,  XXVIII. ;  Haigh's  Anglo-Saxon  Conquest  of  Brit- 
ain;  Dr.  D.  Wilson's  Prehistoric  Annals  of  Scotland;  the 
Danish  works  of  Worsaae  and  Wimmer. 

Runic  Knotwoek  is  a  term  often  applied  inaccurate- 
ly to  a  kind  of  interlaced  ornamentation  in  MSS.  and  on 
monuments  of  Anglo-Saxon,  Norman,  Scandinavian, 
Scoto-Irish,  and  Pictish  origin,  6th  to  12th  century. 

RUNG:  pp.  of  the  verb  Ring,  which  see. 

RUNG,  n.  rung  [Goth,  rugga,  a  staff:  Gael,  rong;  Icel. 
rong,  a  staff,  the  rib  of  a  boat :  Ger.  rungef  a  bolt] :  a 
staff ;  a  spoke ;  a  step  of  a  ladder ;  a  spar ;  a  floor-timber 
in  a  ship. 

RUNGPUR,  rung-por  :  British  dist.  of  India,  presi- 
dency of  Bengal ;  bounded  e.  by  the  Brahmaputra,  n.  by 
the  protected  state  of  Cush  Behar;  3,476  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1881)  2,097,964.  The  surface  is  so  low  that  a  large 
proportion  of  it  is  inundated  during  the  rains.  Indigo, 
for  whose  manufacture  there  are  numerous  large  fac- 
tories, is  the  great  export. 

RUNIC  STAFF,  n. :  willow  staff  inscribed  with  rune* 
used  in  magical  ceremonies  or  divinations. 


JRCJNJEET-SINGH — BUNK  LIB. 


KUNJEET-SINGH,  run-jZt' -sing,  Maharajah  of  th» 
Punjal  (g3nerally  described  by  English  writers  as  King 
of  Lahore) :  1780,  Nov.  2—1839,  June  27 ;  b.  Gugaran- 
walla.  His  father,  Maha-Singh,  was  sirdar  of  Sukur- 
Ohukeah,  one  of  the  12  missouls  or  military  organiza- 
tions of  the  Sikhs,  and  died  when  R.  was  about  12  years 
old,  leaving  a  full  treasury  -v^d  a  well-regulated  gov- 
ernment, in  the  hands  of  £us  widow.  When  B.  was 
about  17  years  old,  his  mother  died  suddenly ;  and  he 
assumed  the  government,  quickly  showing  an  over- 
whelming ambition,  and  unusual  capacity  in  policy  and 
address,  with  great  force  of  character.  In  1799  he  took 
possession  of  Lahore ;  and  1812,  having  compelled  all 
but  three  of  the  Punjab  sirdars  to  resign  their  authority, 
he  organized  the  whole  under  one  sovereignty,  and  pre* 
claimed  himself  rajah.  His  army  had  been  organized 
and  disciplined  after  European  fashion  by  English  offi- 
cers in  his  service,  so  that  the  wild  and  undisciplined 
troops  of  the  neighboring  states  had  no  chance  of  suc- 
cessfully opposing  him.  About  this  time  he  obtained 
from  one  of  the  dispossessed  rulers  of  Afghanistan  the 
celebrated  Koh-v-nUr  (q.v.),  as  the  price  of  his  assistance 
in  recovering  the  throne  of  Cabul.  In  1819  B.  annexed 
Cashmere,  and  assumed  the  title  maJiarajah.  In  1822 
he  took  into  his  service  Allard  and  Ventura,  two  French 
officers  who  formerly  served  under  Napoleon,  and  by 
their  aid  he  finished  the  reconstruction  of  his  army ;  and 
then  (1829)  wrested  from  the  Afghans  the  province  of 
Peshawar.  He  had  now  an  extens  territory,  peopled 
by  more  than  20,000,000,  and  a  well-trained  army  of 
70,000  men,  of  whom  36,000  were  infantry,  thoroughly 
disciplined.  Between  him  and  the  British  there  was 
always  mutual  distrust,  dissembled  on  both  sides  by 
show  of  extreme  cordiality.  B.  is  one  of  the  remark- 
able men  in  eastern  history.  He  was  totally  uneducated ; 
could  neither  read  nor  write;  yet  showed  indefatigable 
energy  in  administration,  with  a  clemency  rare  in  an 
Asiatic  despot.  See  English  Cyclopaedia ;  Cuvilier-Fleury, 
Notes  Historiques  swr  le  GSneral  Allard;  Revue  Britan- 
vique,  X.,  XIII.,  XXIII.,  XXVII. 

BUNKLE,  rungk'l,  John  Daniel,  ph.d.,  Lii.Do ; 
mathematician :  b.  Boot,  Montgomery  co.,  N.  Y.,  1822$ 
Oct.  11.  While  yet  a  student  in  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  of  Harvard  Coll.,  he  was  appointed  assistant  in 
the  preparation  of  the  Nautical  Almanac  1849 ;  he  con* 
fcinued  in  this  work  till  1884.  He  has  been  prof,  of 
mathematics  in  the  Mass.  Institute  of  Technology  since 
its  foundation  1865,  and  was  its  pres.  1870-78.  To  his  ef- 
forts principally  was  due  the  introduction  of  manual 
training  in  the  institute.  He  is  author  of  New  Tables 
for  Determining  the  Values  of  Coefficients  in  the  Perturba- 
tive  Function  of  Planetary  Motion  (1856) ;  Elements  of 
Plane  and  Solid  Analytic  Geometry  (1888) ;  and  of  many 
papers  on  manual  training  and  industrial  education. 


RUNLET — RUPEE. 
RUNLET:  se«  Rundlet. 

RUNLET,  n.  run'let  [see  Run]  :  a  little  stream;  £ 

rivulet. 

RUNNEL,  n.  run'nel  [see  Run]:  a  brook;  a  small 

stream. 

RUN'NER,  in  Botany:  long  slender  branch  proceed- 
ing from  a  lateral  bud  of  a  herbaceous  plant  with  very 
short  axis,  or,  in  popular  language,  without  stem.  It 
extends  along  the  ground  and  produces  buds  as  it  pro- 
ceeds, which  often  take  root  and  form  new  plants. 
Strawberries  afford  a  familiar  example.  Another  te 
found  in  Potentilla  anserina.  Runners  are  common  in 
the  genus  Ranunculus. 

RUNNER,  RUNNING:  see  under  Run. 

RUNNET :  see  Rennet  2. 

RUNNYMEDE,  or  Runnimede,  run'v-mZd:  long  green 
meadow,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  from  which 
it  is  partly  concealed  by  plantations  of  willows,  20  m. 
w.s.w.  of  London.  It  is  proposed  to  derive  the  name 
from  the  Sax.  rhynes,  water-brooks,  which  abound  in 
these  meadows ;  others  suppose  the  word  to  be  Running* 
mead,  referring  to  the  horse-races  which  appear  to  have 
been  held  here  from  time  immemorial,  and  which  still 
take  place  in  August.  R.  is  of  great  historical  interest, 
from  the  fact  that  Magna  Charta  was  signed  by  King 
John,  1215,  June  15,  either  on  this  meadow,  or  on  Char- 
ter Island,  a  short  distance  off  the  shore.  The  Great 
Charter  itself  professes  to  have  been  signed  per  manum 
nostram  in  prato  quod  vocatur  Runnimede.  See  Magna 
Charta. 

RUNRIG  LANDS,  n.  plu.  run'rig  lemdz:  in  Scot.9 
lands  where  the  alternate  ridges  of  a  field  belong  to  dif- 
ferent proprietors;  also,  lands  which  consist  not  of 
ridges  only,  but  of  alternate  portions  of  several  acres 
each. 

RUNT,  n.  runt  [Scot,  runt,  a  cabbage-stalk:  prov. 
Eng.  runt,  dead  stump  of  a  tree :  Ger.  rumpf,  a  trunk 
(see  Rump)]  :  an  old  Toman  or  withered  hag ;  a  poor, 
lean,  and  sorry  animal  Delow  the  usual  size. 

RUPEE,  n.  ro-pe  [Hind,  rupiya,  a  rupee] :  an  East 
Indian  current  silver  coin  valued  about  2s.  sterling 
(about  50  cents).  The  coin  bearing  the  name  R.  was 
struck  first  by  Shir  Shah,  and  was  adopted  by  Akbar 
and  his  successors ;  it  was  of  the  weight  of  175  grains 
troy,  and  was  considered  to  be  pure ;  but  in  the  decline 
of  the  Mohammedan  empire  every  petty  chief  coinod 
his  own  rupee,  varying  in  weight  and  value.  After  many 
variations,  the  coinage  of  the  E.  India  Company  was 
entirely  remodelled  1835,  and  a  coin,  thenceforth  termed 
the  company's  R.,  with  its  proportionate  sub-divisions, 
was  struck  to  replace  all  former  currencies,  being  of  the 
same  weight  and  fineness  throughout,  and  bearing  in- 
scriptions in  English,  or  in  English  and  Persian,  with 
the  sovereign's  head.    A.  lac  (lakh)  of  rupees  is  100,000, 


RUPERT. 


ana,  with  the  rupee  at  2s.  (50  cents),  would  fee  worth 
£10,000  ($50,000).  A  crore  of  rupees,  10,000,000,  is  ac- 
cordingly worth  from  £1,000,000  to  less  than  £800,000 
($5,000,000  to  less  than  $4,000,000),  according  to  the 
price  of  silver. 

The  recent  depreciation  in  the  value  of  silver  has  se- 
riously affected  Indian  finances  and  Indian  commerce,  as 
well  as  the  trade  of  the  world.  The  R.  has  still  the 
purchasing  power  of  2s.  (50  cents)  in  India ;  but  in  Eng- 
land its  market  value  had  in  1885  fallen  to  Is.  Id.  (about 
39  cents).  As  the  govt,  of  India  has  yearly  to  send  to 
England  about  15  millions  of  pounds,  gold  value,  the 
heavy  loss  is  apparent. — The  R.  is  current  not  in  India 
only,  but  also  in  the  islands  of  the  E.  Archipelago  and 
various  districts  bordering  on  India. 

RUPERT,  To'pevt,  Prince  of  Bavaria :  1619,  Dec.  18— 
1682,  Nov.  29 ;  b.  Prague ;  third  son  of  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine Frederick  V.,  and  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I. 
of  England.    He  studied  at  the  Univ.  of  Leyden.  He 
fought  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  against  the  impe- 
rialists, but  was  a  prisoner  of  war  1638-42.    He  then 
retired  to  England,  where  he  received  from  his  uncle, 
Charles  I.  of  England,  a  commission  to  command  a  regt, 
of  horse  at  Worcester  against  the  parliamentarians, 
The  impetuosity  with  which  he  charged  the  enemy 
there,  and  in  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  would  have  done 
more  service  to  the  royalists  had  not  his  rashness  in 
pursuing  the  wavering  foe  nearly  counteracted  the  ad- 
vantages which  he  had  gained.    Subsequently,  at  Chal- 
grove,  Newark,  and  Newbury,  he  was  more  successful ; 
but  his  lack  of  patience,  his  petulant  disregard  of  orders, 
and  his  hasty  retreat  from  the  field  of  battle  at  Marston 
Moor,  resulted  in  consequences   most  disastrous  to 
the  royalist  fortunes.    His  conduct  at  Naseby,  and  his 
hasty  surrender  of  the  city  of  Bristol,  irritated  the  king, 
who  forthwith  deprived  him  of  his  command,  and  re 
quested  him  to  leave  England  without  delay.    He  went 
to  France  and  fought  in  the  French  service.    In  1648, 
however,  he  was  recalled  to  England,  and  appointed  to 
command  the  royal  fleet.    In  this  new  vocation  he  ac- 
quitted himself  better;  till,  1651,  the  great  parliament- 
arian Admiral  Blake  attacked  the  prince's  squadron, 
i  and  burned  or  sunk  most  of  his  ships.    With  the  few 
vessels  remaining  to  him,  R.  escaped  to  the  W.  Indies, 
where  with  his  brother  Maurice  he  led  a  buccaneering 
life,  maintaining  himself  and  his  men  by  seizing  English 
and  other  merchantmen.    After  a  few  years  R.  eluded 
the  vigilance  of  Cromwell's  captains,  and  made. his  way 
to  France,  where  he  remained  till  the  restoration  of  his 
cousin,  Charles   II.    R.  served  with   distinction  under 
the  D  ike  of  York,  and  in  concert  with  the  Earl  of  Al- 
bemarle, against  the  Dutch,  and  died  in  possession  of 
various  offices  and  dignities,  being  a  privy  councilor,  a 
member  of  the  admiralty,  gov.  of  Windsor  Castle,  etc. 
R.  was  always  a  stanch  Protestant  ;  but  shared  in  the 
immorality  of  Charles's  court.    His  last  ten  years  were 


RUPERT  S  DROP— RUPIA. 

spent  in  retirement  in  chemical,  mechanical,  and  physl* 
cal  researches.  He  improved  the  mechanical  mode  of 
engraving  in  mezzotinto.  The  glass  bead  known  as 
Prince  Rupert's  Drop  (q.v.)  was  named  from  him. 

RU  PERT'S  DROP:  see  Prince  Rupert's  Drops. 

RU'PERT'S  LAND  :  named  from  Prince  Rupert  (q.v.), 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company: 
formerly  the  official  designation  of  the  extensive  tract 
which  forms  the  basin  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  Strait; 
bounded  n.,  s.,  and  e.  by  the  watersheds  of  the  Arctic, 
At.  Lawrence,  and  Atlantic  rivers.  The  w.  boundary  is 
from  Deer  Lake  to  a  point  a  little  w.  of  the  Red  River 
Settlement  (q.v.).  In  1870  the  territory  held  by  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  admitted  into  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  a  portion  of  R.  L.  falling  within  the  province 
of  Manitoba.  The  whole  of  the  vast  territory  known 
as  R.  L.  slopes  inward  toward  Hudson's  Bay,  and  is 
well  supplied  with  navigable  rivers.  The  mountains  of 
this  region,  chiefly  on  the  boundaries,  are  of  primitive 
rook,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  country  is  densely 
wooded.  The  soil  is  rich,  but  the  severity  of  the  cli- 
mate— which  is  also  very  variable  in  summer  and 
autumn — mostly  prevents  cultivation  of  the  cereals  and 
other  alimentary  plants ;  in  fact,  they  are  planted  only 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  trading  posts  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  (q.v.)  and  in  the  agricultural  settlement 
on  Red  river,  in  the  s.w.  In  the  n.,  the  vegetation  and 
climate  are  those  of  the  polar  regions.  The  chief  de- 
pendence of  the  inhabitants  of  R.  L.  for  food  and  cloth- 
ing is  on  the  animal  kingdom,  here  abundantly  repre- 
sented. Beavers  are  still  found;  and  bears,  otters, 
martens,  and  musk-rats  are  plentiful,  their  skins  forming 
the  chief  commercial  product  of  the  country.  There  are 
also  abundance  of  foxes  of  various  colors,  bears,  wolves, 
Canadian  lynxes,  etc.  Among  animals  used  for  food 
are  the  wapiti,  reindeer,  moose,  and  other  species  of 
deer ;  the  musk-ox,  hares,  and  an  immense  variety  of 
wood-fowl  and  other  birds.  The  numerous  rivers  and 
lakes  are  abundantly  stocked  with  fish.  The  population, 
Which  is  scanty,  is  composed  of  British  or  Canadians, 
Und  aboriginal  tribes. 

RU  PIA,  n.  ropl-a  [Gr.  rhupos,  dirt]  :  eruption  of  the 
skin,  characterized  by  flattish,  distinct  bullae  or  blebs, 
containing  a  serous,  purulent,  or  sanious  fluid,  which 
become  changed  into  thick  scabs.  Several  varieties  of 
R.  have  been  established  by  dermatologists  In  its 
simplest  form,  the  blebs  are  not  preceded  by  inflamma- 
tory symptoms,  are  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  con- 
tain a  fluid  which  is  originally  thin  and  transparent,  but 
soon  thickens,  becomes  puruient,  and  dries  into  brown 
ragged  scabs,  elevated  in  the  centre.  The  scabs  are 
easily  separated,  and  leave  ulcerated  surfaces,  on  which 
several  successive  scabs  usually  form  before  healing.  In 
a  severer  form,  &  prominens,  the  scab  projects  so  much 
in  the  centre  as  to  esemble  a  limpet-shell  in  form. 


RUPICOLA-POJRAL. 

R.  is  a  chronic  disease,  usually  limited  to  the  limbs, 
the  loins,  and  the  nates.  It  is  not  contagious,  and  gen- 
erally attacks  persons  debilitated  by  old  age,  intemper- 
ance, bad  living,  or  previous  diseases,  especially  small- 
pox, scarlatina,  and  syphilis.  The  general  treatment 
consists  mainly  in  administration  of  tonics,  such  as 
quinia,  the  mineral  acids,  ale,  wine,  animal  food,  etc. 
Some  writers  recommend  tincture  of  serpentaria ;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  certain  cases  which  will  not  yield 
to  tonics  rapidly  improve  when  treated  with  iodide  of 
potassium.  The  local  treatment  consists  in  puncturing 
the  blebs  as  soon  as  they  arise,  in  removing  the  sc^.b& 
by  poulticing,  and  in  applying  a  slightly  stimulating  ap- 
plication— e.g.,  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver — to  the  sub- 
jacent ulcers.  The  disease  is  frequently  tedious  and 
obstinate,  but  the  patient  almost  always  recovers. 

RUPICOLA,  n.  ro-pWo-la  [L.  rupes,  a  rock;  colo,  I 
inhabit] :  genus  of  insessorial  birds  called  rock  mana- 
kins  or  cocks  of  the  rock ;  type  of  Rupicolince,  a  sub. 
family  of  Pipridce.  The  species  are  remarkable  for  pos- 
sessing an  elevated  crest  of  feathers  on  the  head,  and 
for  the  extreme  freshness  and  delicacy  of  the  color  of 
their  plumage  The  adult  males  are  of  splendid  orange 
color. 

RUPPIN,  Neu,  noy  rup'pen:  town  of  Prussia,  prov- 
ince of  Brandenburg,  on  a  small  lake  of  the  same  name, 
which  communicates  with  the  Elbe ;  38  m.  n.  of  Pots- 
dam. It  contains  a  castle  and  a  lunatic  asylum.  The 
people  are  engaged  in  brewing,  spinning,  and  manufact* 
ure  of  linen  and  woolen  cloths.    Pop.  (1885)  14,677. 

RUPTURE,  n.  rup'tur  or  -chur  [F.  rupture,  a  rupture 
— from  L.  ruptus,  burst,  rent;  rumpere,  to  break]  :  act 
of  breaking ;  state  of  being  broken  or  violently  parted ; 
a  fracture ;  a  breach  of  peace ;  open  hostility ;  a  tumor 
caused  by  the  protrusion  of  a  part  of  the  bowels;  Hernia 
(q.v.):  V.  to  part  by  violence;  to  burst;  to  suffer  a 
breach  or  disruption.  R  up' Turing,  imp. :  N.  in  hot.,  an 
irregular  manner  of  bursting.  Rup'tured,  pp.  -turd 
Rupture-wort,  n.  a  British  plant,  the  Herniaria  glabra, 
ord.  Elecebracem.—SYTX.  of  *  rupture,  n.' :  breach;  fract- 
ure ;  disruption ;  burst ;  dissolution. 

RURAL,  a.  roral  [F.  rural,  rural — from  L.  rur&lia, 
belonging  to  the  country — from  rus,  the  country :  It. 
rutratel :  pert,  to  the  country,  as  distinguished  from  the 
city  or  town;  pert,  to  farming.  Rurally,  ad.  -U. 
Ru'ralness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  rural. 
Ru'ralize,  v.  -iz,  to  ramble  in  the  country;  to  lead  a 
country  life.  Ruralizing,  imp.  -zing.  Ruralized, 
pp.  -izd.  Ru'ralist,  n.  -1st,  one  who  leads  a  rural  life. 
Rural  dean,  official,  ordinarily  a  beneficed  clergyman, 
appointed  in  an  episcopal  diocese,  for  a  district  called  a 
deanery,  to  supervise  church  edifices  and  furniture, 
glebe  houses,  schools,  appliances  of  public  worship,  etc. 
— reporting  to  tho  bishop.  Ruri-decanal,  a.  r$vV 
dek'a-nal  [see  Decanal]  :  pert,  to  a  rural  dean. 


RURIK— RUSA. 

l.URIK,  rd'rik:  considered  the  founder  of  the  Rus- 
sian monarchy :  died  879.  According  to  most  authors, 
he  was  a  *  Varangian  '  (Varangians  =  Normans  of  the 
Baltic  coast)  of  Scandinavian  origin^  invited  by  the 
Slaves  of  Novgorod  to  come  and  rule  over  them ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  he  was  chief  of  a  tribe  of  Norse  colonists 
near  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and,  after  a  long  contest,  sub- 
dued the  northern  Slaves  and  neighboring  tribes  of  Finns; 
while  Kostomarof  attempts  to  prove  him  a  Lithuanian. 
That  hi  was  either  a  Scandinavian  or  of  Scandinavian 
origin,  there  seems  very  little  doubt ;  and  it  is  as  gener- 
ally maintained  that,  accompanied  by  his  brothers, 
Sindf  (Sineus)  and  Truvor,  he,  at  the  head  of  a  small 
army,  took  possession  of  the  country  s.  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  Lakes  Ladoga,  Onega,  and  Bieloe  861  or  2,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  monarchy.  His  brothers  after- 
ward settled,  one  at  Bielo-Ozero,  the  other  at  Isborsk ; 
but  dying  without  issue,  their  principalities  were  united 
to  Novgorod  by  Rurik.  Novgorod  was  made  the  seat 
of  govt.  864  or  865,  and  the  various  insurrections  of  his 
Slavic  subjects  were  quenched  in  blood — Vadim,  their 
leader,  whose  valor  is  celebrated  by  the  ancient  chron- 
iclers, perishing  by  R.'s  own  hand.  To  secure  himself 
and  his  descendants  in  their  newly  acquired  territory, 
R.  invited  various  colonies  of  Varangians  to  settle  in 
the  country.  During  his  reign,  some  of  the  Varangians 
attempted  a  land  expedition  against  Constantinople,  but, 
renouncing  the  scheme,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Dnieper,  and  founded  the  little  state  of  Kiev.  The  fam- 
ily of  R.  reigned  in  Russia  till  the  death,  1598,  of  Feo- 
dor,  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  when,  after  a  brief  intes- 
tine contest,  it  was  succeeded  by  the  nearly  allied  House 
of  Romanoff  (q.v.).  Many  noble  families  of  Russia  are 
descended  in  the  male  line  from  R. ;  and  the  princes  of 
Romodanofski-Ladyshenski  are  descendants  in  the  fe- 
male line. — See  Prof.  Thomsen's  Lectures  on  this  sub- 
ject (1878). 

RUSA,  rd'za :  genus  of  Cervidcz,  or  sub-genus  of  Cervus 
(see  Deer),  containing  a  number  of  species  of  deer, 
natives  of  the  forests  of  the  E.  Indies ;  which  may  be 
described  as  stags  with  round  antlers,  a  snag  project- 
ing in  front  just  above  the  base  of  each,  and  the  top 
forked,  but  the  antlers  not  otherwise  branched.  They 
are  generally  of  large  size,  and  among  them  are  some 
of  the  finest  kinds  of  Asiatic  deer.  The  Great  R.  (R. 
Hippelaphus)  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Hippelaphus 
of  Aristotle ;  but  his  description  is  not  complete  enough 
to  identify  the  species :  it  is  a  native  of  Java,  Sumatra, 
etc.,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  stag,  with  brown 
rough  hair,  the  neck  with  a  long  mane. — The  Sambur 
or  Samboo  (R.  Aristotelis)  of  India  is  a  similarly  large 
and  powerful  animal,  and  no  Indian  deer  is  more  sought 
by  European  sportsmen.  It  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
also  the  Hippelaphus  of  Aristotle.  The  color  is  sooty 
brown,  and  the  male  has  a  mane.    It  is  solitary  in  its 


RUSCHENBERGER— RUSH. 

habits,  and  delights  in  low  forests  where  water  abound*. 
—The  Axis  (q.v.)  is  very  nearly  allied  to  this  genus. 


Sambur  (Rusa  Aristotelian . 


BUSCHENBERGER,  rd' shen-ber-ger,  WmLiAMS.  W. : 
naval  surgeon :  b.  Cumberland  co.,  N.  J.,  1807,  Sep. 
4.  He  graduated  from  the  medical  dept.  of  the  Univ. 
of  Pennsylvania  1830 ;  the  following  year  was  commis- 
sioned surgeon  in  the  U.  S.  navy ;  served  in  the  E.  In- 
dia squadron,  at  Philadelphia,  and  in  the  hospital  at 
Brooklyn;  was  again  in  the  E.  Indies,  and  afterward 
with  the  Pacific  and  the  Mediterranean  squadrons.  In 
the  civil  war  he  was  at  the  navy-yard  in  Boston,  was 
afterward  on  duty  at  Philadelphia,  was  retired  1869, 
Sep.  4,  and  became  med.  director  on  the  retired  list 
1871,  Mar.  3.  He  has  been  pres.  of  the  Acad,  of  Natural 
Sciences  in  Philadelphia,  and  has  published  valuable 
works  on  the  natural  sciences. 

RUS'CUS:  see  Butcheks'  Broom. 

RUSE,  n.  roz  or  ros  [F.  ruse,  cunning— from  ruser,  to 
use  artifice,  formerly  a  hunting  term  for  the  doubles 
of  a  hare  in  its  attempts  to  escape  the  dogs — from  L. 
recusare,  to  reject] :  means  employed  to  deceive ;  a  little 
artifice  or  stratagem  ;  a  clever  trick  or  stratagem. 

RUSH,  v.  rush  [Ger.  rauschen,  to  rustle,  to  whisper, 
as  the  wind  among  bushes,  to  move  swiftly:  Dut. 
yuysschen,  to  roar,  to  groan :  Norw.  rusk,  noise,  rattle] : 
to  tumble  down  with  rapidity,  as  a  stream ;  to  move 
with  force  or  violence ;  to  enter  with  undue  haste  or 
eagerness :  N.  a  violent  motion  or  course ;  a  driving 
forward  with  eagerness  and  haste.  Rushing,  imp. : 
Adj.  moving  with  impetuosity:  N.  a  violent  driving 
of  anything ;  rapid  course.  Rushed,  pp.ru&ht.  Rush  EB, 
a,  -dr,  one  who,  or  that  which,  rushes. 


EUSH. 

RUSH,  n.  rush  [AS.  risce;  Dut.  and  Ger.  rusch;  Gael. 
ras,  a  rush — the  rush  being  probably  so  called  from  its 
whispering  sound  when  moved  by  the  windj :  a  plant 
of  many  species  growing  on  wet  ground ;  the  Juncus 
glaucus  or  hard  rush,  the  J.  effusus  or  soft  rush,  and  the 
J.  conglom  erdtus  or  hollow  rush,  ord.  Juncdcece,  are  used 
for  mats  and  chair-bottoms.  Rush-like,  a.  like  a  rush: 
weak.  Rushed,  a.  rusht,  covered  with  or  made  of 
rushes.  Rushy,  a.  rush'l,  abounding  with  rushes. 
Rush'iness,  n.  -nes,  the  state  of  abounding  with  rushes. 
Rush-bottomed,  a.  having  a  bottom  made  of  rushes. 
Rush-eight,  or  candle,  a  night-light  having  a  wick  of 
rush-pith.  Not  woeth  a  rush,  worthless  or  of  little 
value. 

RUSH  (Juncus) :  genus  of  plants  of  nat.  ord.  Juncacece, 
having  a  glume-like  (not  colored)  perianth,  smooth  fila- 
ments, and  a  many-seeded,  generally  3-celled  capsule. 
The  species  are  numerous,  mostly  natives  of  wet  or 
marshy  places  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  world ;  some 
are  found  in  tropical  regions.  Some  are  absolutely  des- 
titute of  leaves,  but  have  barren  scapes  (flower-stems) 
resembling  leaves ;  some  have  leafy  stems,  the  leaves 
rounded  or  somewhat  compressed,  and  usually  jointed 
internally ;  some  have  plane  or  grooved  leaves  on  the 
stems ;  some  have  very  narrow  leaves,  all  from  the  root. 
The  name  R.  perhaps  properly  belongs  to  those  which 
have  no  proper  leaves,  of  which  we  have  several  spe- 
cies. The  Common  R.  (J.  effusus)  has  round  stems, 
bearing  or  not  bearing  small  lateral  heads  of  flowers, 
and  popularly  known  as  Rushes,  used  for  plaiting 
into  mats,  chair-bottoms,  toy  baskets,  etc.  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  Japan  for  making  mats.  In  ruder  times, 
when  carpets  were  little  known,  rushes  were  much  used 
for  covering  the  floors  of  rooms ;  to  which  many  allu- 
sions are  in  early  English  writers.  The  stems  of  the  true 
rushes  contain  a  large  pith  or  soft  central  substance, 
sometimes  used  for  wicks  of  candles.  There  are  14 
species  described  in  Gray's  Manual,  including,  besides 
the  Leafless  R.,  6  Grassy-leaved  and  4  Knotty-leaved. 
The  Wood  R.,  with  1-celled  pod  and  soft-hairy  stem  and 
leaves,  is  of  the  genus  Luzula,  L.  pilosa  having  chestnut- 
brown  umbels,  and  L.  canypestris  light-brown.  Rushes 
are  often  very  troublesome  weeds  to  the  farmer.  Thor- 
ough drainage  is  the  best  means  for  riddance  of  them. 
Lime,  dry  ashes,  road  scrapings,  etc.,  also  are  useful. 
Tufts  of  rushes  in  pasture  are  a  sure  sign  of  insufficient 
drainage.  Many  marshy  and  boggy  places  abound  in 
some  of  the  species  having  leafy  stems  and  the  leaves 
jointed  internally,  popularly  called  Sprots  or  Sprits  in 
England.  They  afford  very  little  nourishment  to  cattle ; 
but  are  useful  for  making  coarse  ropes  for  ricks,  etc., 
stronger  than  those  made  of  hay. 


RUSH. 


RUSH,  Benjamin,  m.d.  :  physician :  1745,  Dec,  24 — 
1813,  Apr.  19 ;  b.  near  Philadelphia ;  grandson  of  a  Qua- 
ker follower  of  William  Penn.  He  was  educated  at 
Princeton  College ;  studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia, 
London,  Edinburgh,  and  Paris;  and  1769  was  made 
prof,  of  chemistry  in  the  Philadelphia  Med.  College, 
and  became  a  contributor  to  medical  literature.  Elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  continental  congress,  he  advocated 
and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1777 
he  was  appointed  surgeon-gen.  and  physician-gen.  of  the 
continental  army.  His  duties  did  not  prevent  him  from 
writing  a  series  of  letters  on  the  constitution  of  Penn- 
sylvania, which  was  changed  by  his  influence.  He  re- 
signed his  post  in  the  army,  because  he  could  not  pre- 
vent frauds  on  soldiers  in  relation  to  hospital  stores. 
In  1785  he  planned  the  Philadelphia  Dispensary,  first  in 
the  United  States ;  and  was  a  member  of  the  convention 
which  ratified  the  federal  constitution.  Retiring  from 
politics,  he  became  prof,  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  in  the  Philadelphia  Med.  College ;  and  was  so 
successful  in  treatment  of  yellow  fever,  1793,  that  he 
was  believed  to  have  saved  the  lives  of  6,000  persons. 
His  practice,  in  consequence,  became  so  large  that  he 
prescribed  for  100  patients  a  day,  whom  he  saw  even  at 
his  meals.  After  his  prosperity  began,  he  gave  one- 
seventh  of  his  income  in  charity.  Virulently  attacked 
by  Cobbett,  who  published  a  newspaper  in  Philadelphia, 
he  prosecuted  him  for  a  libel,  and  recovered  $5,000  dam- 
ages. His  medical  works  brought  him  honors  from  sev- 
eral European  sovereigns :  the  chief  were  Medical  In- 
quiries and  Observations,  Diseases  of  the  Mind,  Medical 
Tracts,  Health,  Temperance,  and  Exercise.  In  1779  he 
was  appointed  treasurer  of  the  U.  S.  mint,  which  post 
he  held  until  his  death  in  Philadelphia. 

RUSH,  Richard:  statesman:  1780,  Aug.  29—1859, 
July  30 ;  b.  Philadelphia ;  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin  R.  He 
graduated  from  Princeton  College  1797,  and  after  study- 
ing law  was  admitted  to  practice  1800.  He  was  ap- 
pointed atty.gen.  of  Penn.  1811,  and  in  the  same  year 
became  comptroller  of  the  U.  S.  treasury;  was  U.  S. 
atty.gen.  1814-17,  and  acting  sec.  of  state  part  of  the 
latter  year;  minister  to  England  1817-25,  sec.  of  the 
U.  S.  treasury  1825-29,  and  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  vice-presidency  1828.  He  was  appointed  by 
Pres.  Jackson  to  represent  the  govt,  in  the  claim  of  the 
United  States  to  the  legacy  of  James  Smithson,  of  Eng- 
land, and  was  minister  to  France  1847-49.  While  in 
England  he  negotiated  the  n.e.  boundary,  and  other 
important  treaties.  He  published  Narrative  of  a  Resi- 
dence at  the  Court  of  London  from  1817  to  1825  (2  vols.), 
and  Washington  in  Domestic  Life  (1857).  After  his  death 
his  sons  published  a  vol.  of  his  Occasional  Productions. 
—His  bro.,  James  R.,  m.d.  (1786-1869;  b.  Philadel- 
phia), graduated  from  Princeton  College  1805,  studied 
medicine,  and  practiced  in  his  native  city.     He  left 


RUSH-NUT-^-RUSK. 

about  $1,000,000  to  found  the  Ridgway  Branch  of  the 
Philadelphia  Library,  named  in  honor  of  his  wife,  from 
whom  he  received  a  fortune ;  but  he  imposed  such  pe- 
culiar conditions  that  his  gift  has  been  of  little  benefit. 
He  published  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice  (1827) ; 
Analysis  of  the  Human  Intellect,  2  vols.  (1865) ;  and  other 
works. 

RUSH-NUT :  see  Cypekus. 

RUSHWORTH,  rush'werth,  John:  1607-90;  b.  North- 
umberland, of  anc.  family:  English  compiler,  whose 
work  entitled  Historical  Collections  of  Private  Passages 
of  State,  Weighty  Matters  in  Law,  and  Remarkable  Pro- 
ceedings in  Parliament,  is  a  most  important  contribution 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  civil  war  in  the  time  of  Charles 
I.,  and  of  the  events  that  led  to  it.  He  studied  for  a 
time  at  Oxford,  and  settled  in  London  as  a  barrister. 
He  appears  to  have  used  his  time,  for  many  years,  in 
attending  the  star  chamber,  the  court  of  honor,  the 
exchequer  chamber,  parliament,  etc.,  and  in  taking 
shorthand  notes  of  the  proceedings.  When  the  Long 
Parliament  met  1G40,  R.  was  appointed  assistant  clerk 
of  the  house  of  commons.  He  sat  in  parliament  as 
member  for  Berwick ;  was  sec.  to  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax 
1645,  and  to  the  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  1677. 
In  1684,  when  he  had  reached  the  age  of  77,  he  was  ar- 
rested for  debt,  and  imprisoned  in  the  King's  Bench, 
where  he  died.  In  his  later  years,  he  became  mentally 
infirm  through  excess  in  drink.  R.'s  Historical  Collec- 
tions cover  the  period  1618-48,  and  were  published  in 
four  instalments — 1659,  80,  92,  and  1701 ;  republished 
1721  in  7  vols.  The  work  is  of  extreme  value;  but,  not 
being  impartial,  it  requires  some  caution  in  the  use. 

JIUSK,  n.  rusk  [Sp.  rosea,  a  roll  of  bread:  origin 
unknown] :  bread  or  cake  sliced  and  exposed  in  a  slow 
oven  until  of  a  pale-brown  color,  i;  ed  as  food  for  in- 
fants and  invalids;  a  small  light  cake. 

RUSK,  Jeremiah  McLain  :  1830,  Ju  ne  17—1893,  Nov.  21 : 
agriculturist;  b.  Morgan  co.,  O.  He  was  brought  up  as  a 
farm  hand  and  stage-driver;  removed  to  Vernon  co.,  Wis., 
and  engaged  in  farming  1853;  became  sheriff  of  the  co. ; 
entered  the  union  army  as  maj.  of  the  25th  Wis.  inf.  1862; 
served  to  the  close  of  the  war  and  was  brevetted  brig.gen. 
1865;  *vas  comptroller  of  Wis.  1866-70;  and  was  elected 
member'  of  congress  as  a  republican  1870,  72,  and  74, 
and  gov  of  Wis.  1882,  84,  and  86.  He  declined  sev- 
eral pubUc?  offices  tendered  him  by  Pres.  Garfield, 
and  in  188&  was  appointed  by  Pres.  Harrison  sec. 
of  the  daw  d#vp*>.  (previously  bureau)  of  agriculture. 
Vol.  32  —  20 


s 


RUSKIN. 

RUSKIN,  rus'kin,  John,  ll.  d.  :  English  art-critic, 
author,  and  earnest  preacher  of  righteousness;  1819, 
Feb.  8 — 1900,  Jan.  20;  b.  London.  He  was  educated  in 
the  house  of  his  father,  a  wealthy  wine-merchant,  in  or 
near  London,  till  he  went,  as  a  gentleman-commoner 
of  Christ-Church,  to  Oxford.  There  he  gained  the 
Newdigate  prize  for  English  poetry — by  a  poem  on 
Salsette  and  Elephanta — 1839,  and  took  his  degree  1842. 
He  studied  painting  under  Copley  Fielding  and  Hard- 
ing. In  1843  appeared  vol.  i.  of  his  Modem  Painters, 
whose  primary  design  was  to  prove  the  superiority  of 
modern  landscape-painters,  especially  Turner,  to  the 
ancient  masters;  but  in  the  later  vols,  (v.,  the  last, 
pub.  1860),  the  work  expanded  into  a  vast  discursive 
treatise  on  the  principles  of  art,  interspersed  with  ar- 
tistic and  symbolical  descriptions  of  nature,  more  elab- 
orate and  imaginative  than  any  writer,  prose  or  poetic, 
had  ever  before  attempted.  Modern  Painters  was  essen- 
tially revolutionary  in  spirit  and  aim,  many  of  the  most 
distinguished  landscape-painters,  both  of  old  and  of  new 
schools,  being  summarily  dealt  with  and  condemned; 
and  the  work  naturally  excited  the  hostility  of  the  con- 
servatives in  art.  But  the  unequalled  splendor  of  its 
style  gave  it  a  place  in  literature;  the  originality  of  its 
views,  the  lofty  conception  of  the  painter's  art  displayed 
in  it,  and  the  evident  justness  of  at  least  large  portions 
of  the  criticism,  secured  recognition.  Disciples  soon 
appeared;  and  the  views  of  art  enunciated  by  R.  grad- 
ually made  way,  and  have  largely  determined  the  course 
of  later  English  art.  (Vol.  i.  was  pub.,  much  altered, 
1846.  The  last  three  vols,  contained  illustrations  by  the 
author.  A  revised  and  altered  ed.  appeared  1860-67; 
another  1873,  when  the  plates  of  the  illustrations  were 
destroyed;  a  later  edition  compressed  has  no  plates.) 
In  1849  appeared  The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture; 
and  1851-53  The  Stones  of  Venice,  both  being  efforts  to 
introduce  a  new  and  loftier  conception  of  the  significance 
of  domestic  architecture.  They  were  exquisitely  illus- 
trated by  the  author  himself. 

About  this  time,  Pre-Raphaelitism  began  to  develop 
itself  as  a  distinctive  phase  of  modern  art,  and  Ruskin 
warmly  espoused  its  cause  (1855-60).  Pre-Raphaelitism 
denotes  the  style  of  the  chief  painters  before  Raphael, 
such  especially  as  Giotto  and  Fra  Angelico;  but  it  is 
most  frequently  applied  to  the  revival  in  England  of  a 
similar  style  in  the  works  of  the  '  Pre-Raphaelite 
Brotherhood,'  comprising  Millais,  Holman  Hunt,  and 
Gabriel  Dante  Rossetti.  Their  principles  harmonize 
with  those  of  R.,  and  he  became  their  most  earnest  and 
powerful  advocate.  According  to  R.,  '  Pre-Raphaelitism 
has  but  one  principle,  that  of  uncompromising  truth  in 
all  that  it  does,  obtained  by  working  everything,  down 
to  the  most  minute  detail,  from  nature  and  nature 


RUSKIN. 

only.  Every  Pre-Raphaelite  back-ground  is  painted  to 
the  last  touch  in  the  open  air,  from  the  thing  itself. 
Even  a  Pre-Raphaelite  figure,  however  studied  in  ex- 
pression, is  a  true  portrait  of  some  living  person.  Every 
minute  accessory  is  painted  in  the  same  manner/  The 
earnestness  of  the  men  of  the  13th  and  14th  c,  and 
their  deep  religious  feeling,  as  also  their  true  imagina- 
tive power,  further  commended  their  system  of  painting. 

In  1854  he  published  four  admirable  and  suggestive 
Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting;  and  1858  two 
Lectures  on  the  Political  Economy  of  Art.  The  Notes 
on  the  Construction  of  Sheepfolds  (1851),  dealing  with 
the  discipline  of  the  church,  illustrates  his  ingenuity  in 
devising  picturesque  titles  that  suggest  no  notion  of  the 
subject  treated.  The  King  of  the  Golden  River,  a  fairy 
story,  was  published  1851;  and  1854  The  Two  Paths, 
lectures  on  art  and  its  application  to  decoration  and 
manufacture.  The  Elements  of  Drawing  and  the  Ele- 
ments of  Perspective  appeared  1857  and  59.  The  Crown 
of  Wild  Olive  is  a  series  of  four  essays  on  work,  traffic, 
war,  and  the  future  of  England;  Sesame  and  Lilies,  lec- 
tures on  good  literature.  The  Queen  of  the  Air  is  a 
study  of  the  Greek  myths  of  cloud  and  storm;  Ethics  of 
the  Dust,  lectures  on  crystallization;  Ariadne  Floren- 
tina,  on  wood  and  metal  engraving;  Aratra  Pentelici, 
on  the  elements  of  sculpture.  The  Laws  of  Fesole  are 
the  elements  of  painting  and  drawing;  Frondes  Agrestes 
are  readings  from  Modern  Painters;  Giotto  and  His 
Works,  Love's  Meinie,  and  Deucalion  are  other  publica- 
tions. Munera  Pulveris  contains  the  elements  of  polit- 
ical economy  according  to  R.;  while  Unto  this  Last  at- 
tacks the  current  doctrines  of  that  '  dismal  science.'  Val 
d'Arno  contains  lectures  on  the  art  of  the  13th  c.  in 
Pisa  and  Florence;  another  course  deals  with  Art  in 
England.  Mornings  in  Florence  are  studies  of  a  Chris- 
tian art  for  English  travellers;  and  St.  Mark's  Rest 
is  on  the  history  of  Venice.  The  Eagle's  Nest  discusses 
the  relation  of  natural  science  to  art ;  Time  and  Tide  are 
letters  to  a  working-man  of  Sunderland.  Arrows  of 
the  Chace  is  a  selection  of  his  letters;  On  the  Old  Road 
is  the  title  of  a  republication  of  his  miscellaneous 
pamphlets,  articles,  an  dessays.  An  early  volume  of 
poems,  issued  for  private  circulation,  became  a  much- 
sought-after  bibliographical  treasure.  Fors  Clavigera 
appeared  as  a  sort  of  periodical  at  irregular  intervals  for 
several  years,  in  the  form  of  letters  to  the  workmen  and 
laborers  of  Great  Britain.  Proserpina,  published  in 
the  same  way,  gives  studies  of  wayside  flowers.  In 
1885  R.  began  to  publish  a  copious  autobiographical 
work,  Proeterita,  whose  successive  chapters  appeared  at 
intervals  in  pamphlets.    All  R/s  books  are  now  with- 


RUSKIN. 

drawn  from  the  usual  channels  of  publication,  and  thos# 
of  them  still  in  print  or  republished  are  issued  by  his 
own  agent.  Second-hand  copies  of  the  early  works  are 
eagerly  bought  at  high  prices :  thus  the  old  ed.  of 
Modern  Painters,  worth  £6, 10s.  ($31.63)  at  its  publication 
1860-67,  has  repeatedly  been  sold  since  1880  for  £30  or 
£35  (^146  to  $170).  From  1869  till  79  E.  was  Slade  prof, 
of  art  at  Oxford  ;  1871,  he  gave  £5,000  for  endowment  of 
a  master  of  drawiug  there.  In  1871  the  degree  ll.d, 
was  bestowed  on  him  by  the  Univ.  of  Cambridge.  Sub- 
sequently he  founded  a  museum  at  Abbeydale,  near 
Sheffield  (afterward  transferred  to  Bewdley),  where  he 
bestowed  part  of  his  own  priceless  library  and  art  treas- 
ures. In  his  later  years  he  established  himself  at 
Brantwood,  in  the  Lake  Country. 

R.  is  or  was  primarily  a  critic  of  art;  but,  as  the  titles 
of  his  works  indicate,  his  teaching  has  extended  over  a 
wide  area.  Art  for  him  is  inseparably  bound  up  with 
truth,  with  morals,  with  religion ;  and  in  most  depart- 
ments of  political  philosophy,  in  social  and  political 
economy,  R.  has  been  constant,  in  season  and  out  of 
season,  in  lifting  up  his  testimony  against  what  he  con- 
ceives to  be  low  views,  perverted  ideals,  coarse  and  vul- 
gar complacencies.  Like  Carlyle,  whose  pupil  he  pro- 
fesses to  be,  he  holds  the  world  in  these  later  days  to 
have  gone  on  a  wrong  tack ;  in  his  views  of  nature  and 
life,  he  is,  he  says,  *  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  modern 
crowd,  which  rejects  them  all,'  and  has  to  *  maintain 
himself  against  the  contradiction  of  every  one  of  his  best 
friends.'  Within  the  sphere  of  art  criticism,  he  holds 
that  an  important  part  of  his  life-work  has  been  to  teach 
4  the  supremacy  of  five  great  painters,  despised  till  he 
spoke  of  them — Turner,  Tintoret,  Luini,  Botticelli,  and 
Carpaccio.'  His  lifelong  contention  with  political  econ- 
omy is  mainly  on  the  ground  of  its  egoism  and  immo- 
rality. He  affirms  broadly  that  his  Munera  Pulveris  con- 
tains the  first  accurate  analysis  of  the  laws  of  political 
economy  published  in  England.  What  is  usually  called 
political  economy  is,  to  him,  nothing  more  than  the  in- 
vestigation of  some  accidental  phenomena  of  modern 
commercial  operations,  and  has  no  connection  with  po- 
litical economy  as  treated  by  the  great  thinkers  of  the 
past — such  as  Plato,  Xenophon,  Cicero,  Bacon.  True 
political  economy  regulates  the  acts  and  habits  of  a 
society  or  state,  with  reference  to  its  maintenance,  as 
domestic  economy  does  those  of  a  household.  It  is 
neither  an  art  nor  a  science,  but  a  system  of  conduct 
and  legislation,  founded  on  the  sciences,  directing  the 
arts,  and  impossible  except  under  certain  conditions  of 
moral  culture.  By  the  maintenance  of  the  state,  which 
is  the  object  of  political  economy,  is  to  be  understood 
the  support  of  its  population  in  healthy  and  happy  life, 
and  the  increase  of  their  numbers,  so  far  as  is  consistent 
with  their  happiness.  It  is  the  '  multiplication  of  human 
life  at  the  highest  standard,'  cherishing  and  developing 
the  noblest  type  of  manhood,  alike  in  beauty,  in  intelli- 


KUSS 

gence,  and  in  character.  The  wealth  of  which  B.  takes 
cognizance  is  not  mere  exchangeable  value,  but  intrinsic 
and  effectual  wealth,  consisting  of  things  contributing 
to  the  support  of  life  in  its  fullest  sense — as  land,  houses, 
furniture,  instruments,  food,  medicine,  clothing,  books, 
works  of  art.  The  subject  of  political  economy,  there- 
fore, embraces  a  large  part  of  the  sphere  of  private  and 
public  morals,  and  of  political  philosophy.  It  deals  with 
the  relation  of  master  to  servant,  employer  to  workman, 
of  the  state  to  its  subjects,  with  the  province  of  sanitary 
and  commercial  legislation,  and  with  the  duty  of  the 
state  in  promoting  education,  suppressing  luxury,  regu- 
lating the  hours  and  wages  of  labor.  He  is  as  confident 
as  the  most  revolutionary  reformer  that  the  conditions 
of  modern  society  must  be  completely  changed  and  re- 
constructed; his  ideals  coincide  in  many  points  with 
those  of  many  socialists,  though  many  of  his  aims  would 
be  regarded  as  distinctly  reactionary.  A  '  violent  illib- 
eral '  rather  than  a  conservative,  R.  regards  reverence 
for  natural  beauty,  truth,  and  godliness^  as  the  highest 
elements  in  life,  and  would  give  properly  constituted 
authority  extensive  powers ;  usury  of  any  kind  is  as  in- 
defensible as  avarice  or  dishonesty.  Till  of  late  he  was 
seldom  treated  as  a  serious  political  economist ;  but  it 
has  recently  been  admitted  that  he  has  actually  pointed 
out  some  real  weaknesses  of  the  old  abstract  political 
economy  as  a  scientific  theory.  He  has  devoted  a  large 
part  of  his  originally  large  fortune  to  founding  the  St. 
George's  Guild,  a  kind  of  primitive  agricultural  com- 
munity, where  the  old-world  virtues  are  strenuously  in- 
culcated on  young  and  old,  and  where  ancient  and 
homely  methods  are  cherished  in  defiance  of  all  modern 
mechanical  and  manufacturing  processes.  Not  more 
remarkable  than  the  eloquence,  power,  and  richness  of 
R.'s  English  style,  are  the  confidence  and  dogmatism  of 
his  assertions,  the  audacity  of  his  paradoxes,  the  fear- 
lessness of  his  denunciations ;  while  his  earnestness, 
conviction,  and  self-denying  honesty  of  purpose  are  un- 
disputed. His  influence  in  creating  a  new  interest  in 
the  beauty  of  nature  and  of  art  in  England  and  America 
has  been  profound ;  and  though  the  world  rejects  many 
of  his  theories  of  social  economy  as  perverse,  paradoxi- 
cal, and  impracticable,  he  has  done  much  to  dethrone 
mechanical  and  wooden  theories  of  society,  to  vivify 
ideals  of  life,  and  to  ennoble  standards  of  conduct.  A 
few  years  ago  R.  founded  the  St.  George  Museum,  which, 
under  his  direction,  soon  became  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able collections  of  artistic  and  scientific  treasures  in  the 
world.  In  1890  he  presented  the  collection  to  the  corpo- 
ration of  Sheffield,  and  Apr.  16  it  was  opened  to  the  pub- 
lic in  Meersbrook  Hall,  under  the  name  of  the  Ruskin 
Museum. 

RUSS,  a.  rus :  pert,  to  Russia:  N.  the  Russian  lan- 
guage. Russian,  a.  rush'an,  pert,  to  Russia  or  the  lan- 
guage :  N.  a  native  of  Russia. 


RUSSELL. 

RUSSELL,  rus'el,  Benjamin:  1761,  Sep.  13—1845, 
Jan.  4;  b.  Boston:  journalist.  He  began  learning  the 
printer's  trade,  but  left  to  enter  the  revolutionary  army, 
and  while  a  soldier  sent  war-letters  to  the  Worcester 
Spy.  In  1784  he  established  in  Boston  the  Columbian 
Centinel,  semi-weekly,  which  became  a  newspaper  of 
great  influence ;  and  1795-1830  published  the  Gazette,  in 
the  interest  of  the  federalists,  retaining  the  editorship 
of  the  Centinel  till  1828.  He  represented  Boston  in  the 
general  court  24  years,  and  was  a  member  of  the  state 
senate  and  of  the  executive  council  many  years. 

RUS'SELL,  David  Allan:  1820,  Dec.  10—1864,  Sep. 
19 ;  b.  Salem,  N.  Y. :  soldier.  He  graduated  at  the  U.  S. 
Milit.  Acad.  1845 ;  served  through  the  Mexican  war  and 
was  brevetted  1st  lieut.  for  gallantry;  promoted  capt. 
1854 ;  appointed  col.  7th  Mass.  vols.  1862,  Jan. ;  bre- 
vetted lieut.col.  U.  S.  A.,  July;  promoted  maj.  8th  U.  S. 
inf.  Aug.,  and  brig.gen.  vols.  Nov. ;  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  and  Gettys- 
burg, and  a  division  in  the  Richmond  campaign  1864; 
was  in  all  the  battles  from  the  Wilderness  to  Petersburg ; 
was  called  to  the  defense  of  Washington  against  the 
Confederate  raid  under  Gen.  Early;  and  in  the  subse- 
quent pursuit  of  Early  was  killed  at  the  head  of  his 
column  in  the  battle  of  Opequan. 

RUS'SELL,  House  of  :  ancient  noble  family  in  Eng- 
land. The  first  dukedom  of  Bedford  expired  in  the  person 
of  the  great  regent  of  France  (in  the  time  of  Henry  VI.), 
with  whom  the  present  dukes  are  unconnected  by 
affinity :  see  Bedford,  John  Plantagenet,  Duke  of. 
In  Wiffin's  Memoir  of  the  House  of  Russell,  the  family  is 
traced  back  to  a  Scandinavian  King  Olaf,  and  his  de- 
scendant, a  jarl  who  settled  in  Normandy  and  became 
possessor  of  the  castle  of  Rozel,  near  Caen. — Hugh  de 
Rozel  and  his  brother  accompanied  William  in  his  inva- 
sion of  England ;  and  from  the  younger  brother  de- 
scended Sir  James  Rozel,  or  Russell  (as  it  had  then  be- 
gun to  be  called),  gov.  of  Corfe  Castle  1221,  and  Sir  W. 
Russell,  who  represented  Southampton  in  the  first  par- 
liament of  Edward  II.  From  the  latter  R.  directly  de- 
scended Sir  John  R.,  one  of  the  most  valiant  soldiers  of 
the  age  of  chivalry.  His  son,  Sir  John  R.,  was  speaker 
of  the  house  of  commons  in  the  time  of  Henry  VI.  The 
high  fortune  and  eminence  of  the  House  of  R.  date  from 
his  grandson,  John  R.,  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
gentlemen  of  his  time,  who,  1538,  was  elevated  to  the 
peerage,  under  the  title  1  Lord  Russell,  Baron  Russell  of 
Cheyneys,  county  Buckingham.'  He  became  Earl  of 
Bedford  1550.  His  son,  the  second  earl,  was  a  person 
of  eminence  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  The  earldom 
became  a  dukedom  under  William,  fifth  earl,  who  fought 
for  the  parliament  at  Edgehill,  and  for  the  king  at  New- 
bury, and  was  created  duke  1694. — A  notable  member  of 
the  family  was  Edward  R.,  who  was  bred  to  the  sea, 
and  was  groom  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  Duke  of  York, 


RUSSELL. 

afterward  James  II. ;  but  immediately  after  Lord  Wil- 
liam R.'s  judicial  murder,  he  retired  from  court.  Strenu- 
ously supporting  the  Revolution,  he  obtained  high  naval 
commands  from  William  III.,  and  distinguished  himself 
as  one  of  the  naval  heroes  of  the  period,  particularly  by 
his  victory  over  the  French  fleet  atLaHogue  1692.  His 
cousin  was  Lord  William  Russell  (q.v.). 

John  R.,  fourth  Duke  of  Bedford  (d.  1771),  was  first 
lord  of  the  admiralty  1744-48 ;  became  lord,  lieut.  of 
Ireland  1756 ;  was  accredited  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
the  court  of  France  1762,  and  signed  at  Fontainebleau  the 
preliminaries  of  peace  with  France  and  Spain.  He  was 
pres.  of  the  council  in  the  administration  formed  by 
Grenville  1763.  His  concern  with  public  affairs  covered 
the  term  between  the  fall  of  the  administrations  of  Wal- 
pole  and  of  Chatham  ;  and  1744-48  he  shared  with  Pelham 
the  premier,  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  the  substantial 
power  of  the  govt.  His  correspondence,  preserved  at 
Woburn  Abbey,  and  given  to  the  world  by  Earl  Russell, 
contains  authentic  materials  for  illustration  of  the  po- 
litical history  of  England  1744-70.  The  introduction  to 
vol.  i.  contains  a  brief  historical  sketch  by  him. — Francis 
R.,  fifth  Duke  of  Bedford  (1765-1802,  grandson  of  the 
fourth  duke),  was  a  man  for  whom  his  friends  had  an 
attachment  amounting  to  enthusiasm.  He  was  a  steady 
friend  of  popular  freedom.  He  died  unmarried.  John 
R.,  sixth  Duke  of  Bedford  (1766-1839,  Oct.  20,  bro.,  of 
the  fifth  duke),  was  father  of  Earl  John  Russell  (q.v.). 
—Francis  R.,  seventh  Duke  of  Bedford  (d.  1861,  eldest 
son  of  the  sixth  duke),  declined  office,  but  invariably 
supported  the  measures  of  the  whig  governments,  and 
had  great  influence  in  the  whig  counsels.  He  was  an 
enthusiastic  patron  of  the  turf,  and  his  stud  at  New- 
market was  famous.  In  his  later  years,  he  busied  him- 
self in  the  comfort  of  the  tenantry  and  the  laborers  on 
his  extensive  estates.— William  R.,  eighth  Duke  of 
Bedford  (1809-72,  only  son  of  the  seventh  duke),  was  re- 
tired in  his  habits,  and  took  no  active  part  in  political 
affairs.— Francis  R.,  ninth  Duke  of  Bedford  (b.  1819, 
eldest  son  of  the  late  Major-gen.  Lord  George  R.,  and 
cousin  of  the  eighth  duke).— The  heir-apparent  to  the 
dukedom  is  his  son  George,  Marquis  of  Tavistock.  The 
dukes  of  Bedford  have  a  magnificent  mansion  and  park 
at  Woburn,  near  Bedford. 

RUS'SELL,  John  Henry  :  naval  officer :  b.  Frederick, 
Md.,  1827,  July  4.  He  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  as  mid- 
shipman 1841 ;  became  passed  midshipman  1847,  master 
and  lieut.  1855,  commander  1867,  capt.  1874,  commodore 
1883,  rear-admiral  1886,  Mar.  4;  and  was  placed  on  the 
retired  list  1886,  Aug.  27.  In  1861,  Sep.,  he  commanded 
a  boat  expedition  that  cut  out  the  Confederate  privateer 
Judah,  at  Pensacola,  for  which  he  was  thanked  by  the 
navy  dept.,  Pres.  Lincoln,  and  his  native  state. 


RUSSELL. 

RUSSELL,  John  Russell,  Earl,  k.g.  :  English  min- 
ister and  statesman:  1792,  Aug.  18-1878,  May  28;  b. 
Hertford  street,  Mayfair.  London;  third  son  of  John, 
sixth  Duke  of  Bedford.  He  was,  for  a  short  time,  at 
Westminster  School,  whence  he  was  sent  to  Edinburgh, 
then  preferred  to  the  English  universities  by  the  great 
whig  families.  Here  he  studied  under  the  care  of  Prof. 
Dugald  Stewart;  and  here  first,  at  the  meetings  of  the 
Speculative  Soc,  he  exercised  his  powers  of  debate.  In 
1821  appeared  his  History  of  the  British  Constitution,  and 
1824  Memoirs  of  the  Affairs  of  Europe  from  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht.  In  more  recent  years  he  compiled  from  the 
family  archives  the  Correspondence  of  John,  fourth  Duke 
of  Bedford,  which  throws  much  light  on  the  secret  history 
of  the  early  part  of  George  III.'s  reign;  Life,  Diary,  and 
Letters  of  Thomas  Moore,  in  pursuance  of  a  promise  made 
to  the  poet  several  years  before  ;  Correspondence  of 
Charles  James  Fox,  and  Life  and  Times  of  that  great  whig 
statesman. — In  1813  he  was  elected  for  the  family 
borough  of  Tavistock.  He  made  his  first  motion  in  favor 
of  parliamentary  reform  in  1819,  and  continued  for  12 
years  to  bring  the  subject  almost  annually  before  the 
lower  house ;  he  was  also  the  strenuous  advocate  of  the 
repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  Rom.  Cath. 
Emancipation,  and  other  measures  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty.  In  1828  he  carried  by  a  large  majority  his 
motion  for  the  repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts. 
In  1829  he  supported  the  Rom.  Cath.  Emancipation  Bill. 
In  1830  R.  was  appointed  to  the  lucrative  office  of  pay- 
master of  the  forces,  and  was  one  of  the  four  members 
of  the  govt,  to  whom  Earl  Grey  intrusted  the  task  of 
framing  the  first  Reform  Bill ;  and  the  imperishable  honor 
devolved  upon  R.  (1831,  Mar.  1)  of  proposing  the  bill, 
which  became  a  law  1832,  June  4,  and  which  saved  the 
country  from  menacing  revolution  (see  Reform,  Par- 
liamentary). R.  left  office  with  the  Melbourne  govt. 
1834,  Nov.  In  1835  he  carried  a  resolution  in  committee 
for  appropriating  any  surplus  which  might  remain,  after 
fully  providing  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  members  of 
the  Irish  Church,  to  the  general  education  of  all  classes 
of  Christians.  The  report  of  the  committee  having  been 
affirmed  by  the  whole  house,  the  govt,  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
was  dissolved,  and  that  of  Lord  Melbourne  restored, 
and  R.  became  home  sec,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet. 
He  proposed  and  carried  bills  for  municipal  reform,  for 
commutation  of  tithes,  for  general  registration  of  mar- 
riages, births,  and  deaths,  for  amendment  of  the  mar- 
riage laws,  which  enabled  dissenters  to  be  married  in 
their  own  chapels,  and  for  English  church  reform.  In 
1837,  he  carried  a  series  of  bills  by  which  capital  punish- 
ment was  finally  removed  from  forgery  and  all  offenses 
except  seven. 

In  1841  R.  and  his  colleagues  made  way  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  Peel.  1845,  Nov.,  R.  wrote  a  letter  from 
Edinburgh  to  the  elects  ~s  of  the  City  of  London,  who 
had  made  him  their  representative  in  parliament,  an- 


BUSSELL. 

nouncing  his  conversion  to  the  total  and  immediate 
repeal  of  the  corn  laws.  This  letter  led  to  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  Peel  cabinet ;  and  R.  was  commissioned  by 
the  queen  (1845,  Dec.  11)  to  form  an  administration, 
which  at  first  he  failed  to  do  through  the  antipathy  of 
Earl  Grey  to  Lord  Palmerston ;  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  be- 
ing recalled  to  power,  had  the  honor  of  carrying  the  re- 
peal of  the  corn  laws.  Peel,  however,  soon  found  it  neces- 
sary to  resign;  and  R.  became  nominally  what  he  had 
been  really  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Melbourne 
administration — prime  minister.  The  papal  bull,  par- 
celling England  into  dioceses,  extorted  from  R.  an  in- 
dignant protest.  R.'s  advice  to  the  queen  to  dismiss  her 
foreign  sec.  and  his  own  ancient  colleague,  Lord  Palm- 
erston, for  communicating,  without  consultation  with 
his  colleagues,  his  approval  of  the  French  coup  d'etat, 
precipitated  the  downfall  of  the  R.  administration  ;  and 
1852,  Feb.,  R.  ceased  to  be  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
In  the  cabinet  of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  R.  filled  the  post 
of  foreign  sec,  with  the  leadership  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons. As  commissioner  to  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  he 
incurred  so  much  unpopularity  by  recommending  terms 
of  peace,  and  a  plan  of  counterpoise  suggested  by  Aus- 
tria, that  he  retired  from  the  ministry  1855,  July. 
In  Lord  Palmerston's  second  administration  R.  became 
again  foreign  sec,  which  office  he  held  until  1865.  He 
threw  the  national  influence  into  the  scale  of  Italian 
unity  and  independence ;  uttered  remonstrances  against 
the  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  by  France,  which 
gave  great  offense  to  the  govt,  of  Emperor  Louis  Napo- 
leon ;  and  wrote  dispatches  expressive  of  the  indignation 
of  the  British  govt,  at  the  despotic  acts  of  Russia  in 
Poland ;  but  he  incurred  reproaches  from  the  Poles  and 
their  sympathizers  for  withdrawing  from  the  Austrian 
and  French  alliance  when  war  with  Russia  appeared 
imminent.  R.  was  always  prominent  in  promoting  the 
education  of  the  people;  and,  with  the  assistance  of 
Lord  Lansdowne,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present 
system  of  national  education.  He  brought  forward  for 
many  years  a  measure  admitting  the  Jews  to  parliament 
— an  object  gained  finally  1858.  In  the  public  mind,  R. 
is  remembered  as  the  steady  and  untiring  advocate  of 
parliamentary  reform.  In  1861  he  was  called  to  the 
upper  house,  and  exchanged  the  courtesy-title  of  '  Lord 
John  '  for  that  of  Earl  Russell.  On  the  death  of  Lord 
Palmerston  1865,  Earl  R.  became  prime  minister  the 
second  time.  In  1866  he  with  Gladstone  introduced  a 
reform  bill  which  was  rejected,  and  his  ministry  resigned. 
Thenceforward  Earl  R.  remained  an  unofficial  member 
of  the  liberal  party  in  the  house  of  lords. 

RUS'SELL,  John  Scott  :  1808-1882,  June  8 ;  b.  Vale 
of  Clyde,  Scotland :  naval  architect.  He  was  educated 
in  the  universities  of  Edinburgh,  St.  Andrews,  and 
Glasgow ;  settled  in  Edinburgh  and  engaged  in  building 
river  and  canal  steamboats;  became  manager  of  the 


RUSSELL. 


large  ship-building  yard  at  Greenock,  Scotland;  received 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Edinburgh  for  in- 
troduction of  the  wave  system  in  steamship  construc- 
tion; and  1844  removed  to  London  and  began  building 
the  largest  class  of  steamships.  He  built  the  Great 
Eastern;  was  an  original  promoter  of  the  London  Ex- 
hibition 1851 ;  was  a  founder  and  became  vice-pres.  of 
the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects ;  was  vice-pres.  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  and  member  of  several 
scientific  bodies ;  and  published  several  treatises  on 
naval  architecture  and  technical  education. 

RUS'SELL,  William  :  1798,  Apr.  28—1873,  May  17 ; 
b.  Glasgow :  educator.  He  was  educated  in  the  Univ. 
of  Glasgow;  came  to  the  United  States  and  became 
principal  of  an  acad.  in  Savannah  1819 ;  was  instructor 
in  the  New  Haven  grammar  school  1822-28;  taught 
classes  in  elocution  in  Harvard,  Boston,  Andover,  and 
Germantown ;  edited  The  American  Journal  of  Education 
1826-29 ;  established  a  teachers'  institute  in  N.  H.  1840 ; 
removed  it  to  Lancaster,  Mass.,  1853;  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  lecturing  before  teachers.  He 
published  several  text-books. 

RUS'SELL,  William,  Lord  :  one  of  the  noblest  martyrs 
of  English  liberty  :  1639,  Sep.  29—1683,  July  21 ;  son  of 
William,  fifth  earl.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge; 
passed  some  years  at  Augsburg  and  other  places  on  the 
continent,  and  returned  to  England  at  the  Restoration. 
1678-9  he  was  returned  to  parliament  for  the  county 
Bedford.  His  first  public  act  was  worthy  of  his  subse- 
quent career :  he  inveighed  against  the  corruption  of 
the  Cabal,  the  influence  of  France,  the  dishonorable 
commencement  of  the  war  with  Holland,  and  the  fraud 
practiced  on  the  bankers.  He  was  ever  afterward  con- 
spicuous wherever  the  evil  designs  of  the  court  could 
be  traversed,  or  the  cause  of  constitutional  liberty  be- 
friended. He  appeared  publicly  in  the  king's  bench  at 
Westminster  Hall  1680,  June  16,  and  presented  the 
Duke  of  York  as  a  recusant.  He  also  carried  up  to  the 
house  of  lords  the  bill  of  exclusion  against  the  duke, 
at  the  head  of  more  than  200  members  of  the  commons. 
This  bill,  setting  forth  that  the  Duke  of  York  was  a 
Papist,  declared  him  incapable  of  succeeding  to  the 
crown  (see  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  Acts).  The 
king  and  the  duke  determined  to  be  revenged  on  R.  and 
the  other  leaders  of  the  whig  party.  Charged  as  partic- 
ipators in  the  Rye-house  Plot  (q.v.),  Lord  R.,  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  and  Algernon  Sidney  were  arrested.  R.  was 
arraigned  1683,  July  13,  at  the  Old  Bailey,  for  high 
treason.  Infamous  witnesses  easily  satisfied  a  packed 
jury.  As  they  were  about  to  withdraw,  the  prisoner 
said :  1 1  call  Heaven  and  earth  to  witness  that  I  never 
had  a  design  against  the  king's  life.'  But  the  jury  pro- 
nounced the  fiat  that  condemned  R.  to  the  block,  and 
the  sentence  of  death  for  high  treason  was  forthwith 
pronounced.    Some  even  of  the  tory  ministry  ventured 


RUSSELL. 

to  plead  in  his  favor,  but  in  vain.  To  satisfy  his  aget 
father,  and  at  the  earnest  request  of  his  afflicted  wifo 
R.  himself  petitioned  the  king.  There  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  Charles  was  disposed  to  relent,  but  that  the  Duks 
of  York  insisted  upon  the  prisoner's  death.  The  simple 
relation  of  his  last  hours,  with  their  saintly  calm  and 
their  heroic  dignity,  by  Bp.  Burnet,  his  intimate  friend 
and  companion,  is  justly  considered  one  of  the  most 
pathetic  passages  in  history.  This  murder  of  R.,  per- 
petrated for  the  most  unconstitutional  end  by  the  most 
unconstitutional  means,  followed  by  that  of  Sidney, 
rendered  the  despotism  of  the  Stuarts  odious,  and  led,  in 
the  next  reign,  to  the  overthrow  of  the  family.  R.  left 
a  name  to  be  remembered  and  revered  wherever  truth 
has  a  sanctuary,  or  liberty  a  shrine. — His  attainder  was  an- 
nulled after  the  revolution.  Hi3  eldest  son  was  Wriothes- 
ley,  second  Duke  of  Bedford. 

RUSSELL,  William  Clark  :  English  novelist :  1844, 

Feb.  24  ;  b.  New  York  ;  son  of  Henry  R.,  author  of 

Cheer,  Boys,  Cheer.  He  received  education  at  Winchester, 
Eng.,  and  in  France  ;  went  to  sea  in  the  Eng.  merchant 
service  when  about  14  years  of  age  ;  voyaged  to  Australia, 
India,  and  China,  and  after  about  7  years  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  began  to  write  stories  of  the  sea,  his  writings  at 
once  finding  popular  favor.  The  first  was  John  Holds- 
worth,  Chief  Mate  (1874),  followed  by  The  Wreck  of  the 
Orosvenor ;  The  Little  Loo ;  A  Bailor's  Sweetheart;  An 
Ocean  Free  Lance  ;  A  Sea  Queen  ;  The  Lady  Maud  ;  Jack's 
Courtship ;  The  Strange  Voyage ;  The  Death-Ship ;  A 
Frozen  Pirate  ;  Marooned, ;  An  Ocean  Tragedy ;  My  Ship- 
mate Louise,  etc.  He  was  a  member  of  the  staff  of  the 
London  Daily  Telegraph,  his  connection  ceasing  1887. 

RUSSELL,  William  Eustis  :  lawyer  :  1857,  Jan  6— 
1896,  July  16  ;  b.  Cambridge,  Mass.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  1877,  at  the  Boston  Univ.  Law  School  1879,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  1880.  After  serving  his  native 
city  in  various  public  offices,  he  was  e'ected  gov.  (dem.) 
of  Mass.  1890,  and  again  1891,  and  92.  His  success  in 
these  elections  was  remarkable  as  involving  the  overturn- 
ing a  republican  majority  long  accounted  sure.  In  1894 
he  was  appointed  by  Pres.  Cleveland  a  member  of  the 
board  of  Indian  Commissioners.  His  death  was  greatly 
lamented. 

RUS'SELL,  William  Howard,  ll.d.  :  journalist: 
b.  Lily  vale,  Ireland,  1821,  Mar.  28.  He  was  educated 
privately  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  received  a 
staff  appointment  on  the  London  Times  1843  ;  was  called 
to  the  bar  1850  ;  and  while  in  successful  practice  was  in- 
duced to  accompany  the  British  troops  to  the  seat  of 
war  with  Russia,  as  special  correspondent  of  the  Times, 
He  was  an  eye-witness  of  the  movements  immediately 
preceding  the  beginning  of  the  Crimean  war,  as  well  as  of 
the  decisive  events  in  that  struggle  ;  and  wrote  graphic 
and  thrilling  letters  to  the  Times  on  the  historic  scenes 
about  him.    In  1853  he  described  the  coronation  of  the 


RUSSELL  OF  KILLO  WEN— RUSSET. 
Czar  Alexander  II.  in  Moscow  ;  1857  took  part  in  the 
movement  for  suppressing  the  mutiny  in  India,  and 
received  the  Indian  war  medal  with  the  Lucknow  clasp  ; 
1860  established  in  London  the  Army  and  Navy  Gazette, 
of  which  he  is  still  owner  and  editor  ;  1861  came  to  the 
United  States  as  war  correspondent  of  the  Times,  and 
described  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  1866  was  attached 
to  the  Austrian  army  in  the  war  with  Prussia  ;  1870 
accompanied  the  staff  of  the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  in 
the  war  with  France  ;  1875-6  was  honorary  private  sec. 
to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  whom  he  accompanied  to  India, 
Egypt,  Constantinople,  the  Crimea,  etc.  ;  and  1879  was 
with  Lord  Wolseley  in  his  s.  African  campaign.  He  has 
received  numerous  medals  and  decorations  for  his  ser- 
vices as  war  correspondent ;  and  has  published  Letters 
from  the  Crimea  (1855-6) ;  Diary  in  India;  My  Diary 
N orth  and  South  ;  Canada:  Its  Defences;  Rifle  Clubs  and 
Volunteer  Corps  ;  The  Adventures  of  Dr.  Brady  ;  My  Diary 
in  the  East;  etc.    He  was  knighted  in  1895. 

RUSSELL  OF  KILLO  WEN,  Charles,  Lord:  Eng- 
lish jurist:  1832,  Nov.  10 — 1900,  Aug.  10;  b.  near  Newry, 
Ireland  ;  descended  from  Rom.  Cath.  ancestors,  and  the 
only  one  of  five  brothers  who  did  not  enter  the  service  of 
the  church.  After  studying  for  a  while  in  the  office  of  an 
attorney  at  Newry,  he  went  to  London  (1851),  where  he 
gained  a  livelihood  by  press-reporting  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons. He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  1859, 
and  gained  prominence  as  an  advocate.  In  1872  he  was 
appointed  a  queen's  counsel ;  in  1880  he  entered  parlia- 
ment, and  became  solicitor-gen.  and  atty.  gen.  He  warm- 
ly advocated  the  cause  of  Irish  home-rule.  He  was  en- 
gaged as  an  advocate  in  the  Colin  Campbell  divorce  case, 
the  Crawford  divorce  case,  the  Tranby  Croft  baccarat 
scandal  case,  and  defended  Mrs.  May  brick.  He  was 
knighted  1886  ;  was  appointed  a  Lord  of  Appeal  in  ordi- 
nary with  a  life  peerage  1894,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
made  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England.  He  presided  at  the 
trial  of  Dr.  Jameson  for  raiding  the  Transvaal.  He 
visited  the  U.  S.  1896,  and  delivered  an  address  on  in- 
ternational arbitration  before  the  American  bar  asso- 
ciation, at  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y. ;  and  was  British 
arbitrator  on  the  Venezuelan  Boundary  Arbitration  Tri- 
bunal 1899. 

RUSSET,  a,  rus'set  [OF.  roussety  russet :  F.  roux ;  It. 
rosso— from  L.  russusf  red]  :  of  a  reddish-brown  color  ; 
home-spun  ;  coarse  ;  rustic  :  N.  a  country  dress  :  V.  to 
give  to  any  thing  a  reddish  brown  color.  Rus'seting,  imp. 
Rus'seted,  pp.  Rus'sety,  a.  -set-l,  of  a  russet  color. 
Rus'set,  or  Rus'seting,  n.  a  variety  of  apple  having  a 
rough  skin  and  russet  color. 


RUSSIA. 

RUSSIA,  rush'a  or  rush'i  ay  Empire  op  :  dominion  and 
territory  extending  over  a  large  portion  of  the  northern 
regions  of  the  globe  ;  including  eastern  Europe,  all  north- 
ern Asia,  and  a  part  of  central  Asia  ;  lat.  38°  30' — 78°  n., 
long.  17°  19'  e.— 190°  e.  (170°  w.).  The  empire  is  bound- 
ed n.  by  the  Arctic  ocean  ;  e.  by  the  North  Pacific  ocean 
and  the  Chinese  Empire  ;  s.  by  the  Black  sea,  Turkey 
in  Asia,  the  Caspian  sea,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Turkes- 
tan, and  the  Chinese  Empire  ;  w.  by  Roumania,  Aus- 
tria, Prussia,  the  Baltic  sea,  and  Sweden.  Its  territory  is 
more  than  twice  as  large  as  all  Europe  ;  and  its  area  is 
one-sixth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe,  and  nearly 
one  twenty-fourth  of  the  land  superfices  of  the  planet. 
Russian  America,  the  n.w.  portion  of  N.  America  which 
formerly  belonged  to  R.,  was  sold  to  the  United  States 
1867  :  see  Alaska. 

The  southern  frontier  is  indefinite,  having  never  re- 
mained unaltered  for  so  long  as  20  years,  and  its  southward 
advance  has  continued  till  the  present  time  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  in  Asia  beyond  the  Caspian  toward  the  Pamir  plateau. 
Bokhara  and  Khiva  (112,000  sq.  m.,  pop.  3,200,000),  though 
recognized  as  vassal  khanates,  are  mere  dependencies  of 
Russia.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  southern  boundary, 
though  less  vague,  is  only  approximately  defined.  On  the 
western  frontier  also  a  gradual  advance  of  Russian  influence 
is  evident  in  the  direction  of  eastern  Mongolia.  Russia  has 
no  oceanic  islands,  having  abandoned  those  that  were  in- 
cluded in  the  empire  in  the  18th  c.  :  the  Russian  islands  are 
mere  appendages  of  Russian  mainland — such  as  the  Aland 
archipelago,  etc.,  in  the  Baltic  sea  ;  Nova  Zembla  and  the 
New  Siberian  archipelago  in  the  Arctic  sea  ;  the  Shantar 
islands  and  Saghalin  in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  The  Aleutian 
Isles  were  ceded  with  Alaska  to  the  United  States  1867, 
and  the  Kurile  islands  to  J  apan  1874. 

The  vast  continental  territory,  lying  almost  entirely  in 
the  cold  or  the  temperate  zones,  is  in  most  of  its  extent 
sparsely  peopled— having  about  one-fourteenth  the  pop.  of 
the  globe.  It  comprises  the  following  divisions—with  pop. 
in  1897:  (1)  European  Russia — Provinces  1,902,202  sq. 
m.,  pop.  94,215,415— Poland,  49,159  sq.  m.,  pop.  9,455,- 
943;  Finland,  144,255  sq.  m.,  pop.  2,595,778;  total  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  2,095,616  sq.  m.,  pop.  106,264,136.  (2) 
Russia  in  Asia. — Caucasus,  86,661  sq.  m.,  pop.  3,732,556; 
Central  Asia,  1,548,825  sq.  m.,  pop.  7,72x,684;  Siberia, 
4,833,496  sq.  m.>  pop.  5,727,090;  total  of  Asiatic  Russia 
6,564,778  sq.  m.,  pop.  22,697,469. — Grand  total,  Russian 
empire,  about  8,660,395  sq.  m.,  pop.  about  129,004,514. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  details  of  the  census 
which  was  taken  over  the  whole  of  the  Empire  in  1897, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland — con- 
cerning the  area  and  population  of  the  various  political 
and  geographical  divisions  of  the  Empire  of  Russia:— 


RUSSIA. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF 


RUSSIAN 


EMPIRE. 


Province. 


1.  European  Russia: 

Archangelsk  

Astrakhan  

Bessarabia  

Chernigoff  

Courland  

Don,  Region  of . .   

Ekaterinoslaf  

Esthonia  

Grodno  

Kaluga  

Kazan  

Kieff  

Kostroma  

Kovno.,  

Kursk  

Kharkoff  

Kherson  

Livonia  

Minsk  

Moghilev  

Moscow  

Nijni-Novgorod  

Novgorod  

Olonetz  

Orel  

Orenburg  

Penza  

Perm   

Podolia  

Poltava  

Pskoff  

Ryazan  

St.  Petersburg  

Samara  

Saratoff  

Simbirsk  

Smolensk  

Tamboff  

Taurida  

Tula  

Tver  

Ufa  

Vilna  

Vitebsk  

Vladimir        . ; «  

Volhynia  

Vologda  

Voronej  

Vyatka  

Yaroslav  

Sea  of  Azov  

Total,  Russian  Provinces 

2.  Poland: 

Kalisz  

Kielce  

Lomja  

Lublin  

Piotrkow  

Plock  

Radom  

Siedlce  

Suwalki.  


Area: 
English 
square 
miles. 


331,640 
91,327 
17,619 
20,233 
13,535 
63,532 
24,478 
7,818 
14,931 
11,942 
24,601 
19,691 
32,490 
15,692 
17,937 
21.041 
27,523 
18,158 
35,293 
18,551 
12,859 
19,797 
47,236 
57,439 
18,042 
73,816 
14,997 

128,211 
16,224 
19,265 
17,069 
16,255 
20,760 
58,321 
32,624 
19,110 
21,638 
25,710 
24,497 
11,954 
25,225 
47.112 
16,421 
17,440 
18,864 
27,743 

155,498 
25,443 
59,329 
13,751 
14,520 


1,1 


4,392 
3,897 
4,667 
6,501 
4,729 
4,200 
4.769 
5.535 


Pop. 


347,589 

994,775 
1,933,436 
2,321,900 

672,634 
2,575,818 
2,112,651 

413,724 
1,617,859 
1,185,726 
2,291,058 
3,576,125 
1,420,228 
1,549,444 
2,396,577 
2,509,911 
2,732,832 
1,300.640 
2,156,123 
1,708,041 
2,433,356 
£,600,304 
1,392,933 

366,715 
2,054,749 
1,609,388 
1,491,215 
3,003,208 
3,031,513. 
2,794,727 
1,136,540 
1,827,539 
2,107,691 
2,763,478 
2,419,884 
1,549,461 
1.551,068 
2,715,453 
1,443,566 
1,432,743 
1,812,825 
2,220,497 
1,591,912 
1,502,916 
1,570,733 
2,997,902 
1,365,587 
2,546.255 
3,082,788 
1,072,478 


94,215,415 


846,719 
763,746 
585,781 
1,159,463 
1,409,044 
556.877 
820,363 
775,816 
604.945 


RUSSIA. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE- Continued 


Province. 


Area: 
English 
square 
miles. 


Pop. 


Warsaw  

Total,  Poland., 


3.  Grand  Duchy  op  Finland: 

A.bo-Bjorneborg  

Kuopio  

Nyland  

St.  Michel  

Tavastehus  

Uleaborg   

Viborg  

Vasa  

Lake  Ladoga  


Finland  

Total  European  Russia. . 

4.  Russia  in  Asia: 

Kuban  *  , 

Stavropol   

Terek  


Northern  Caucasia . 


Baku  

Black  Sea. . . . 
Daghestan . . . 
Elizabethpol. 

Erivan  

Kars  

Kutais  

Tiflis  

Zakataly  


Trans-Caucasia. . 
Caucasus ....... 


Akmolinsk  

Semipalatinsk. 

Turgai  

Uralsk  

Lake  Aral.,  


Kirghiz  Steppe. 


Samarcand  

Ferganah  

Semirechensk  . 
Syr-Daria  


Turkestan.. 


Trans-Caspian. 
Caspian  Sea... 


Total  Central  Asia  dominions. 


Tobolsk. 
Tomsk . . 


Western  Siberia  . 


1,933,689 


49,159 


9,455,943 


16,499 
4,584 
8,819 
8,834 
63.957 
13,530 
16,105 
3,094 


144,255 


2,095,616 


36,441 

23,398 
26,822 


86,661 


15,095 
2,836 
11,332 
16,721 
10,075 
7,308 
13.968 
15,306 
1,541 


94,182 


180,843 


229,609 
184,631 
176,219 
139,168 
26,166 


755,793 


26,627 
35,654 
152,280 
194,853 


409,414 


214,237 
169,381 


1,548,825 


539,659 
331,159 


870,818 


430,194 
305.166 
276,335 
186,478 
285,281 
268,226 
394,412 
446,772 


2,592,778 


106,264,136 


1,922,773 
876,298 
933,485 


3,732,556 


789,659 
54,228 
586,636 
871,557 
804,757 
292,498 
1,075,861 

j-  1,040,943 


5,516,139 


9,248,695 


678,857 
685,197 
453,123 
644,001 


2,461,278 


857,847 
1,560,411 

990,107 
1,479,848 


4,888,183 


372,193 


7,721,684 


1,438,484 
1,929,092 


3,367,576 


RUSSIA. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE-Can/mwed 


Province. 

Area: 
English 
square 
miles. 

Pop. 

Density  per 
square  mile 

Irkutsk  ••  

287,061 

iOOU,OUO 

1,533,397 
987,186 

506,517 

DO'±,U<  1 

261,731 
559,902 

2 
3 
2 

1 

Eastern  Siberia  

3,044,512 

1,992,221 

7 

172,848 
715,982 

118,570 
220  557 

9 
3 

888,830 

339,127 

3 

29,336 

28,166 

1 

4,833,496 

5,727,090 

1 

Russians  in  Finland,  Bokhara,  Khiva  and 

6,564,778 

11,697,469 

4 

42,909 

8,660,395 

129,004,514 

15 

The  Russian  Seaboard. — The  northern  shores  of  th« 
Russian  territories  are  deeply  indented  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  The  White  Sea  (q.v.),  an  immense  arm  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  penetrates  350  m.  into  the  main- 
land, and  is  sub-divided  into  the  gulfs  of  Onega  and 
Archangel  or  Dwina.  The  other  chief  inlets  on  the 
n.  of  R.  are  the  Kara  Sea  and  the  gulfs  of  Obi  and 
Yenisei.  W.  from  Nova  Zemla  (usually,  but  less  cor- 
rectly, Zembla),  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  navigable  for  tfhree 
months  of  the  year  ;  e.  from  that  island,  the  sea, 
even  at  the  mildest  season,  is  encumbered  with  float- 
ing icebergs.  The  chief  islands  in  this  ocean  are  the 
Kolguef,  Waigatz,  Nova  Zemla,  and  Spitzbergen  Isles. 
The  e.  shores  of  R.  are  washed  by  the  Pacific,  sub- 
divided into  the  Behring,  Okhotsk,  and  Japan  seas; 
since  1898  by  the  gulfs  of  Siao-Tung  and  Corea,  bound- 
ing the  Siao-Tung  peninsula.  On  the  s.  are  the  Black 
oea  (q.v.)  and  the  Sea  of  Azov  (q.v.),  the  latter  commu- 
nicating with  the  former  by  the  Strait  of  Kertch,  and  so 
shallow  that  it  is  navigable  for  small  craft  only.  Of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  R.  commands  the  whole,  except  the  s. 
shore,  which  belongs  to  Persia.  The  n.  and  e.  banks  of 
the  Caspian  are  seats  of  the  chief  fisheries  of  the  empire. 
On  the  n.w.  of  R.  are  the  Baltic  Sea,  with  the  gulfs  of 
Ri^a,  Finland,  and  Bothnia;  and  in  these  waters,  the 
islands  of  Aland,  Esel,  and  Dago  belong  to  the  empire. 
The  freezing  of  the  water  near  the  shores  of  the  Baltic 


RUSSIA. 

prevents  its  navigation  during  five  months  of  the  year, 
though  a  few  ports  are  accessibie  through  the  whoU 
year.  From  its  easy  communication  with  the  most 
fertile  governments  of  the  interior,  and  as  sustaining 
chiefly  the  commerce  of  R.  with  other  parts  of  Europe 
and  with  America,  the  Baltic  is  of  the  highest  commer- 
cial importance. 

Surface,  Hydrography,  and  Soil. — European  R.  con- 
sists of  a  vast  plain  bordered  with  mountains.  On  the 
e.  are  the  Ural  Mountains  (q.v.),  a  broad  range  of  no 
great  elevation,  ending  on  the  n.  on  the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  s.  in  a  range  of  elevated  plains 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga.  On  the  s.e.  of  the  great 
plain  is  the  lofty  range  of  the  Caucasus  (q.v.),  crossed 
by  the  Pass  of  Derbend  and  the  so-called  Military 
Georgian  Road.  The  Crimean  Mountains,  continuation 
of  the  Caucasian  chain,  rise  5,000  ft.  in  their  highest 
summit.  The  districts  in  s.w.  R.,  between  the  Vistula 
and  the  Pruth,  are  covered  by  hilly  ranges  from  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains  (q.v.),  in  Poland,  known  as  the  San- 
domir  Mountains.  The  Finland  Mountains,  on  the  n.w., 
are  ranges  of  granite  rocks,  embracing  numerous  lakes, 
and  not  higher  than  600  ft.  The  Alaunsky  table-land, 
which  connects  itself  with  the  Ural  Mountains  by  a  chain 
of  hills,  lat.  about  62°  n.,  is  the  key  to  the  configuration  of 
European  Russia.  From  this  table-land  of  about  1,200  ft. 
elevation,  the  country  slopes  gradually  in  four  directions 
— n.  to  the  Arctic,  n.w.  to  the  Baltic,  s.  to  the  Black,  and 
s.e.  to  the  Caspian  seas.  The  sloping  country  n.  of 
the  Alaunsky  heights  is  called,  from  its  e.  and  w.  limits, 
the  Ural-Baltic  table-land ;  that  s.  of  the  same  dividing 
heights  is  called,  for  like  reason,  the  Ural-Carpathian 
table-land.  The  Alaunsky  heights  form  the  great  water- 
shed, and  regulate  the  course  of  all  the  great  Russian 
rivers.  To  the  n.  they  throw  off  the  Petchora,  the  N. 
Dwina,  and  the  Onega;  to  the  s.  the  Dniester,  Bug, 
Dnieper,  Don,  and  Kouban;  to  the  s.e.  the  Volga,  with 
its  great  affluents,  the  Oka  and  Kama.  The  W.  Dwina, 
the  Niemen,  and  the  Vistula  fall  into  the  Baltic  Sea. 
For  the  important  rivers  of  R.,  see  their  several  titles. 
At  the  foot  of  the  n.w.  slope  from  the  central  terrace  is 
the  lake-count rj  of  European  R.,  and  the  great  lakes  (see 
separate  titles)  are  Ladoga,  Onega,  Ilmen,  Peipus,  and 
Pskov. — The  plain  of  European  R.  naturally  divides 
itself  into  three  tracts  or  zones,  differing  in  nature  and 
quality  of  soil.  The  n.  zone  extends  between  the  Arctic 
Ocean  and  the  Ural-Baltic  table-land,  the  middle  zone 
between  the  Ural-Baltic  and  the  Ural-Carpathian  table- 
lands, and  the  s.  zone  between  the  Ural-Carpathian  table- 
land and  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  The  soil  of  the 
n.  zone  is  marshy,  and  the  climate  inclement.  In  its 
middle  part,  between  the  rivers  Onega  and  Mezen,  espe* 
cially  along  the  banks  of  the  N.  Dwina,  are  forests  of  fir* 
wood  and  large  tracts  of  fodder-grass.  Toward  the  e. 
of  this  tract,  the  woods  disappear,  and  vast  marshes, 
frozen  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  cover  the  country. 


RUSSIA. 

The  middle  zone  reaches  s.  w.  to  the  govt,  of  Volhynij 
and  a.  Poland,  and  n.e.  to  the  Ural  Mountains.  In  thf 
w.  it  consists  of  an  extensive  hollow,  covered  witli 
woods  and  with  marshes,  the  chief  of  which  are  thosq 
of  Pinsk  (q.v.).  In  the  middle  of  this  zone,  the  soil  U 
partly  heavy  and  covered  with  mold,  and  toward  the  n. 
sandy.  Beyond  the  Oka,  luxuriant  meadows  abound; 
and  on  the  e.,  beyond  the  Volga,  this  tract  forms  an  ex» 
tensive  valley,  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  mold, 
abounding  in  woods,  and  rising  into  hills  in  the  vicinitj 
of  the  Jral  range.  The  s.  zone  consists  of  steppes  ex« 
tending  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas. 
The  steppes  of  the  Black  Sea  have  mostly  a  m->ldy  soil, 
covered  with  grass;  but  in  the  s.e.  shifting  sands  and 
salt-marshes  predominate.  The  steppes  of  the  Caspian 
consist  of  sand,  salt-marshes,  and  salt-lakes — the  Elton 
Lake,  yielding  nearly  4,000,000  poods  (about  1,290,000 
hundredweights)  of  salt  annually,  being  the  most  re- 
markable. 

Constitution  and  Administration. — The  govt,  is  an  un- 
limited monarchy,  whose  head  is  the  tzar  or  emperor 
(written  commonly  czar),  who  unites  in  himself  every 
authority  and  power — that  is  to  say,  is  the  head  of  the 
military,  the  legislative,  and  the  judicial  systems,  and 
is  also  the  ecclesiastical  chief  of  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church.  The  order  of  succession  is  by  primogeniture, 
hereditary  in  heirs-male,  and  in  females  in  default  of 
males.  The  expenses  of  the  imperial  house  amount  to 
about  $7,500,000  annually ;  the  private  property  of  the 
imperial  family,  yielding  about  $5,000,000  annually,  is 
excluded  from  the  budget.  Every  military  or  civil  officer 
of  the  crown  is  required  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance. 
The  Council  of  State  is  the  highest  branch  or  board  of 
the  executive,  and  comprehends  the  legislative,  judicial, 
and  administrative  powers.  The  pres.  (some  member 
of  the  imperial  family)  and  members — among  whom  are 
always  included  the  ministers  of  the  crown — are  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor.  A  sec.  of  state,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  report  the  opinion  of  the  council  to  the  emperor,  is 
attached  to  this  body.  The  estimates  of  expenditure 
and  income,  and  every  proposition  introducing  an  addi- 
tion to,  or  a  modification  of,  the  laws,  is  considered  and 
revised  by  this  council,  which  is  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions: 1.  Law;  2.  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical ;  3.  Economy 
and  Finance.  The  main  function  of  the.  council  is  in 
superintending  the  general  administration,  and  watch- 
ing over  the  execution  of  the  laws  :  it  has  only  a  consult- 
ative voice ;  the  decision  rests  with  the  emperor.  The 
second  of  the  great  boards  of  govt,  is  the  Senate,  whose 
functions  are  partly  deliberative  and  partly  executive. 
It  is  the  high  court  of  justice  for  the  empire,  control- 
ling all  inferior  tribunals ;  and  besides  its  legal  duties,  it 
examines  into  the  state  of  the  public  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure. The  senate  is  divided  into  seven  committee* 
or  departments,  of  which  five  sit  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
two  at  Moscow.    The  third  college  is  the  Holy  Synod, 


RUSSIA. 

superintending  the  religious  affairs  of  the  empire :  its 
decisions  have  no  force  till  approved  by  the  emperor. 
The  fourth  great  board  of  govt,  is  the  Committee  of 
Ministers,  the  highest  administrative  body :  it  is  in  nine 
departments,  respectively  managing  the  Court ;  Foreign 
Affairs;  War;  the  Navy;  the  Interior;  Public  Instruc- 
tion; Finances;  Crown  Domains;  Public  Works:  also 
it  has  a  general  board  of  control.  All  these  great  boards 
centre  in  the  private  cabinet  of  the  empire.  Except  the 
departments  of  foreign  affairs  and  the  imperial  court, 
all  these  branches  of  the  central  administration  are  repre- 
sented in  the  provinces.  In  1904,  for  purposes  of  local 
govt.,  the  empire  was  divided  into  the  nine  general  govts, 
of  Finland,  Poland,  Wilna,  Kieff,  Moscow,  the  Caucasus, 
Turkestan,  the  Steppes,  and  Irkutsk,  each  under  a  gov.- 
gen.  with  full  civil  and  milit.  powers.  The  Amur  prov- 
ince and  the  Kwang-Tung  territory,  obtained  from 
China  in  1898,  were  constituted  a  viceroyalty  in  1903. 
The  general  governments  were  subdivided  into  78  gov- 
ernments, each  under  a  civil  governor,  and  17  prov- 
inces, each  under  a  milit.  gov.  The  govts,  were  fur- 
ther subdivided  into  districts  and,  in  Europe  R.,  into 
communes  and  cantons.  A  new  legal  system,  includ- 
ing oral  testimony,  trial  by  jury,  and  publicity  of  courts; 
was  introduced  1864.  By  the  Russian  law,  capital 
punishments  are  inflicted  only  for  high  treason.  The 
severest  punishments  inflicted  for  violations  of  the  law 
(see  Knout)  are  labor  in  the  galleys,  in  the  public  works, 
deportation  to  the  mines  of  Siberia,  etc.  The  audacity 
in  recent  years  of  the  revolutionary  party  known  as 
Nihilists  (see  Nihilism)  has  caused  increased  rigor  and 
frequency  of  political  punishment.  Repeated  and  fatal 
attempts  on  the  life  of  high  officials,  and  the  acquittal 
by  a  jury  of  one  of  the  most  notable  assassins,  led  1878 
to  withdrawal  of  trials  for  political  offenses  from  juries: 
such  trials  are  now  conducted  by  courts-martial. 

Distinctive  Rank  of  Classes. — The  nobility  occupy  the 
highest  place  in  the  social  scale,  have  many  special  priv- 
ileges, e.g.,  freedom  from  poll-tax,  and  form  in  every 
province  a  separate  body,  headed  by  a  marshal,  chosen 
by  and  from  themselves.  Till  1871  they  were  also  free 
from  the  conscription.  Functionaries,  officials,  artists, 
and  clergy  possess  almost  as  many  privileges  as  the 
nobility.  In  1868,  by  an  important  law,  the  clerical  char- 
acter was  declared  no  longer  hereditary,  and  the  sons  of 
the  secular  clergy,  hitherto  bound  to  some  ecclesiastic 
or  monastic  service,  were  set  free  to  choose  their  own 
career.  The  next  class  is  that  of  the  merchants.  The 
burghers  and  peasants  constitute  the  lowest  class,  and 
are  subject  to  claims  of  service  and  to  personal  taxation. 
Each  class  has,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  right  of  self- 
administration  in  its  own  affairs :  each  apportions  its 
taxes,  and  chooses  some  of  its  own  functionaries.  The 
recent  emancipation  gave  freedom  to  20,000,000  peasants 
or  serfs,  who,  prior  to  1861,  being  governed  exclusively 
by  their  owners,  had  very  limited  civil  rights.  Com- 


RUSSIA. 

munal  govt,  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  all  tne 
rights  of  the  peasant  class.  In  general,  the  lands 
allotted  to  the  peasants  are  not  their  individual  prop- 
erty, but  belong  to  the  commune,  and  are  shared  among 

all  its  members. 

National  Debt. — The  national  debt  must  be  regarded 
as  divided  into  two  parts,  one  representing  loans  made 
abroad ;  the  other,  loans  made  at  home.  Its  total  amount 
was  reported  in  1902  at  $3,450,535,000,  of  which  $1,250,- 
000,000  represented  expenditures  for  railroad  purposes, 
and  the  net  annual  interest  exceeded  $150,000,000.  Lia- 
bilities of  national  treasury  besides  interest  aggregated 
over  $1,297,000,000.  The  treasury  held  partly  in  cash 
and  partly  in  debts,  over  $246,500,000.  The  fixed 
charges  against  the  treasury  holdings  in  the  order  of 
amounts  were,  redemption  operations,  railroads,  military 
establishment,  advances  for  specific  purposes,  debt  of  the 
Nobility  bank,  and  miscellaneous.  Immediately  before 
the  Crimean  war  the  nat.  debt  was  nearly  $750,000,000, 
Which  was  increased  in  1856-1902  by  $2,700,535,000. 
Since  1899  R.  rouble  has  been  worth  .515  in  U.  S.  gold. 

Revenue  and  Expenditure. — The  sources  of  revenue  are 
known  officially  as  ordinary  and  extraordinary,  and  the 
purposes  of  expenditure  as  ordinary  and  extraordinary. 
The  ordinary  sources  of  revenue  are  taxes  on  lands, 
licenses,  and  incomes ;  tax  on  drink ;  on  tobacco ;  on 
sugar ;  receipts  from  stamps ;  from  customs ;  from  regis- 
try fees ;  from  other  indirect  taxes ;  from  mining  and  mint 
royalties;  post-office  and  telegraph  service;  domains 
and  forests;  miscellaneous  sales;  and  other  sources. 
The  ordinary  purposes  of  expenditure  are  interest  on 
public  debt;  financial  administration;  the  army;  in- 
terior dept. ;  the  navy ;  roads  and  communications ; 
domains;  public  education;  judiciary;  support  of  the 
holy  synod ;  imp^ial  court ;  and  other  purposes.  The 
budget  estimate  for  1903  placed  the  ordinary  revenue  at 
$948,516,339,  the  ordinary  expenditure  at  $940,202,614, 
the  surplus  at  $8,313,724,  and  the  extraordinary  expendi- 
ture at  $95,631,121.  It  was  expected  that  the  latter  then 
would  be  met  by  the  surplus,  the  extraordinary  revenue 
of  $1,250,000,  and  the  treasury  reserve  of  $86,067,397. 
Among  the  extraordinary  expenditures  authorized  were 
$10,460,511  for  the  Siberian  railroad  and  $72,597,290  for 
other  railroads.  Reports  showed  that  in  1902  the  grain 
production  was  the  largest  in  ten  years  and  the  value  of 
exports  exceeded  that  of  the  imports  by  $150,000,000. 

Army. — The  regular  standing  army  dates  from  the 
close  of  the  17th  c. :  before  that  time,  milit.  levies  were 
raised  for  longer  or  shorter  periods.  Till  lately  the  army 
was  raised  by  conscription ;  but  1870  an  imperial  ukase 
announced  the  principle  of  universal  liability  to  milit. 
service,  and  another  1874  reorganized  the  entire  milit. 
system.  There  is  an  annual  conscription  to  which  all 
men  who  have  completed  their  21st  year,  and  are  not 
physically  incapacitated,  are  liable :  substitution  is  pro- 
hibited. The  period  of  service  in  the  army  is  23  years, 
5  in  active  service,  18  in  the  army  of  reserve.  During  the 


KUSSIA. 

latter  period,  the  soldier  is  liable  to  service  or*2y  in  time 
of  war.  To  enable  the  educated  classes  to  free  them-, 
selves  from  compulsory  conscription,  young  men,  suffi7 
ciently  educated,  may  enter  on  a  short  period  of  service 
from  their  17th  year.  The  Cossacks  now  form  in  time 
of  peace  a  perfectly  organized  body  of  men,  easily 
attached  to  the  cavalry  division  in  time  of  war :  in  peace 
they  have  21  regts.  and  8  horse-batteries,  increased  in 
war  to  62  and  22  respectively.  The  grand  duchy  of  Fin- 
land has  no  milit.  system  of  its  own.  The  Russian 
army,  on  the  peace  footing,  consisted  1902  of  about  42,- 
000  officers  and  more  than  1,000,000  men.  In  war  the 
strength  is  approximately  75,000  officers,  4,500,000  men 
and  562,000  horses.  The  expenditure  1903  was  $254,- 
041,330.  (For  further  details,  see  Armies — Modem 
Armies. ) 

Navy. — The  Russian  boundaries  were  first  advanced 
to  the  sea  under  Peter  the  Great,  and  from  the  genius 
of  that  monarch  the  Russian  navy  sprang.  Besides  the 
naval  depots  on  the  Baltic,  the  Black,  and  the  Caspian 
seas,  there  are  naval  establishments  also  at  Vladivostok 
and  Port  Arthur  (see  History  following).  In  1875 
Russia  had  137  war-vessels  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  31  in  the 
Black  Sea,  and  55  on  other  waters.  In  1903  there  were 
381  ships  built  or  building,  24  being  battle  ships  and  4 
armored  cruisers.  (For  further  details,  see  Navies, 
Modern.) 

Religion  and  Churches. — Under  certain  limitations,  tol- 
eration of  all  religions  which  do  not  violate  public 
morality  or  good  order  exists  in  R.,  and  not  to  profess 
the  orthodox  Greek  faith,  the  national  religion,  does  not 
disqualify  as  regards  civil  rights.  But  the  law  does  not 
allow  those  who  already  belong  to  the  established  faith 
to  secede  from  it ;  and  if,  in  a  household,  either  parent 
be  a  member  of  the  Greek  Church,  all  the  children  must 
be  brought  up  within  that  communion  (see  Russian 
Church).  The  emperor  is  head  of  the  church,  whose 
affairs  he  directs  by  means  of  a  synod  of  the  chief  prel- 
ates (see  Russian  Church).  There  are  no  trustworthy 
figures  concerning  the  numbers  of  adherents  of  different 
creeds,  but  the  preliminary  returns  of  the  last  census 
(1897)  gave  the  following  estimates:  Gra^co-Russian  or 
Orthodox  Catholic,  87,384,480;  Dissenters,  2,173,738; 
Rom.  Catholic,  11,420,927;  Protestants,  3,743,209;  other 
Christians,  1,221,511;  Mohammedans,  13,889,421;  Jews, 
5,189,401;  and  other  religions,  645,503.  The  national 
church  has  3  Metropolitan,  14  archishops,  48  bishops, 
66,146  churches  with  59,063  priests  and  deacons,  718 
cathedrals,  and  785  monasteries  (including  289  nunner- 
ies), with  8,084  monks,  9,216  nuns,  and  35,792  aspirants. 

Population. — The"  pop.  is  spread  irregularly  over  the 
surface.  In  European  R.,  its  average  is  less  than  40 
^er  Eng.  sq.  m. ;  in  the  Caucasus,  more  than  28;  in 
Siberia,  | ;  in  Poland,  144 ;  and  in  Finland,  14  per  Eng. 
sq.  m.  These  figures,  however,  cannot  be  taken  as  a 
correct  illustration  of  the  actual  distribution  of  the 
masses  over  the  enormous  surface  of  the  country  ;  for, 
oil  comparison,  the  degree  of  density  of  pop.  in  Euro- 


RUSSIA. 


pean  R.  is  found  to  vary  greatly  in  the  different  govts. 
The  government  of  Moscow  contains  166  inhabitants  per 
Eng.  sq.  m. ;  while  that  of  Archangel  contains  only  f . 
The  central  and  s.w.  govts,  of  this  part  of  the  empire  are 
the  most  densely  peopled.  The  town  residents  are 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  pop.  of  European  R. ;  7£  per  cent, 
of  that  of  the  Caucasus;  and  5  per  cent,  of  that  of 
Siberia.  Russian  society  is  divided  into  five  classes, 
and  of  these  the  nobility  form  1-49  per  cent. ;  clergy, 
with  their  families,  1-01  per  cent. ;  burgesses  (tiers  etat), 
8*60;  peasants,  82-55;  military,  6-35  per  cent.  Irre- 
spective of  Asiatic  R.,  this  empire  comprises  in  Europe 
a  greater  variety  of  races  than  any  other  European 
state.  It  is  not,  however,  like  Austria,  a  composite 
community,  speaking  various  idioms,  and  having  dif- 
ferent physical  characteristics  and  political  interests. 
In  European  R.,  the  predominant  race  is  the  Slavonian, 
and  the  Russian  '  element '  and  language  prevail  almost 
universally.  The  85,282,101  Russians  who  inhabit  Eu- 
rope are  divisible  into — 1.  Great  Russians,  inhabiting 
central  Russia.  2.  Little  Russians,  located  in  the 
southwest.  To  the  latter  may  be  added  the  Cossacks, 
who  are  spread  along  the  rivers  Don,  Kouban,  Terek, 
Ural,  Tobol,  the  Lake  of  Baikal,  and  the  Amur.  3.  White 
Russians,  in  the  western  provinces.  The  other  Slavonic 
races  are  Poles,  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  partly  in 
the  west  provinces  (where  they  form  only  10|  per 
cent,  of  the  population) ;  Servians  and  Bulgarians,  in 
Bessarabia  and  New  Russia.  The  Finnish  race,  which 
occupies,  under  different  names,  the  north  and  north- 
east of  European  Russia,  and  the  northwest  of  Siberia, 
has  in  great  part  adopted  Russian  language  and  manners. 
The  Lithuanians  and  Letts  dwell  mostly  between  the 
Niemen  and  Dwina.  The  Turkish  Tartarian  race,  in  the 
southeast,  and  partly  in  Siberia,  comprises  Tchuvashes, 
Tartars  of  Kazan,  Kirghis,  etc.  The  Mongols  comprise 
Kalmucks  and  other  races  in  the  southeast  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia  and  in  the  east  of  Siberia.  Besides 
these  races,  there  are  Roumains  and  Walachs,  in  Bessa- 
rabia and  New  Russia;  Persians,  Kurds,  Armenians, 
etc.,  near  the  Caspian  Sea;  Germans,  distributed  over 
the  whole  empire,  but  found  in  the  greatest  numbers  in 
the  Baltic  provinces;  Swedes,  in  Finland;  Greeks,  in 
the  south  ;  Bohemians — i.e.,  Gypsies — chiefly  in  Bessa- 
rabia; Jews,  mostly  in  Poland  and  the  west  provinces; 
Caucasians;  Samoyedes,  in  the  north  of  R. ;  and  many 
other  tribes  scattered  over  eastern  Siberia. 

Climate. — R,,  in  its  vast  extent,  presents  great  varie- 
ties of  climate.  At  Archangel,  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  year  is  32°  F. ;  at  Yalta,  in  the  Crimea,  52°;  and  at 
Kutais,  in  the  Caucasus,  58°.  Consisting  of  an  immense 
area  of  dry  land,  the  climate  of  the  empire  is  essentially 
continental ;  and  the  climate  of  localities  in  its  interior 
is  much  more  rigorous  than  that  of  places  on  the  w. 
stores  of  Europe  in  the  same  latitudes.  The  mean  ten> 
P<tf&ture  of  Edinburgh  and  Christiania  is  higher  than 


.  RUSSIA. 

that  of  Moscow  and  Kazan.  The  rigor  of  the  climate  of 
the  empire  increases  not  only  with  the  latitude,  but 
also  with  advance  eastward;  thus,  the  mean  winter  tem- 
perature of  the  town  of  Abo,  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  is 
the  same  as  that  of  Astrakhan — viz.,  23°  F. ;  though  Abo 
is  in  lat.  61°, and  Astrakhan  in  lat.  47°, or  14°  nearer  the 
equator.  The  difference  of  the  mean  summer  tempera- 
ture under  the  same  latitudes  is,  on  the  contrary,  not 
very  considerable.  The  isothermal  line  of  Astrakhan 
(60°  F.)  passes  through  Lublin  in  Poland  and  Ekateri- 
noslav.  In  the  e.  the  maximum  heat  is  even  greater  than 
in  the  w. ;  and  such  heat-loving  plants  as  the  water- 
melon are  grown  more  successfully  in  s.e.  R.  than  in 
w.  Europe,  under  the  same  latitude.  The  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere  increases  in  the  direction  from  n.w.  to 
s.e.  On  the  banks  of  the  Baltic,  the  average  number  of 
rainy  and  snowy  days  is  150,  and  the  annual  rainfall  20 
inches,  while  near  the  Caspian  the  number  of  such  days 
is  70,  and  rainfall  only  4  inches.  The  climate  of  R.  is  in 
general  healthful;  but  there  are  several  places  where 
diseases  seem  localized — e.g.,  the  shores  of  the  Frozen 
Ocean,  where  scurvy  is  common;  the  marshes  along  the 
Niemen  and  Vistula,  where  the  Plica  Polonica  (q.v.)  is 
the  chief  disease;  and  the  marshy  lands  on  the  Black, 
Azov,  and  Caspian  seas,  where  ague  always  prevails. 

Manufactures. — Manufacturing  industry  in  R.  may  be 
said  to  date  from  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great.  For- 
eign manuf.  goods  are  heavily  taxed  on  importation. 

Of  the  factories  (exclusive  of  iron  and  other  metal 
works),  about  a  half  are  in  the  govts,  of  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  and  Vladimir.  The  metallurgical  works  are 
mostly  in  the  govt,  of  Perm,  and  other  e.  govts,  border- 
ing on  the  Ural  Mountains.  Small  handicraft  manufact- 
uring establishments  abound  in  all  the  central  govts., 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Moscow,  where  whole 
villages  during  the  winter  season  are  employed  in  some 
special  industry,  as  weaving,  tanning,  fur-dressing, 
joiners'  work,  shoemaking,  etc.  The  chief  manufacture 
is  spinning  and  weaving  flax  and  hemp.  Linen  is  very 
largely  manufactured,  chiefly  in  hand-looms;  though  the 
finer  qualities  are  manufactured  by  power-looms,  mostly 
in  the  govts,  of  Jaroslav  and  Kostroma,  and  the  capitals. 
Hemp  is  manufactured  into  sail-cloth  and  ropes,  largely 
exported.  Woolen  and  worsted  stuffs  are  made  exten- 
sively, and  the  quantity  is  increasing.  Fine  cloths  and 
mixed  fabrics  are  made  in  the  capitals,  and  in  the  govts, 
of  Livonia  and  Tchernigov.  Silk  spinning  and  weav- 
ing are  carried  on  in  the  factories  of  Moscow.  In 
1897  there  were  in  European  R.  (without  Poland  and 
Finland)  30,029  manufactories  of  all  kinds,  employ- 
ing 2,098,242  work-people;  besides  many  small  works, 
with  not  more  than  5  workers  each.  Through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  protective  system,  cotton  spinning  and 
weaving  have  been  rapidly  extended  in  recent  years  (the 
largest  cotton-mill    is    at    Narva,    q.v. ) .     The  other 


RUSSIA. 

important  branches  of  industry  are  tanning;  next  cut- 
lery, made  in  the  town  of  Tula,  the  Russian  Sheffield, 
and  in  the  govts,  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  Vladimir,  and  Kos- 
troma ;  and  pottery  and  glass  works,  the  former  in  the 
govt,  of  Moscow,  the  latter  in  that  of  Vladimir.  The 
product  of  the  textile  industries  1897  was  valuecl  at 
$717,647,920;  of  metal  industries  at  $542,368,750;  of 
food  manufactures,  $499,049,320.  The  cotton  industry 
proper  is  valued  at  $395,680,000  per  year. 

Commerce. — The  Russian  empire,  including  provinces 
varying  widely  in  their  natural  and  industrial  resources, 
presents  an  extensive  field  for  internal  commerce,  white 
the  abundance  of  its  products  maintains  a  vast  foreign 
trade.  Of  the  internal  commerce,  far  the  more  impor- 
tant, the  extent  and  value  cannot  be  given,  from  lack  of 
statistical  data.  Moscow,  in  the  centre  of  the  industrial 
provinces  of  the  empire,  and  the  great  depot  for  the 
wares  that  supply  the  trades  of  the  interior,  is  the  chief 
seat  of  the  home  trade.  The  other  large  trading  towns 
are  chiefly  those  on  the  banks  of  the  great  rivers.  The 
goods  yearly  conveyed  by  the  Volga  alone  amount  to 
200,000,000  roubles  ($123,400,000).  Owing  to  the  dis- 
tances between  the  great  trading  towns,  fairs  are  still  of 
great  importance  in  Russia.  The  transactions  of  all  the 
fairs  in  the  empire  amount  to  more  than  300,000,000 
roubles  ($185,100,000) ;  the  chief  are  those  of  Nijni-Nov- 
gorod (q.v.),  Irbit  (q.v.),  Kharkov  (q.v.),  Poltava  (q.v.), 
and  Kursk  (q.v.). — The  foreign  trade  consists  mainly  of 
export  of  raw  products,  and  import  of  colonial  and 
manufactured  goods.  The  foreign  trade  by  sea  is  five 
times  greater  than  the  trade  by  land ;  and  of  the  latter 
the  commercial  transactions  with  Europe  amount  in 
value  to  ten  times  the  Asiatic  trade.  One-third  of  the 
whole  foreign  commerce  is  transacted  at  St.  Petersburg, 
one-ninth  at  Odessa,  and  one-fifteenth  at  Riga.  The 
principal  exports  from  R.  are  as  follows,  in  the  order  of 
importance :  wheat,  rye,  flax,  linseed,  oats,  wood,  hemp, 
wool,  barley,  cattle,  maize ;  also  unwrought  metal, 
bristles,  tow,  leather,  tallow,  oil,  fur,  caviare.  Chief 
imports :  raw  cotton,  engines  and  machinery,  wool,  tea, 
cotton  yarn,  chemicals  and  drugs,  coal  and  coke, 
wrought-iron,  wine,  metal  wares,  non-mineral  oils, 
fruit ;  also  petroleum,  salt,  tobacco,  linen,  indigo,  glass 
wares,  coffee,  books.  Raw  sugar,  formerly  a  chief  im- 
port, has  been  reduced  since  1878  to  a  very  small  quan- 
tity by  development  of  the  beet-sugar  manufacture.  The 
trade  of  the  empire  is  carried  on  chiefly  through  its 
European  frontier,  through  the  Black  Sea  frontier  of  the 
Caucasus,  and  with  Finland.  Jn  1901  the  total  imports 
across  the  above  frontiers  had  a  value  of  $261,644,000, 
the  principal  receipts  being,  in  their  order,  from  Ger- 
many ($100,109,000),  Great  Britain  ($51,609,500),  U. 
S.,  France,  Austria-Hungary,  F-nland,  China,  Egypt  and 
Italy.  The  exports  had  a  value  of  $364,825,000,  and 
were  principally  to  Germany  ($84,706,500),  Great 
Britain    ($78,158,000),   Netherlands,   France,  Finland, 


RUSSIA. 

Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Denmark.  In  1902  the  im- 
ports were  $328,338,525;  exports,  $460,344,585.  The 
trade  with  the  U.  S.  in  1890-1903  showed  a  healthful  de- 
velopment: in  the  former  year  the  total  was  $14,072,- 
C87 ;  in  the  latter,  $26,889,208.  The  U.  S.  imports  from 
R.  in  1903  aggregated  in  value  $9,282,396,  and  the  ex- 
ports to  R.  $17,606,812. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Products. — In  1841  the  Brit,  geolo- 
gist Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  undertook  a  scientific  journey 
to  R.  and  the  Ural  Mountains :  his  geological  investiga- 
tions, with  the  paleontological  researches  of  his  col- 
leagues, E.  de  Verneuii  and  Count  Kayserling,  have 
served  as  basis  for  further  surveys.  The  oldest  stratified 
rocks  are  the  Silurian,  on  the  s.  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land, sinking  below  the  Devonian  strata,  which  run  in  two 
large  branches — on  the  s.e.  to  Voronesh,  and  on  the  n.w. 
to  Archangel — both  overlaid  to  the  e.  by  a  still  more  ex- 
tensive deposit  of  carboniferous  rocks.  The  immense 
triangle  between  those  layers  and  the  Ural  is  occupied 
by  the  Permian  system  (except  the  n.e.  extremity,  covered 
by  Jurassic  beds),  named  by  Murchison  from  its  devel- 
opment in  the  govt,  of  Perm.  S.  of  the  s.e.  Devonian 
branch  extend  deposits  of  the  cretaceous  period,  and  de- 
tached patches  of  the  carboniferous  formation.  The  lat- 
ter contains,  in  R.,  only  the  older  members  of  the  group, 
up  to  the  mountain  limestone,  in  which  are  numerous 
but  thin  seams  of  coal,  generally  poor.  The  field  along 
the  Donetz  forms  an  exception,  and  yields  annually 
about  96,400  tons  (f  of  the  total  quantity  raised  inR.) 
of  good  soft  coal  and  anthracite.  The  remaining  s.w. 
and  s.e.  parts  of  the  empire  are  covered  by  tertiary  beds, 
more  or  less  recent.  The  Ural  Mountains  present  an 
outcrop  of  all  the  secondary  and  paleozoic  formations 
down  to  the  stratified  gneiss  and  granite,  which  latter 
composes  nearly  the  whole  province  of  Finland,  and 
skirts  the  middle  course  of  the  Dnieper.  The  Ural 
Mountains  (q.v.),  containing  almost  all  the  mineral  riches 
of  the  country,  are  the  principal  seat  of  mining  and  met- 
allurgy industry.  They  produce  gold,  platinum,  copper, 
and  iron  of  excellent  quality,  especially  the  iron,  which  is 
manufactured  from  magnetic  ore.  Emeralds,  sapphires, 
amethysts,  agates,  rhodonites,  rock-crystal,  jasper, 
chrysoberyl,  and  black  tourmaline  are  found,  as  well  as 
diamonds  of  inferior  quality.  Gold  is  obtained  by  the 
washing  process  in  Siberia  (28,276  kilos  1899),  the  Urals 
(10,465  kilos),  cent.  Asia,  and  Finland;  silver  in  Siberia 
(16,128  lbs.),  and  partly  on  the  Caucasus;  platinum  in 
the  Urals  (3,600—4,600  lbs.  annually) ;  lead  in  connection 
with  silver  (19,416  cwts.) ;  zinc  only  in  Poland  (89,650 
cwts.);  tin  in  Finland;  copper  in  various  govts.,  but  in 
decreasing  quantities ;  iron  in  the  Moscow  and  Donetz 
basins,  the  w.  provinces,  Asiatic  dominions,  Poland, 
Finland,  and  the  Urals;  coal  in  the  Donetz  (|  of  total 
product)  and  Moscow  (i  product)  basins.  Poland,  and 
Asiatic  dominions  (products  1900,  17,799,016  short 
tons)  and  salt  (rock,  spring,  and  lake)  in  many  places 
in  R.  and  Siberia  (product  1899,  1,643,000  tons).  Excel- 


RUSSIA. 

lent  kaolin  is  found  near  Gluchov,  in  gov.  of  Tchernigov. 

Agriculture  and  Products. — R.  is  an  eminently  agricul- 
tural country,  though  only  a  comparatively  small  por- 
tion (271,000,000  acres)  is  under  cultivation.  In  the 
central  zone  (see  above,  at  Surface),  the  soil  is  almost 
entirely  black  mold,  extremely  fertile,  seldom  requiring 
manure.  The  usual  system  of  husbandry  is  the  'three- 
field  system/  in  which  one-third  of  the  land  is  always  in 
fallow.  In  the  s.  and  s.e.  the  'fallow  system'  is  in  opera- 
tion— consisting  in  raising  three  or  four  consecutive 
crops  from  the  same  land,  and  then  letting  it  lie  fallow 
five  or  six  years,  after  which  time  it  begins  to  grow 
feather-grass  (Stipa  pennata) ,  considered  a  token  of  re- 
turning fertility.  Husbandry,  in  general,  has  under- 
gone great  changes  since  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs, 
to  whom  a  considerable  portion  of  the  land  has  been 
transferred  in  freehold.  The  landowners,  deprived  of 
their  former  right  to  the  labor  of  their  serfs,  now  find 
it  more  profitable  to  reduce  the  amount  of  their  land  in 
cultivation,  or  to  grant  portions  of  it  in  lease  to  the 
peasants,  often  in  return  for  half  the  product.  A  great 
drawback  to  development  of  agriculture  is  lack  of  means 
of  communication,  consequently  low  price  for  corn  in 
the  locality  in  which  it  is  grown.  Fodder-grass  is  rarely 
cultivated,  as  sufficient  fodder  is  afforded  by  the  ex- 
tensive natural  meadows.  The  chief  cereals  are  wheat 
— grown  as  far  north  as  lat.  62° — rye,  barley,  and  oats. 
Buckwheat  and  millet  are  grown  in  the  s.;  from  these, 
but  specially  from  rye,  the  staple  food  of  the  inhabitants 
is  made.  Hemp  and  flax  are  extensively  cultivated; 
and  the  oil  extracted  from  the  seeds  of  hemp  is  an  in- 
dispensable article  of  the  peasant's  household,  as  it  is 
used  for  food  during  the  fasts,  which,  taken  together,  ex- 
tend over  about  half  the  year.   Of  flax,  15,000,000  poods 

(540,000,000  lbs.)  are  annually  produced;  of  hemp, 
7,000,000  poods  (252,000,000  lbs.),  and  3,000,000  poods 

(108,000,000  lbs.)  of  oil-seeds.  After  the  famine  of  1839, 
govt,  introduced  and  afterward  promoted  cultivation 
of  potatoes,  of  which  the  yearly  product  amounts  to 
55,000,000  tchetverts  (I  tchetvert=5.7  7  imperial  bushels). 
Tobacco  crops  cover  16,000  acres,  and  the  amount  pro- 
duced is  2,500,000  poods  (90,000,000  lbs.).  Beet-root  and 
maize  are  cultivated;  and  there  are  numerous  vineyards 
in  the  Crimea,  in  Bessarabia,  and  along  the  Don.  Gar- 
dening is  an  important  industry,  the  products  being 
cucumbers,  onions,  cabbages,  and  other  vegetables  and 
fruits.  An  area  of  527,000,000  acres  is  covered  with 
woods,  but  the  quantity  of  timber,  from  which  material 
the  peasant  supplies  almost  all  his  wants,  is  at  present 
diminishing.  The  Russian  builds  his  cottage  with  tim- 
ber, heats  his  room  with  it,  lights  his  house  with  fire- 
wood, makes  his  household  utensils  from  the  same  ma- 
terial, as  well  as  his  cart,  etc. ;  his  shoes,  and  the  mats 
which  he  uses  for  coverings,  are  made  from  the  inner 
bark  of  the  lime-tree.    In  the  n.  the  forests  occupy  90  to 


RUSSIA. 

95  per  cent,  of  the  whole  surface;  in  the  s.,  their  pro- 
portion is  much  less.  Coniferous  trees  are  the  chief  in 
the  n.  districts;  but  in  the  central  tracts,  oaks,  limes, 
maples,  and  ashes  are  the  chief.  Timber  is  the  princi- 
pal article  of  internal  commerce,  and  is  floated  down  the 
rivers  from  the  well-wooded  districts  to  their  market. 

Animals  and  Animal  Products. — In  the  n.  and  central 
provinces,  cattle  are  kept  chiefly  for  supplying  manure; 
but  in  other  parts,  cattle-breeding  is  an  important  in- 
dustry. In  1900  there  were  43,589,900  cattle,  70,647,300 
sheep  and  goats,  and  13,924,500  swine.  Of  horses,  chiefly 
trotters  are  reared  in  breeding  stables  in  the  s.  central 
govts.  ;*the  great  majority  of  horses  are  from  the  half- 
wild  studs  of  the  Cossacks,  Kalmucks,  and  Kirghis.  The 
horses  of  Viatka,  Kazan,  and  Finland  are  strong  and 
hardy.  In  1900  there  were  in  Poland,  Russian  Asia 
and  the  Caucasus  alone  25,961,700  horses.  There  are 
camels  in  s.  R.,  reindeer  in  the  n.,  and  hogs  and  poul- 
try in  great  abundance  everywhere.  A  breed  of  the  Urus 
(q.v. ),  a  huge  and  rare  animal  not  found  in  any  other 
country,  is  preserved  in  a  forest  of  the  govt,  of  Grodno. 
Among  the  wild  animals  are  (chiefly  in  the  n. )  the  bear, 
wolf,  elk,  fox,  and  marten;  on  the  n.  coasts  are  the  seal 
and  walrus,  and  the  eider-duck  and  other  wild-fowl.  The 
more  expensive  kinds  of  furs  are  procured  from  Siberia. 
The  most  important  Russian  fisheries  are  those  of  the 
Caspian  and  Black  seas  and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  their 
tributaries.  The  lake  fisheries  also  are  very  valuable. 
Herrings,  codfish,  and  salmon  are  caught  in  abundance 
in  the  White  Sea,  and  are  the  main  source  of  livelihood 
to  the  inhabitants  of  those  regions.  The  value  of  the 
Russian  fisheries  is  estimated  at  about  $10,000,000 
annually.  Bee-culture  is  general  in  R.,  and  silkworms 
are  reared  in  the  Caucasus. — See  statistical  works  of 
Sarauw  (1873);  Von  Lengenfeldt  (1875);  Wilson  (St. 
Petersburg  1876);  Russia,  by  W.  R.  Morfill  (1880). 

History. — Copious  histories  of  R.  are  numerous,  those 
of  Karamzin, Solovief  ( 1851-77) , and  Schnitzler  (Germ, 
trans.  1784),  being  standard  Russian  works.  More  ac- 
cessible are  Turgenief,  La  Russie  (Par.  1847)  ;  Rambaud, 
Histoire  de  Russie  (Par.  1878). — The  population  of  the 
Russian  empire  is  of  various  nationalities,  but  the  pre- 
dominant one  is  the  Slavonic  (q.v.).  The  eastern  Slavs, 
ancestors  of  the  Russians,  were  settled  near  the  sources 
of  the  rivers  Volkhof,  Bug,  Dniester,  Dnieper,  and  Don, 
and  consisted  of  several  tribes  whose  chief  towns  were 
Novgorod  and  Kieff.  Being  harassed  by  their  warlike 
neighbors,  and  distracted  by  intestine  dissensions,  the 
Slavs  of  Novgorod  and  the  neighboring  Finnish  tribes,  in 
862,  sent  ambassadors  to  'the  Variags  (Varangians,  Nor- 
mans) beyond  the  sea,'  inviting  their  chiefs  to  come  and 
reign  over  them.  Three  brothers  of  the  tribe,  called  by  the 
old  chroniclers  Rurik  (q.v.) ,Sineus  (Sindf),and  Truvor, 
accepted  the  invitation,  and  at  the  head  of  a  band  of 
armed  followers  (droujina)  took  possession  of  the  terri- 


RUSSIA. 


fcory  of  Novgorod. — Oleg  (ruled  879-912),  who  exercisea 
authority  as  regent  to  Igor,  Rurik's  son,  took  KiefT, 
and  made  it  the  cap.  of  the  embryo  empire,  subduing 
the  neighboring  tribes,  and  even  successfully  attacking 
the  Byzantines. — Igor  (ruled  912-945)  did  nothing  of  note, 
but  his  widow  and  successor,  Olga  (ruled  945-957),  was 
a  wise  and  able  ruler :  she  was  baptized  955  by  the  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  and  abdicated  soon  afterward  in 
favor  of  her  son  Sviatoslaf  (ruled  957-972),  a  warlike 
monarch  and  a  pagan,  who  was  treacherously  murdered 
by  a  neighboring  tribe  with  whom  he  was  at  war.  On 
his  death,  the  principality  was  divided  among  his  three 
sons,  and  the  usual  quarrels  followed,  and  continued  till 
Vladimir  (ruled  980-1015),  youngest  son,  became  solo 
ruler.  The  Norman  immigrant  stock  now  definitively  be- 
came amalgamated  with  the  Slavonic  race.  Vladimir's 
reign  is  the  *  heroic'  epoch  of  Russian  history;  and  the 
glories  of  the  court,  and  the  valiant  feats  of  the  war- 
riors of  the  *  sunny  Prince  Vladimir,'  have  been  handed 
down  through  ages  in  legend  and  song.  His  successful 
wars  extended  the  boundaries  of  R.  to  Lake  Ilmen  on 
the  n.,  to  the  mouths  of  the  Oka  and  of  the  Khoper  (af- 
fluent of  the  Don)  on  the  e.,  to  the  falls  of  the  Dnieper 
on  the  s.,  and  to  the  sources  of  the  Vistula  on  the  w. 
He  became  a  convert  to  the  Greek  faith,  and  988  was 
baptized,  with  his  followers ;  his  example  being  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  whole  nation,  for  whose  spiritual  guidance 
and  supervision  a  metropolitan  was  established  at  Kieff. 
He  followed  the  evil  example  of  his  father  in  dividing 
his  dominions ;  and  after  his  death  a  civil  war  broke  out 
among  his  four  sons,  in  which  Jaroslaf,  Prince  of  Novgo- 
rod, was  ultimately  (1036)  successful.  This  prince  (ruled 
1036-54)  did  much  to  civilize  his  subjects  by  building 
towns,  founding  schools,  and  especially  by  ordering  the 
compilation  of  the  first  Russian  code  of  laws  ('  Rousskaia 
Pravda '),  the  most  prominent  item  of  which  was  the 
limitation  of  the  right  of  family  feud,  a  limitation  which 
was  changed  into  total  abolition  after  his  death,  by  his 
sons,  who  shared  the  principality  among  them.  Each 
of  these  petty  princes  in  turn  divided  his  portion  of 
territory  among  his  sons,  till  the  once  great  and  united 
realm  became  an  agglomeration  of  petty  states  quarrel- 
ling with  each  other,  undergoing  absorption  by  a  more 
powerful  neighbor,  or  being  redivided.  This  state  of 
anarchy,  confusion,  and  petty  warfare  dates  from  the 
death  of  Jaroslaf  1054,  and  continued,  more  or  less,  till 
1478. — The  principal  among  the  sub-divisions  of  R., 
during  this  period,  were,  according  to  Russian  author- 
ities, Sousdal,  which  occupied  the  upper  and  central 
parts  of  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  and  from  which,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  c,  sprang  the  principalities  of 
Tver,  Rostoff,  and  Vladimir  ;  Tchernigov  and  Sever 'sk,  which 
occupied  the  drainage-area  of  the  Dessna  (affluent  of  the 
Dnieper),  stretching  to  near  the  sources  of  the  Oka; 
Riazan  and  Murom,  along  the  Oka  basin  and  the 
sources  of  the  Don  ;  Polotsk,  including  the  basins  of 


RUSSIA. 

the  W.  Dwiua  and  Beresina  ;  Smolensk,  occupying 
the  upper  parts  of  the  basins  of  the  W.  Dwina  and 
Dnieper ;  Volhynia  and  Galicia,  the  first  drained  by  the 
Pripet,  the  second  lying  on  the  n.e.  slope  of  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains  (the  two  were  united  1198) ;  Nov- 
gorod, by  far  the  largest  of  all,  which  occupied  the  im- 
mense tract  bounded  by  the  Gulf  of  Finland,Lake  Peipus, 
the  upper  parts  of  the  Volga,  the  White  Sea,  and  the  N. 
Dwina ;  and  the  grand-duchy  of  Kieff,  which,  from  its 
being  formerly  the  seat  of  the  central  power,  exercised  a 
sort  of  supremacy  over  the  others.  Novgorod,  however, 
from  its  size  and  remoteness,  as  well  as  from  certain 
privileges  granted  to  it  by  Jaroslaf,  was  almost  inde- 
pendent of  the  grand-duchy.  The  citizens  of  Novgorod 
chose  their  own  dukes,  archbishops,  and  in  general  all 
their  dignitaries ;  and  proved  the  superiority  of  their 
system  of  self-administration  by  increasing  in  power 
and  wealth  year  by  year.  One  of  the  chief  factories  of 
the  great  Hanseatic  League  was  established  in  Novgo- 
rod in  the  13th  c.  In  fact,  so  great  was  its  fame  through- 
out R.,  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb,  '  Who  can  resist 
God  and  the  mighty  Novgorod? '  The  princes  of  these 
states  had  each  his  standing  army,  and  were  continually 
quarrelling;  but  the  people  were  less  oppressed  than 
would  be  expected  under  such  circumstances,  on  account 
of  the  establishment  in  each  state  of  a  *  common  coun- 
cil '  or  veche,  which  exercised  an  important  influence  in 
state  affairs,  and  without  which  the  prince  was  almost 
powerless.  This  period  was  marked  also  by  the  gradual 
amalgamation  of  the  different  Slavic  races  into  one, 
the  present  Russian  race ;  a  process  aided  doubtless  by 
the  universal  dissemination  of  Christianity,  which  as- 
similated their  various  languages,  manners,  and  cus- 
toms.— The  chief  of  the  grand-dukes  of  Kieff  was  Vladi- 
mir, surnamed  *  Monomachus '  (ruled  1113-1125).,  whom 
chroniclers  are  never  tired  of  lauding  as  a  model  prince, 
and  one  whose  authority  was  acknowledged  almost  as 
paternal  by  the  princes  of  the  other  provinces.  In  1163 
the  ruler  of  the  principality  of  Vladimir  took  possession 
of  Kieff,  and  proclaimed  himself  grand-duke. — In  1222 
the  Mongol  tide  of  invasion  had  swept  westward  to  the 
Polotzes,  a  nomadic  tribe  who  ranged  over  the  steppes 
between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Don,  and  whose  urgent 
prayers  for  aid  were  promptly  complied  with  by  the 
Russian  princes ;  but  in  a  great  battle  (1223)  on  the 
banks  of  the  Kalka  (tributary  of  the  Sea  of  Azov),  the  Rus- 
sians were  totally  routed.  The  Mongols,  as  usual,  did 
not  follow  up  their  victory ;  but  12  years  afterward,  Batu 
Khan,  at  the  head  of  half  a  million  of  Kiptchak  Mongols, 
conquered  e.  Russia,  destroying  Riazan,  Moscow,  Vlad- 
imir, and  other  towns.  The  heroic  resistance  of  Prince 
George  of  Vladimir  cost  the  lives  of  himself  and  his 
whole  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Siti.  The  Mongol  con- 
queror's victorious  career  was,  however,  arrested  by  the 
impenetrable  forests  and  treacherous  marshes  s.  of  Nov- 
gorod, and  he  was  forced  to  return  to  the  Volga.    In  1240 


RUSSIA. 


he  ravaged  the  s.w.,  destroying  Tchernigov,  Galicia,  and 
Kieff ;  ravaged  Poland  and  Hungary,  defeating  the  Poles 
at  Wahlstatt,  and  the  Hungarians  at  Saio ;  but  being 
checked  in  Moravia,  and  receiving  at  the  same  time  the 
news  of  the  khakan's  death,  he  retired  to  Sarai,  on  the 
Akhtuba  (tributary  of  the  Volga),  which  became  the  cap. 
of  the  great  khanate  of  Kiptchak.  Thither  the  Russian 
princes  repaired  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  khan  and 
take  part  in  the  humiliating  ceremonies  which  the  bar- 
barous conqueror  exacted  from  his  tributaries.  The 
taxes  of  R.  were  farmed  out  by  the  khan  to  contractors, 
generally  oriental  merchants ;  and  they  were  collected 
by  the  aid,  when  necessary,  of  the  khan's  soldiers. 
But  in  later  times  (during  the  most  of  the  14th  and  15th 
c),  when  the  fiery  energy  of  the  Mongols  was  on  the 
decline,  the  taxes  were  collected  by  the  Russian  princes 
and  sent  to  Sarai.  The  Mongol  invasion  had  an  evil  in- 
fluence on  the  political,  soci-al,  and  moral  life  of  R. ;  it 
totally  destroyed  the  elements  of  self-government,  which 
had  already  attained  considerable  development,  arrested 
the  progress  of  industry,  literature,  and  the  other  ele- 
ments of  civilization,  and  threw  the  country  more  than 
200  years  behind  the  other  states  of  Europe.  The  prin- 
cipalities of  Kieff  and  Tchernigov  never  recovered  from 
this  crushing  blow,  and  the  seat  of  the  metropolitan  was 
removed  to  Vladimir.  Their  decline,  however,  made 
room  for  the  rise  of  Galicia  to  pre-eminence  in  western 
R.,  and  under  the  rule  of  a  series  of  wise  princes  it  pre- 
served greater  independence  than  any  of  the  Russian 
principalities;  till,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  13th  c,  it 
was  taken  possession  of  by  Casimir  III.  of  Poland ;  and 
about  the  same  time  Volhynia  was  joined  to  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Lithuania.  The  rise  of  this  latter  state  was 
favored  by  the  prostration  to  which  the  Russian  princes 
were  reduced  by  the  Mongol  invasion,  and  after  a  flour- 
ishing existence  of  several  centuries,  during  which  it  ex- 
tended in  power,  so  as  to  include  Livonia  proper  and 
the  Russian  provinces  of  White  R.,  Volhynia,  Podolia, 
and  the  Ukraine,  it  was  joined  1569  to  Poland. — On  the 
n.  of  Lithuania  arose  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  c. 
another  power,  the  Livonian  Knights  Sword-bearers,  who 
took  possession  of  Livonia,  Courland,  and  Esthonia,  as 
well  as  portions  of  the  territory  of  Novgorod  and  Pskov. 
— The  grand-ducal  title  passed  after  the  Mongol  invasion 
from  Kieff  to  Novgorod,  and  afterward  to  Vladimir,  where 
the  celebrated  Alexander  Newski  (q.v.)  (reigned  1252-63) 
swayed  the  sceptre. — In  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c, 
eastern  R.  consisted  of  the  principalities  of  Sousdal, 
Nijni-Novgorod,  Tver,  Riazan,  and  Moscow;  and  long 
and  bloody  contests  for  the  supremacy  took  place  be- 
tween the  two  most  powerful  of  these,  Tver  and  Mos- 
cow. At  last,  under  the  guidance  of  Ivan  Kalita 
(reigned  1328-40),  founder  of  the  system  of  administra- 
tive centralization  which  prevailed  till  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Great,  Moscow  became  the  chief  grand-duchy.  This 
result  was  due  to  various  causes;  chief  of  which  were 


RUSSIA. 


the  central  position  of  Moscow,  the  prevalence  there  of 
the  law  of  primogeniture,  the  favor  of  the  Mongol  khan, 
the  sympathy  of  the  church — whose  head  the  metropol- 
itan had  removed  thither  from  Vladimir  1325— and  the 
weakness  of  most  of  the  other  princes. — Ivan's  son  and 
successor,  Simeon  the  Proud  (reigned  1340—53),  followed 
in  his  father's  footsteps,  as  did  also  the  regency  which 
administered  the  govt,  during  the  reign  of  the  weak- 
minded  Ivan  II.  (reigned  1353-59),  and  the  minority  of 
his  son  Dmitri. — Dmitri  (1359-89)  conquered  Nijni-Nov- 
gorod,  carried  on  war  with  success  against  Tver  and 
Riazan,  and  profited  by  the  weakness  of  the  Mongol 
khanate,  now  divided  into  the  four  hordes  of  Nagaisk, 
Crimea,  Kazan,  and  Astrakhan,  to  make  the  first  attempt 
to  shake  off  the  shameful  yoke  under  which  the  Russians 
had  groaned  so  long.  His  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Khan  Mamai  on  the  banks  of  the  Don  (1380),  which  con- 
ferred on  him  the  epithet  Donskoi,  was  the  first  step  to 
liberation ;  but  the  succeeding  khan,  in  revenge,  burned 
Moscow,  exacted  a  heavy  tribute  from  the  people,  and 
ri vetted  their  bonds  more  firmly  than  ever. — Vassili  I. 
(reigned  1389-1425)  obtained  possession  of  the  prin- 
cipality of  Nijni-Novgorod  with  the  full  consent  of 
the  khan,  and  conquered  Rostoff  and  Murom.  Dur- 
ing his  reign,  R.  was  twice  invaded  by  the  Tartars, 
first  under  Timur,  and  again  under  Edijel,  and  was 
at  the  same  time  attacked  by  the  Livonians. — Vassili 
H.9  the  Blind  (reigned  1425-62),  ruled  during  a  period 
marked  with  continual  civil  wars  among  the  various 
princes  for  the  grand-ducal  throne;  but  from  this 
period  the  division  of  power  in  eastern  R.  rapidly 
disappeared,  internal  troubles  ceased,  and  the  re-united 
realm  acquired  from  union  the  power  of  casting  off  the 
Tartar  yoke. — These  results  were  achieved  by  Ivan 
ID. (reigned  1462-1505),surnamed  *  the  Great,'  who  availed 
himself  of  every  opportunityfor  abolishing  the  petty  prin- 
cipalities which  owed  him  allegiance  as  grand-duke,  and 
manoeuvred  so  skilfully,  that  some  of  the  princes  volun- 
tarily surrendered  their  rights,  others  bequeathed  their 
lands  to  him,  while  others,  as  the  prince  of  Tver,  were 
reduced  by  force  of  arms.  The  heaviest  task  of  all  was 
the  reduction  of  Novgorod,  but  so  vigorously  did  Ivan 
carry  out  his  schemes,  that  1478  this  last  of  the  great 
principalities  was  added  to  his  empire.  He  then  took 
advantage  of  the  dissensions  between  Achmet,  Khan  of 
the  Golden  Horde,  and  Mengli-Gherai,  Khan  of  the 
Crimean  Horde,  to  deliver  R.  from  its  state  of  servitude 
by  uniting  with  the  latter ;  their  combined  arms  destroy- 
ing the  power  of  the  former  1480 ;  and  the  kingdom  of 
Astrakhan,  which  rose  on  its  ruins,  was  wholly  unable 
to  cope  with  the  now  powerful  monarchy.  He  next 
turned  his  attention  to  the  w.  provinces,  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  the  descendants  of  St.  Vladimir, 
but  were  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Lithuanians,  under 
whom  the  adherents  of  the  Greek  Church  were  bitterly 
oppressed  by  the  Rom.  Catholics,  and  accordingly  hailed 


BUSSIA. 

the  advance  of  Ivan's  army  as  a  deliverance  from  per- 
secution. The  battle  which  followed  was  in  favor  of  the 
Russians,  but  produced  no  important  results.  Ivan 
married  (1472)  Sophia,  niece  of  Constantine  Palaeologus, 
the  last  Byzantine  emperor ;  and  he  introduced  the  arts 
of  civilization  through  the  medium  of  architects,  found- 
ers, coiners,  miners,  etc.,  whom  he  brought  from  Italy, 
the  result  of  whose  labors  is  seen  in  the  Kremlin  and  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Assumption  (Ouspenski  Sobor).  He 
also  fortified  many  towns,  introduced  to  his  court  the 
splendor  of  Byzantium,  assumed  the  title  Czar  of  All 
the  Russias,  adopted  the  arms  of  the  Greek  empire,  and 
united  the  existing  edicts  into  a  body  of  laws,  the  *  Sou- 
debnik.' — Vassili  III.  (reigned  1505-33)  followed  closely 
his  father's  policy,  made  war  on  the  Lithuanians,  from 
whom  he  took  Smolensk,  and  incorporated  with  his 
dominions  the  remainder  of  the  small  tributary  princi- 
palities.— His  son,  Ivan  IV.  (reigned  1533-84),  known 
afterward  as  'the  Terrible/  became  monarch  at  the 
age  of  three  years,  and  the  country  during  his  long 
minority  was  distracted  by  the  contentions  of  factious 
bojars  striving  for  power.  Fortunately,  however,  on  his 
attaining  his  majority  1547,  he  found  two  wise  and  pru- 
dent counselors,  Sylvestre  and  Adascheff,  who  with  his 
queen,  Anastasia  Romanoff  (see  Romanoff),  exercised 
over  him  a  most  beneficent  influence.  The  interior  ad- 
ministration was  remodelled,  the  'Soudebnik'  of  his 
grandfather  was  reformed  and  amended,  the  Streltzi,  the 
first  standing  army  in  R.,  were  established,  and  print- 
ing was  introduced.  His  arms  were  everywhere  Victoria 
ous ;  the  strongly  fortified  city  of  Kazan  was  captured 
1552,  and  the  kingdom  of  which  it  was  the  cap.  was  an- 
nexed to  his  empire;  and  the  kingdom  of  Astrakhan 
shared  the  same  fate  soon  afterward.  The  marauding 
Tartars  of  the  Crimea  were  held  in  check,  and  the  Knights 
Sword-bearers  attacked  and  driven  from  Livonia  and 
Esthonia.  About  this  time  a  remarkable  change  came 
over  Ivan's  character,  which  seems  to  have  been  of  the 
nature  of  insanity  and  in  some  way  connected  with  the 
death  of  his  wife,  Anastasia.  He  became  suspicious  of 
every  one,  believed  himself  surrounded  with  traitors, 
banished  his  two  counselors,  Sylvestre  and  Adascheff, 
and  persecuted  the  bojars,  many  of  whom  perished  on 
the  scaffold,  while  others  fled  to  foreign  countries.  His 
insane  rage  fell  upon  whole  towns ;  thousands  of  people 
were  destroyed  in  Tver,  Novgorod,  and  Moscow ;  and, 
finally,  he  murdered  his  eldest  son.  Stephen  Bathory, 
King  o2  Poland,  meantime  wrested  Livonia  from  him, 
and  tho  Orim-Tartars  made  an  irruption  northward,  and 
burned  "Moscow.  During  the  reign  of  this  monarch,  w. 
Siberia  v/as  conquered  for  R.  by  the  Cossack  Ermak :  see 
Siberia. — His  son,  Feodor  (reigned  1584-98),  was  a  feeble 
prince,  who  intrusted  his  brother-in-law,  iioris  Godounof , 
with  the  management  of  affairs.  Godounof  was  a  man  of 
rare  ability  and  intellect,  and  proved  an  able  administra- 
tor.   The  Russian  dominion  in  Siberia  was  consolidated, 


RUSSIA. 

numerous  towns  an:l  fortresses  were  erected  in  the  s.  as 
barriers  against  the  Crim-Tartars,  the  Greek  Church  in 
R.  was  declared  independent  of  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. Feodor  was  the  last  reigning  monarch  of 
the  house  of  Rurik,  for  he  died  childless,  and  his  only 
brother,  Dmitri,  was  murdered  1591  by  order  of  Godou- 
nof,  according  to  popular  rumor. — After  the  death  of 
Feodor,  representatives  of  all  classes  were  convoked  at 
Moscow  to  elect  a  new  sovereign,  and  their  choice  fell  on 
Qodounof  (reigned  1598-1604).  The  mysterious  death  of 
Prince  Dmitri  favored  the  appearance  of  pretenders  to 
his  name  and  rank,  the  first  of  whom,  a  supposed  monk 
of  the  name  of  Gregory  Otrepieff  (see  Demetrius),  was 
defeated  by  Godounof ;  but  on  the  sudden  death  of  the 
latter,  Otrepieff  was  crowned  1605.  A  revolt,  headed  by 
Prince  Vassili  Shouisky  (reigned  1606-10),  soon  broke  out, 
the  czar  was  murdered,  and  Shouisky  elevated  to  the 
vacant  throne.  But  a  second  false  Dmitri  now  ap- 
peared, and  Sigismund  of  Poland,  taking  advantage  of 
the  confusion  thus  produced,  invaded  R.,  proclaimed  his 
son  Vladislaf  czar,  and  took  possession  of*  Moscow  (1610), 
carrying  away  the  czar  to  die  in  a  Polish  prison.  At 
the  same  time,  hordes  of  Tartars,  predatory  bands  of 
Poles,  and  gangs  of  robbers  devastated  the  provinces, 
and  the  wretched  country  was  reduced  to  the  verge  of 
complete  disorganization.  But  the  clergy  nobly  stood 
forth  to  save  the  state  from  ruin ;  and  Minin,  a  common 
citizen  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  so  aroused  his  fellow-citizens 
that  they  volunteered  for  military  service,  and  chose  as 
their  leader  Prince  Pojarsky,  a  man  of  distinguished 
valor.  Pojarsky  retook  the  capital,  drove  the  Poles  out 
of  R.,  and  convoked  an  assembly  of  representatives,  who 
unanimously  chose  for  their  czar  Michael  Feodorovich 
Romanoff  (reigned  1613-45) :  see  Romanoff.  The  first 
care  of  the  new  monarch  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  revolt 
of  the  Don  Cossacks,  who  had  set  up  the  son  of  the  first 
false  Dmitri  as  czar,  and  to  the  depredations  of  the  robber- 
gangs  in  s.w.  Russia.  In  1617  he  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Sweden,  by  virtue  of  which  that  power  received 
the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  a  considerable 
pecuniary  indemnity,  in  consideration  of  Philip,  the 
brother  of  the  Swedish  monarch,  renouncing  his  claims 
to  the  Muscovite  throne.  In  1618  and  34  he  purchased 
peace  from  the  Poles  at  the  cost  of  Smolensk  and  a 
portion  of  Seversk.  Having  thus  freed  himself  from 
danger  of  foreign  interference,  he  directed  his  attention 
to  the  internal  administration,  which,  especially  in  the 
courts  of  justice,  was  reduced  to  a  deplorable  condition; 
and  to  aid  him  in  this  necessary  task,  he  summoned  a 
general  council  of  representatives  at  Moscow. — Alexei 
(reigned  1645-76),  his  son  and  successor,  being  a  minor, 
the  nobles  seized  the  opportunity  of  increasing  their 
power  and  exercising  oppression  and  extortion  over  their 
inferiors,  till  rebellions  broke  out  in  various  districts. 
Other  causes  of  discontent  were  the  heaviness  of  the 
taxes,  the  oppression  of  the  serfs,  the  depreciation  of 
Vol.  32  —  21 


RUSSIA. 

the  currency  which  was  changed  from  silver  to  copper,and 
the  secession  from  the  Russian  Greek  Church  of  those 
who  disapproved  of  the  changes  and  corrections  in  the 
books  and  liturgy  of  the  church  introduced  by  the  patri- 
arch Nikon.  These  malcontents  were  accordingly  per- 
secuted, and  fled,  some  to  n.  Russia,  others  to  the 
Ukraine,  where  they  founded  many  colonies,  and  still 
exist  apart  under  the  name  of  *  Old  Ritualists  '  (Staro- 
Obriadzy).  A  general  council,  convoked  to  deliberate  on 
the  best  means  of  restoring  peace  to  the  country,  re- 
vised the  existing  laws,  and  composed  (1649)  a  new  code 
— '.Sobornoe  Ulajenie,'  which  granted  to  every  subject 
the  right  of  direct  appeal  to  the  czar.  Tolls  on  the 
highways  were  abolished,  the  English  and  other  foreign 
merchants  were  deprived  of  their  privilege  of  free  trade 
with  R.,  and  the  silver  currency  was  reintroduced.  The 
chief  events  in  foreign  policy  were  the  acquisition  of 
Little  Russia  by  the  voluntary  submission  of  the  Cos- 
sacks (see  PoiiAND) ;  a  consequent  war  with  Poland,  in 
whioh  R.  acquired  Smolensk  and  the  greater  part  of 
White  Russia ;  and  a  war  with  Turkey,  which  continued 
till  after  the  accession  of  Feodor  (reigned  1676-82),  when 
it  was  terminated  (1681)  by  the  treaty  of  Bakhchisarai, 
by  which  Turkey  gave  up  all  claims  to  Little  Russia. — 
After  Feodor's  death,  the  general  council  of  the  land, 
in  accordance  with  his  last  wishes  and  their  own  predi- 
lections, chose  his  half-brother  Peter  as  czar,  but  his 
half-sister  Sophia,  an  able  and  ambitious  princess  (see 
Peter  I.,  the  Great),  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  reins 
of  power  as  princess-regent.  She  concluded  peace  with 
Poland  1686,  made  two  unsuccessful  campaigns  against 
the  Tartars  of -the  Crimea ;  and  after  an  attempt  to  de- 
prive Peter  of  his  right  to  the  throne,  and,  failing  in  this, 
to  assassinate  him  and  his  mother,  she  was  forced  to 
resign  all  power  and  retire  to  a  convent.  All  her  ac- 
complices were  put  to  death ;  and  Peter  (reigned  1689- 
1725)  ascended  the  throne  as  sole  ruler,  his  half-brother 
Ivan  being  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  czar  conjointly, 
and  to  appear  as  such  at  public  ceremonies,  but  without 
any  real  authority. — In  order  more  fully  to  show  the 
importance  of  the  changes  wrought  by  Peter  in  R.,  a 
brief  retrospect  of  its  social  and  political  condition  at 
the  date  of  his  accession  is  necessary.  At  the  head  of 
govt,  stood  the  czar,  with  absolute  power  in  administra- 
tive, judicial,  and  military  affairs.  In  the  exercise  of 
authority  he  was  aided  by  his  council,  the  *  Bojarskaia 
Douma/  and  incases  of  extreme  need  by  a  general  coun- 
cil of  representatives  of  the  people,  which  latter,  how- 
ever, had  a  right  of  deliberation  only.  The  criminal 
code  was  cruel  in  the  extreme.  Of  the  standing  army, 
the  Streltzi  only  deserved  the  name.  The  population 
was  divided  into  two  great  classes :  bojars  or  nobles, 
who  were  bound  to  render  service  for  their  estates ;  and 
burghus  or  industrial  and  trading  classes,  and  serfs,  who 
were  bound  to  the  soil.  The  clergy  exercised  great  in- 
fluence over  all  clashes,  possessed  offices  in  the  '  douma,' 


KUSSIA. 

and  exercised  political  functions.  Agriculture  was  in  a 
low  state,  and  the  few  manufactories  and  industrial 
establishments  were  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  Civili- 
zation and  learning,  introduced  during  the  confedera- 
tive  period,  had  never  recovered  the  shock  of  the  Mon- 
gol invasion ;  but  in  later  times  they  entered  R.  through 
the  connection  of  Novgorod  with  the  Hanse  League, 
and  from  intercourse  with  Poland,  though  they  never 
reached  the  rural  population  or  the  lower  classes.  The 
education  even  of  the  higher  classes  was  limited  to 
reading  and  writing,  and  the  first  school  for  classics 
and  theology  made  its  appearance  not  till  Feodor's  reign. 
Fine  arts  were  limited  to  architecture  and  painting  of 
sacred  subjects)  after  the  Byzantine  school.  The  first 
newspaper  appeared  (in  Moscow),  and  the  first  theatre 
was  established,  during  the  reign  of  Alexis.  The  de- 
graded social  condition  and  the  oriental  influence  of  the 
Mongols  left  powerful  traces  on  the  domestic  manners 
and  habits  of  the  Russians,  among  which  were  the  des- 
potic authority  of  the  father  over  his  household,  and  the 
low  position  of  women  in  domestic  life ;  women  of  the 
lower  ranks  being  made  mere  slaves,  while  those  of 
higher  rank  were  completely  excluded  from  social  inter- 
course with  the  other  sex,  and  were  condemned  to  a 
dull  and  dreary  existence  in  their  '  terems.'  Marriages 
were  concluded  by  the  parents  without  consent  of  bride 
and  bridegroom. 

The  history  of  R.  during  Peter  I.'s  reign  is  merely  a 
biography  of  that  monarch :  see  Peter  I.  (Alexeivich) 
for  a  brief  sketch  of  the  numerous  and  important  im- 
provements effected  by  him  in  the  government  and  civili- 
zation of  his  subjects.  It  must,  however,  be  noted,  that, 
in  carrying  out  his  well-meant  schemes,  he  seldom 
consulted  the  national  character  of  his  people,  or  the 
natural  conditions  of  the  country ;  consequently,  when 
the  irresistible  pressure  of  his  high  intellect  and  indomi- 
table will  was  withdrawn,  it  was  found  that,  in  great 
part,  the  civilization  which  he  had  forced  on  his  sub- 
jects was  but  skin-deep. — In  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  his  will,  his  second  wife,  Catharine  I.  (q.v.)  (reigned 
1725-27),  succeeded  him  ;  though  the  old  or  anti-improve- 
ment part  of  the  nobility  supported  the  claims  of  the 
only  son  of  the  unfortunate  Alexei  (q.v.),  Peter  II  (q.v.) 
(reigned  1727-30),  who  soon  afterward  obtained  the  im- 
perial throne.  The  reigns  of  both  these  sovereigns  were 
occupied  with  court  quarrels  and  intrigues,  Menshikoff 
(q.v.)  during  the  former,and  Dolgorouki  during  the  latter, 
being  the  real  rulers. — On  the  death  of  Peter  II.,  the  privy 
council,  setting  aside  the  other  descendants  of  Peter  I., 
conferred  the  crown  on  Anna  (q.v.),  Duchess  of  Courland, 
daughter  of  Ivan.  Her  reign  (1730-40)  was  marked  by 
predominance  at  court  of  the  German  party,  who,  un- 
checked by  the  weak  sovereign,  treated  R.  as  a  great 
emporium  of  plunder,  and  the  Russians  as  barbarians 
(see  Biron).  Under  their  influence,  R.  restored  to 
Persia  her  lost  Caspian  provinces,  and  was  led  into  a 


BUSSIA. 

war  with  Turkey  productive  of  nothing  but  an  immense 
loss  of  men  and  money. — Her  successor  was  Ivan  (reigned 
1740-1),  son  of  her  niece,  the  Duchess  of  Brunswick, 
Anna  Carlovna  (q.v.);  but  he  was  speedily  dethroned  by 
Elizabeth  (q.v.)  (reigned  1741-62),  daughter  of  Peter  I., 
who  deprived  the  German  party  of  the  influence  that  it 
liad  so  shamefully  abused,  restored  the  senate  to  the 
p  >wer  with  which  it  had  been  intrusted  by  Peter  the 
Great,  established  a  regular  system  of  recruiting, 
abolished  tolls,  and  increased  the  duties  on  imports. 
During  her  reign,  French  influence  was  paramount,  and 
the  French  language  supplanted  German  at  court.  R. 
gained  by  the  treaty  of  Abo  (1743)  a  portion  of  Finland, 
and  took  part  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  (q.v.). — Elizabeth's 
nephew  and  successor,  Peter  III.  (q.v.)  (reigned  a  few 
months  in  1762),  put  a  stop  to  all  interference  with  the 
quarrels  of  w.  Europe,  and  introduced  commendable 
ameliorations  of  the  oppressive  enactments  of  his  pre- 
decessors ;  but  he  was  speedily  dethroned  by  his  able 
and  unscrupulous  consort,  who,  as  Catharine  IL  (q.v.) 
(reigned  1762-96),  ascended  the  throne,  and  proved  her- 
self the  greatest  sovereign  of  R.  after  Peter  I.  Her  suc- 
cessful wars  with  Turkey,  Persia,  Sweden,  and  Poland, 
largely  extended  the  limits  of  the  empire ;  and  while  by 
her  foreign  policy  protecting  her  subjects  from  external 
invasion,  she  gave  attention  also  to  internal  reforms. 
The  laws  and  administrative  arrangements  were  revised, 
and  the  empire  was  divided  into  govts,  (an  arrangement 
which,  with  slight  modification,  still  subsists),  each 
govt,  being  under  a  separate  administration,  both  as  to 
polity  and  as  to  justice. — Her  son  and  successor,  Paul  I. 
(q.v.)  (reigned  1796-1801),  at  first,  through  apprehen- 
sion of  the  revolution  in  France,  joined  the  Austrians 
and  British  against  France ;  but  soon  capriciously  with- 
drew, and  was  about  to  begin  war  with  Britain,  when  he 
was  assassinated.  He  gave  freedom  of  worship  to  the 
1  Old  Ritualists,'  which  till  this  time  had  been  withheld ; 
but  he  established  a  severe  censorship  of  the  press,  pro- 
hibited introduction  of  foreign  publications,  and  or- 
ganized a  secret  police. — His  eldest  son,  Alexander  I. 
(q.v.)  (reigned  1801-25,  was  at  the  outset  desirous  of 
peace,  but  was  soon  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  great 
struggle  with  France,  in  which  he  acted  a  prominent, 
though  at  one  period  an  inconsistent,  part :  he  raised 
R.  to  a  place  in  the  first  rank  among  European  states. 
For  the  character  of  his  rule  and  the  internal  improve- 
ments that  he  effected, see  Alexander  I.(Paulowitsch)  ; 
and  for  an  outline  of  the  warlike  operations,  see  Napo- 
lbon  I.  The  Holy  Alliance  (q.v.)  and  the  example  of  con- 
servative policy  set  by  Austria  exercised  a  pernicious 
influence  on  the  latter  part  of  his  reign ;  and  the  higher 
classes,  who  had  looked  for  the  introduction  of  at  least 
a  portion  of  the  liberal  institutions  that  they  had  seen 
and  admired  in  w.  Europe,  became  so  dissatisfied,  that 
w'len  his  youngest  brother,  Nicholas  I.  (q.v.)  (reigned 
1825-55),  from  whom  they  had  nothing  to  hope,  sue- 


RUSSIA. 


ceeded,  they  broke  into  open  rebellion,  which  was 
speedily  crushed.  A  stop  was  now  put  to  the  rapid  ad- 
vance of  R.'s  prosperity ;  wars  were  declared  with  Persia 
and  Turkey ;  and  a  long  and  deadly  struggle  commenced 
with  the  Caucasian  mountaineers — all  for  the  ill-con- 
cealed object  of  extending  Russian  domination ;  and  the 
cession  of  Erivan  and  Nahituvan  by  Persia,  of  the  plain 
of  the  Kuban,  of  the  protectorate  of  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities, and  of  the  free  right  of  navigation  of  the 
Black  Sea,  the  Dardanelles,  and  the  Danube  by  Turkey, 
only  whetted  the  appetite  for  more  spoil.  In  1830, 
Nicholas  converted  Poland  (q.v.)  into  a  Russian  prov- 
ince ;  1849  he  officiously  aided  Austria  in  quelling  the 
insurrection  of  the  Magyars ;  1853  his  almost  irresisti- 
ble craving  for  more  territory  led  him  (probably  under 
the  impression  that  Turkey  would  stand  alone,  as  she 
had  done  hitherto)  into  the  Crimean  War  (q.v.),  in  which, 
though  the  allies,  Britain,  France,  and  Sardinia,  did  not 
obtain  any  decided  success,  R.  suffered  immense  loss  of 
military  prestige  on  the  Danube,  at  Silistria,  on  the  Alma, 
and  before  Sebastopol,  and  was  almost  drained  of  her 
vast  resources  of  men  and  money. — The  accession  of 
Nicholas's  son,  Alexander  II.  (reigned  1855-81) — one  of 
whose  first  acts  was  the  conclusion  of  the  Peace  of 
Paris  (1856),  by  which  R.  lost  the  right  of  navigation  on 
the  Danube,  a  strip  of  territory  n.  of  that  river,  and  the 
unrestricted  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea — was  the 
signal  for  revival  of  those  schemes  of  reform  which  had 
been  crushed  so  despotically  by  the  late  czar.  Alexan- 
der's first  great  reform  was  the  abolition  of  serfdom,  thus 
creating  14  millions  of  new  free  citizens.  Corporal  pun- 
ishment, and  the  farming-system  of  the  indirect  taxes, 
were  abolished ;  and  the  judicial  power  was  separated 
from  the  administrative,  and  founded  on  trial  by 
jury.  The  insurrection  in  Poland  (q.v.),  1863-4,  was 
suppressed  with  extreme  severity;  and  1868  the 
last  relics  of  Polish  independence  disappeared  in 
the  thorough  incorporation  of  the  kingdom  with  the 
Russian  empire.  The  subjugation  of  the  Caucasus 
was  completed  1859.  Successive  expeditions,  among 
the  last  those  against  Khiva  and  Khokan,  resulted 
in  establishing  Russian  supremacy  over  all  the  states 
of  Turkestan.  In  1876,  on  the  death  of  the  gov.gen. 
of  the  Baltic  Provinces,  their  administration  was 
merged  in  that  of  the  central  govt.  R.  in  1870  intimated 
that  she  no  longer  felt  bound  by  certain  conditions  of 
the  treaty  of  1856,  and  in  a  conference  at  London  1871 
her  claims  were  admitted.  The  misgovernment  of 
Christian  subjects  by  Turkey,  and  the  cruel  suppression 
by  the  same  power  of  incipient  rebellion  in  Bulgaria 
1876,  led  to  a  conference  of  the  European  powers  at 
Constantinople.  Turkey  rejected  the  proposals  of  the 
conference  for  better  administration  of  the  subject 
provinces  ;  and  R.,  to  enforce  these  concessions  on  Tur- 
key, declared  war  1877,  Apr.  At  first  the  Russian  prog- 
ress was  rapid;  but  the  energy  of  the  Turks  during  the 


RUSSIA. 

summer  compelled  the  invaders  largely  to  augment  their 
forces  both  in  Bulgaria  and  in  Armenia.  The  chief 
events  in  the  war  were  the  desperate  but  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  expel  the  Russians  from  the  Shipka  Pass  in 
the  Balkans,  the  fall  of  the  Turkish  fortress  of  Kars  in 
Nov.,  the  resolute  defense  of  Plevna  by  Osman  Pasha 
from  July  till  Dec,  and  the  capture  of  the  Turkish  army 
of  the  Shipka  in  Jan.  The  armistice  signed  1878,  Jan., 
was  followed  in  March  by  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano; 
and  after  diplomatic  difficulties  that  seemed  for  a  time 
likely  to  issue  in  war  between  R.  and  England,  a  con- 
gress of  the  great  powers  met  at  Berlin  1878,  June,  and 
sanctioned  the  rearrangement  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
(see  Turkey)  and  the  cession  to  Russia  of  the  part  of 
Bessarabia  given  to  Moldavia  1856,  as  also  of  the  port 
of  Batum,  of  Kars,  and  of  Ardahan.  The  growth  of 
Nihilism  (q.v.)  and  of  revolutionary  discontent,  leading 
to  severe  repressive  measures,  occasioned  many  murder- 
ous outrages,  culminating  in  the  assassination  of  Alex- 
ander II.  1881. — He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alex- 
ander III.  (Alexandrovitch)  (q.v),  who  died  in  1894, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Nikolas  II. 

In  1891-2  R.  suffered  severely  from  a  famine  caused 
by  a  great  drought  and  a  consequent  failure  of  general 
crops.  The  terr.  afflicted  comprised  13  provinces  of  Eu- 
ropean R.  where  the  suffering  was  general,  and  5  other 
provinces  where  it  was  partial.  The  13  provinces  cov- 
ered a  very  extensive  area,  containing  a  population  of 
many  millions.  The  govt,  appropriated  $75,000,000 
toward  relieving  the  distress  by  providing  food  and 
work;  a  central  famine  committee  was  appointed;  and 
the  Red  Cross  Soc.  undertook  the  distribution  of  sup- 
plies. The  principal  foreign  aid  was  from  the  U.  S., 
whose  people  sent  nearly  25,000,000  lbs.  of  flour,  grain, 
and  breadstuff s,  besides  large  sums  of  money. 

The  most  noteworthy  events  between  the  accession  of 
Nikolas  II.  and  the  opening  of  the  war  with  Japan 
(1904),  exclusive  of  the  international  complications 
leading  thereto,  were  (1896)  the  negotiation  with  China 
of  a  convention  permitting  the  construction  by  R.  of  the 
Siberian  railroad  across  Northern  Manchuria  by  which 
the  route  to  Vladivostok  would  be  greatly  shortened; 

(1898)  the  calling  by  the  czar  of  an  international  peace 
conference,  which  was  held  at  The  Hague  in  1899,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  international 
arbitration  tribunal  with  headquarters  in  that  city; 

(1899)  the  negotiation  of  an  agreement  with  Great  Brit- 
ain concerning  their  respective  aims  and  interests  as  to 
railroad  development  in  China ;  (1900)  the  participation 
by  R.  in  the  milit.  movements  in  China  and  Manchuria 
following  the  Boxer  uprising  (see  Boxers;  Chinese  Em- 


RUSSIA. 

tire)  ;  (1901)  the  excommunication  of  Count  Tolstoi  by 
the  Holy  Synod,  which  caused  an  outbreak  of  several 
thousand  students  in  St.  Petersburg,  Odessa,  Kharkoff, 
and  Moscow,  and  an  attempt  to  assassinate  M.  Robied- 
ouostzeff,  the  procurator  of  the  synod;  (1902)  the 
serious  labor  strikes  and  riots  throughout  central  R., 
caused  by  the  refusal  of  the  authorities  to  grant  the  de- 
mand of  the  workmen  for  permission  to  organize  trade 
unions  on  the  English  models,  and  leading  to  the  pro- 
clamation of  martial  law  in  five  districts  of  the  province 
of  Poltava;  and  (1903)  the  massacre  of  Jews  and  de- 
struction of  their  property  in  Kishineff  (q.v.),  the 
proclamation  of  a  new  tariff  which  increased  the  rates 
of  the  previous  one  50  per  cent,  on  a  large  majority  of 
imports  and  over  100  per  cent>  on  many  important 
groups,  the  imperial  decree  granting  to  all  subjects  of 
other  than  the  national  religion  and  to  all  foreign  con- 
fessions freedom  of  creed  and  worship  according  to  their 
own  rites,  and  the  decree  placing  all  the  property  of  the 
Armenian  church  in  R.,  excepting  the  churches  in  St. 
Petersburg  and  Moscow,  under  the  control  of  the  Rus- 
sian crown  minister. 

The  causes  of  the  war  with  Japan  in  1904  are  trace- 
able to  the  outcome  of  the  Chino- Japanese  war  of  1895. 
In  the  Shimonoseki  treaty  of  peace  China  ceded  to 
Japan  the  Siao-Tung  peninsula  and  its  appurtenant 
islands  together  with  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores,  and 
recognized  the  full  and  complete  independence  of  Corea. 
R.  protested  against  the  Siao-Tung  cession,  and  was  sup- 
ported in  so  doing  by  her  ally,  iiance,  and  by  Germany, 
and  because  of  this  opposition  Japan  relinquished  the 
peninsula  and  received  as  compensation  an  additional 
irdemnity.  An  alleged  secret  treaty  between  R.  and 
China  gave  the  former  permission  to  extend  the  Siberian 
railroad  to  Hunch-au  and  Kirin,  China  reserving  the 
power  to  acquire  the  lines  so  constructed  after  30  years. 
The  port  of  Kiao-chow,  on  the  Yellow  Sea,  was  also 
offered  to  or  demanded  by  R.,  who  agreed  to  aid  China 
in  defending  Port  Arthur  and  Talien-wau;  but  late  in 
1897  Germany  demanded  of  China  the  grant  of  the  port 
of  Kiao-chow  for  a  coaling  station,  and  almost  im- 
mediately afterward  R.  occupied  Port  Arthur  with  a 
fleet  on  the  assertion  that  her  ships  would  simply  win- 
ter there.  Early  in  1898  Germany  received  Kiao-chow 
on  99  years'  lease;  Great  Britain  offered  to  supply 
China  with  a  loan  of  $60,000,000  on  condition  that  three 
new  treaty  ports,  including  Talien-wau,  should  be  opened 
to  the  world's  trade  and  that  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  valley 
should  not  be  alienated  to  any  other  Power;  R.  protested 
against  opening  Talien-wau  and  demanded  of  China  that 
Port  Arthur,  Talien-wau,  and  the  adjacent  territory 
should  be  leased  to  her  for  the  same  time  and  under  the 
same  terms  as  Kiao-chow  had  been  leased  to  Germany. 
This  demand  of  R.  was  granted,  excepting  that  the  time 
was  reduced  to  25  years  with  power  of  extension,  and 


RUSSIA. 

the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  acquired  by  Japan  as  a  fruit  of 
war  and  relinquished  under  duress  of  R.,  France  and 
Germany  was  occupied  by  R.,  1898,  March  28,  Wei-hai- 
wei,  on  the  opposite  point  of  the  Chinese  mainland,  was 
soon  afterward  occupied  by  Great  Britain. 

In  the  meantime  it  was  declared  that  R.  had  agreed 
not  to  impede  Japanese  industry  or  commerce  in  Corea ; 
and  it  soon  became  an  unquestioned  fact  that  Japan  had 
acquired  paramount  interests  in  that  empire.  In  1899 
R.  demanded  of  China  a  concession  for  a  branch  line  to 
connect  the  Trans-Manchurian  railroad  system  and  Port 
Arthur  with  Peking;  but  Great  Britain  succecssfully 
opposed  this  as  a  menace  to  her  own  Niu-chwang  system, 
In  what  is  known  as  the  Manchurian  convention  between 
R.  and  China  the  former  agreed  "if  no  further  rebellion 
occurs  and  action  on  the  part  of  other  Powers  does  not 
interfere"  to  withdraw  her  forces  from  Manchuria  with- 
in three  years  (i.e.  1903).  The  terms  of  this  convention 
were  not  made  known  till  1901,  in  which  year  China 
further  agreed  to  permit  R.  to  station  a  political  resi- 
dent in  Mukden,  Niu-chwang,  and  other  places  occupied 
by  R.  till  R.  should  be  satisfied  that  the  pacification  of 
the  province  was  complete,  and  Japan  remonstrated 
against  the  policy  of  R.  in  Manchuria.  By  this  time 
China  appeared  powerless  to  resist  the  ever-increasing 
demands  of  R.,  even  with  the  assurance  of  the  moral  and 
other  support  of  Great  Britain,  and  Japan  viewed  with 
alarm  for  her  interests  in  Corea  the  steady  movement  of 
R.  to  control  all  of  Manchuria. 

A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  more  clearly  the  politi- 
cal situation  of  the  interested  nations  at  this  time:  R. 
dominating  Manchuria,  building  the  new  seaport  of 
Dalny,  and  making  Port  Arthur  an  imposing  naval  sta- 
tion; Japan  dominating  Corea;  Great  Britain,  having  a 
protective  alliance  with  Japan,  occupying  Wei-hai-wei; 
and  Germany  controlling  Kiao-chow  and  its  vicinity.  Be- 
tween the  Japanese  in  Corea  and  the  Russians  in  Man- 
churia wound  the  boundary  river  of  Yalu. 

In  1903,  July,  a  number  of  important  conferences  of 
all  the  chief  officials  of  R.  in  the  Far  East  was  held  at 
Port  Arthur,  and  Aug.  12,  by  an  imperial  ukase  the 
Amur  district  and  the  Kwan-tung  territory  were  formed 
into  a  special  viceroyalty  of  R.  under  the  command  of 
Admiral  Alexieff.  Near  the  close  of  this  year  the  rela- 
tions of  Japan,  Corea,  China  and  R.  passed  to  the  stage 
of  diplomatic  action.  Japan  contended,  in  brief,  that 
R.  should  keep  her  pledge  concerning  the  evacuation  of 
Manchuria,  should  recognize  Japan's  paramount  inter- 
ests in  Corea,  and  should  acknowledge  the  sovereignty 
of  China  over  her  Manchurian  province.  R.  agreed  to 
permit  Japan  to  act  in  her  economic  interests  in 
South  Corea  and  to  adopt  strategic  measures  to  con- 
serve those  interests;  to  allow  her  full  commercial  free- 
dom of  action  in  North  Corea,  but  prohibiting  her  per- 
manent occupation  of  fortified  towns;  and,  while  declin- 


RUSSIA. 

ing  to  accept  any  conditions  concerning  Manchuria,  to 
permit  Japan  and  other  Powers  to  represent  their  in- 
terests there,  embracing  the  'open  door'  for  Mukden 
and  Niu-chwang.  R.  also  proposed  a  neutral  zone  on 
each  side  of  the  Yalu  and  Tuwen  rivers. 

The  breaking  off  by  Japan  of  diplomatic  relations 
with  R.  on  1904,  Feb.  6;  her  opening  of  hostilities  at 
Chemulpo,  Corea,  and  at  Port  Arthur,  Manchuria,  Feb. 
8  and  9,  the  successful  advance  through  Corea,  across 
the  Yalu  and  into  Manchuria  everywhere  victorious, 
was  a  serious  blow  to  Russian  prestige,  which  overthrew 
all  the  cherished  schemes  of  Far  Eastern  colonization. 
See  Russo-Japanese  War. 

Two  features  of  the  early  part  of  the  struggle  had  a 
special  interest  to  Americans.  A  few  days  before  hos- 
tilities began  the  U.  S.  and  Japan  negotiated  a  treaty 
for  the  opening  to  foreign  trade  of  Mukden  and  Autung, 
both  in  Manchuria,  and,  1904,  Feb.  17,  in  response  to 
an  application  by  the  U.  S.,  the  Corean  govt,  opened  the 
port  of  Wiju,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Yalu  and  near 
Autung.  On  Feb.  10,  Secretary  Hay  sent  an  identical 
note  to  all  the  Powers  signatory  of  the  Peking  protocol, 
urging  that  in  the  war  the  neutrality  and  administra- 
tive entity  of  China  should  be  respected  by  both  bellig- 
erents and  the  area  of  hostilities  limited  as  much  as 
possible.  A  more  or  less  favorable  response  was  re- 
ceived from  each  of  the  Powers  addressed.  The  opening 
of  the  Manchurian  ports  and  Secretary  Hay's  note  were 
considered  at  the  time  as  master-strokes  of  American 
diplomacy. 

The  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  throne  (see  Alexei 
Nikolaievitch  )  was  the  occasion  for  a  proclamation  of 
amnesty  and  political  reform,  in  which  a  general  par- 
don is  granted  to  all  political  offenders  not  charged  with 
murder,  and  a  general  reduction  is  announced  in  sen- 
tences for  common-law  offenses.  Further,  corporal  pun- 
ishment for  peasants,  and  for  first  offenses  among  the 
sea  and  land  forces  is  abolished.  Fines  imposed  upon 
Jewish  communes  in  the  cases  of  Jews  avoiding  military 
service  are  remitted;  and  there  is  a  like  remission  of  the 
fines  imposed  on  the  rural  and  urban  communes  in  Fin- 
land that  made  opposition  to  the  conscription  in  1902-3. 

A  portion  of  the  Russian  Baltic  fleet  en  route  to  the 
Far  East,  came  upon  an  English  fishing  fleet  in  the 
North  Sea  in  the  night  of  Oct.  22-23,  and,  mistaking  the 
trawlers  for  Japanese  torpedo  boats,  fired  upon  them, 
sinking  one  of  the  fisher-craft,  killing  the  captain  and 
third  mate,  and  wounding  several  of  the  crew.  The 
British  govt,  immediately  demanded  an  apology  for  the 
act,  indemnification  for  the  injury,  and  punishment  of 
the  naval  officers  concerned.  The  Czar  expressed  to  the 
British  King  his  profound  regret  for  the  occurrence,  and 
promised  full  reparation.  To  investigate  the  matter, 
and  fix  the  responsibility  the  two  governments  agreed 


RUSSIA. 

to  submit  the  questions  at  issue  to  a  court  of  The  Hague 
Commission. 

The  minister  of  the  interior,  Vatsheshaf  Constantino- 
vitch  von  Plehve,  leader  of  the  reactionary  party,  and 
believed  to  be  responsible  for  the  massacres  of  Jews,  the 
oppression  of  Finland,  and  in  some  degree  the  war  with 
Japan,  was  assassinated  at  St.  Petersburg  July  28.  His 
successor,  Prince  Sviatopolk-Mirsky  (q.v.),  in  con- 
sonance with  the  Czar's  proclamation  of  amnesty  and  re- 
form, ordered  an  assembly  of  the  Finnish  national  diet 
to  be  held  in  December;  approved  the  return  of  promi- 
nent Finlanders  from  exile;  and  relaxed  the  censorship 
of  the  press,  so  that  newspapers  in  R.  were  permitted 
freely  to  express  liberal  opinions  on  questions  of  ad- 
ministration and  even  on  the  war  policy  of  the  govt. 
More  significant  even  than  this,  a  convention  of  repre- 
sentatives of  38  provincial  Zemstvos  was  permitted  to 
be  held  in  St.  Petersburg  in  the  middle  of  Nov.,  and  a 
memorial  expressing  their  views  as  to  needed  reforms 
was  presented  to  the  emperor,  and  graciously  accepted 
for  consideration  by  him. 

On  the  10th  of  May,  1906,  the  Imperial  Douma  (q.v.) 
assembled  in  St.  Petersburg,  in  compliance  with  the  Em- 
peror's proclamation,  and  among  its  first  acts  were  de- 
mands for  the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty  throughout 
Russia,  universal  amnesty  for  all  persons  convicted  of 
political  crimes,  the  immediate  liberation  of  those  in 
prisons  accused  of  such  offenses,  universal  suffrage,  in- 
cluding women,  and  a  distribution  of  the  lands  among 
the  people.  Other  sweeping  reforms  were  subsequently 
demanded,  all  of  which  were  ignored  by  the  Government. 
Only  one  of  the  demands  of  the  Douma  was  counte- 
nanced by  the  Czar  and  his  advisers,  namely,  that  of 
universal  suffrage,  and  this  was  accompanied  by  a  dec- 
laration on  their  part  that  such  a  policy  would  produce 
a  more  conservative  Douma  than  the  one  then  in  session. 
On  the  26th  of  May  a  crisis  was  reached  in  the  conflict 
between  the  opposing  elements,  when  Premier  Goremy- 
kin  dismissed,  in  the  name  of  the  Czar,  practically  all 
of  the  proposals  of  the  parliament.  This  was  followed, 
June  18th,  by  the  Emperor  placing  in  the  hands  of  the 
premier  a  ukase  dissolving  the  Douma,  a  blank  space 
being  left  for  the  date  to  be  filled  in  at  pleasure  by  the 
complaisant  minister;  whereupon  the  Douma  passed  a 
resolution  declaring  that  it  would  not  dissolve.  These 
acts  intensified  the  hatred  between  the  people  and  the 
governing  classes,  a  vast  majority  of  the  former  evident- 
ly being  in  favor  of  a  republican  form  of  government. 
The  Douma  was  assured  of  the  hearty  support  of  the 
people,  and  the  army,  upon  which  the  Czar  and  his  ad- 
herents relied,  manifested  such  evident  sympathy  with 
the  popular  movement  as  to  shatter  faith  in  the  belief 
that  it  would  continue  to  support  reactionary  measures. 


RUSSIAN  BAPTISTS. 

Meanwhile  another  terrible  massacre  of  Jews  had 
taken  place  at  Bialystok,  resulting  in  the  murder  of 
between  four  and  five  hundred  men,  women  and  children, 
and  on  investigation  by  a  commission  appointed  for  the 
purpose  by  the  Douma  it  was  found  that  the  outrage 
had  been  instigated  by  the  Czar's  officials.  The  chief 
instigator  was  even  promoted  'for  his  loyalty.'  This 
outrage  was  followed  by  a  flame  of  discontent  through- 
out the  empire.  Murder,  outrage  and  robbery  became 
rife  everywhere,  while  in  the  country  districts  the  starv- 
ing peasants  burnt  villages  and  estates  and  helped  them- 
selves to  the  grain  and  provisions  which  had  been  stored 
by  the  landlords.  Mutterings  of  discontent  were  no 
longer  confined  to  the  regular  army  and  navy,  but  ex- 
tended even  to  the  Cossacks,  whom  the  Emperor  had 
previously  relied  upon  to  support  him  under  all  condi- 
tions. Declarations  in  the  Douma  became  bold  and 
pronounced  in  the  extreme.  The  ministers  of  Justice 
and  of  War  were  driven  from  the  tribune  with  cries  of 
'hangman'  and  'assassin'  and  threats  of  -personal  vio- 
lence. At  length,  M.  Kokoshkine,  a  leader  ol  the  con- 
stitutional democrats,  made  this  startling  assertion  in 
open  parliament:  'If  it  dares  to  fight,  the  government 
can,  of  course,  disperse  the  parliament;  but  the  victory 
of  the  bureaucracy  would  only  be  temporary.  It  would 
inevitably  be  followed  shortly  by  a  bloody  revolution, 
which  would  not  leave  a  stick  of  the  present  government 
standing.  The  Emperor  must  choose  between  a  real  con- 
stitutional government  and  the  loss,  not  only  of  his 
crown,  but  probably  of  his  head.'  Affairs  in  the  empire 
seem  to  have  reached  a  point  where  there  can  be  no 
retrogression,  and  among  the  hopeful  probabilities  of  the 
near  future  is  the  people  of  Russia  will  obtain  a  much 
larger  share  of  constitutional  rights  in  shaping  the 
policies  and  destiny  of  the  nation. 

RUSSIAN  BAPTISTS,  members  of  a  political  and 
social  faction  in  Russia,  known  also  as  Stundists. 
Originally  the  Stundist  movement  was  religious  and 
would  have  remained  thus  except  for  government  inter- 
ference. The  orthodox  priests,  aided  by  the  police  and 
the  courts,  entered  upon  a  vigorous  campaign  of  perse- 
cution, with  the  result  that  the  Stundist  movement 
developed  into  political  and  social  radicalism.  From 
association  with  their  foreign  brethren,  the  Russian 
Baptists  gained  some  knowledge  of  the  political  institu- 
tions of  other  countries  where  the  state  does  not  inter- 
fere with  the  religious  beliefs  of  its  citizens.  There  are 
among  them  moderate  liberals,  with  whom  the  para- 
mount issue  is  the  separation  of  the  Church  from  the 
state  and  a  constitutional  government,  as  a  guarantee 
of  religious  ad  civil  liberty. 


RUSSIAN  CHURCH. 

RUSSIAN  CHURCH :  community  of  Christians  sub- 
ject to  the  emperor  of  Russia,  using  the  Slavonic  liturgy, 
and  following  the  Russian  rite.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced into  Russia  in  the  9th  c.  (see  Olga)  ;  but  it  was 
not  till  the  end  of  the  10th  that  the  foundation  was  reg- 
ularly laid.  In  the  great  schism  between  the  churches 
of  Constantinople  and  Rome,  the  R.  C.  naturally  followed 
silently  in  the  train  of  Constantinople ;  yet,  at  the  time 
of  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439),  the  adherents  of  the 
Roman  Church  throughout  Russia  were  as  numerous  as 
those  of  the  Greek  party.  The  complete  separation  of 
the  R.  C.  from  Rome  was  effected  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  same  century. 

For  more  than  a  century  from  this  date,  the  R.  C.  con- 
tinued directly  subject  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple ;  but  1588  the  patriarch  Jeremias,  being  in  Russia, 
held  a  synod  of  the  Russian  bishops,  and  erected  the  see 
of  Moscow  into  a  patriarchate,  with  jurisdiction  over 
the  entire  territory ;  this  decree  being  confirmed  by  a 
synod  at  Constantinople.  This  dignity,  however,  was 
subordinate  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  the 
subordination  was  acquiesced  in  till  the  reign  of  Alexei 
Michailowitch,  father  of  Peter  the  Great,  when  the  pa- 
triarch of  Moscow,  Nikon,  refused  to  acknowledge  it 
further.  The  pretensions  of  this  prelate  and  of  his  suc- 
cessors, however,  gave  offense  to  the  czar,  and  one  of 
the  first  among  the  great  schemes  for  reorganization  of 
his  empire,  conceived  by  Peter  the  Great,  was  .the  direct 
subordination  of  the  church  to  the  headship  of  the  em- 
peror. On  the  death  of  the  patriarch  Adrian,  1700,  he 
did  not  fill  the  vacant  dignity,  but  appointed  in  the 
mean  time  as  acting  director  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  a 
bishop,  with  the  title  Exarch.  After  an  interval  of  20 
years,  the  public  mind  having  been  taught  to  forget  the 
patriarchate,  that  office  was  formally  abolished  1721 ; 
and  the  permanent  administration  of  church  affairs  was 
placed  under  the  direction  of  a  council,  called  the  6  Holy 
Synod/  or  *  Permanent  Synod,'  consisting  of  abp.,  bps., 
and  archimandrites,  all  named  by  the  emperor.  Under 
direction  of  this  council,  a  series  of  official  acts  and  for- 
mularies, and  catechetical,  doctrinal,  and  disciplinary 
treatises  was  drawn  up,  by  which  the  whole  scheme  of 
the  doctrine,  discipline,  and  church  govt,  of  the  R.  C. 
was  settled  in  detail,  and  to  which  all  members  of  the 
clergy,  and  all  officials  and  dignitaries,  are  required  to 
subscribe.  The  leading  principle  of  the  new  constitu- 
tion thus  imposed  is  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the  czar ; 
and  to  mark  still  more  signally  the  principle  that  the 
crown  is  the  source  of  all  church  dignity  and  of  all  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction,  the  arrangement  of  provinces, 
archbishoprics,  and  bishoprics  was  completely  changed ; 
the  old  metropolitan  sees,  as  they  became  vacant,  were 
filled  with  simple  bps.,  not  with  abps.  as  before;  and  a 
new  arrangement  of  archbishoprics  was  established, 
partly  by  act  of  the  czar  himself,  partly  by  interposition 
t  Synod. 


RUSSIAN  CHURCH. 

The  constitution  of  the  R.  C.  established  by  Peter  has 
been  maintained  in  substance  to  the  present  time.  The 
Holy  Synod  is  one  of  the  great  departments  of  the  govt., 
the  minister  of  public  worship  being  ex  officio  a  member. 
One  of  the  most  cherished  objects  of  the  traditional  im- 
perial policy  of  Russia  has  been  to  effect  uniformity  of 
religious  profession  throughout  the  empire.  Dissent  in 
all  its  forms  has  not  only  been  discouraged,  but  in  many 
cases  rigorously  and  even  cruelly  repressed ;  and  as  the 
Rom.  Cath.  dissentients  from  the  R.  C.  form  the  most 
numerous  and  the  most  formidable  class,  they  have 
generally,  but  more  particularly  under  Czar  Nicholas, 
been  the  object  of  especial  severity. 

As  regards  doctrine,  the  R.  C.  may  be  regarded  as 
identical  with  the  common  body  of  the  Gkeek  Church 
(q.  v.).  With  that  church,  the  R.  C.  rejects  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope,  and  the  double  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(see  Filioque).  All  the  great  characteristics  of  its  dis- 
cipline, too,  are  the  same ;  the  differences  of  ceremonial 
which  exist,  though  in  many  cases  considered  by  the 
Russians  themselves  of  vital  importance,  being  in  them- 
selves unimportant.  On  one  point  some  explanation 
may  be  required  :  the  liturgy  of  the  R.  C.  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople ;  but  it  is  celebrated 
not  in  the  Greek,  but  in  the  Slavonic  language.  The 
service-books,  however,  are  not  in  modern  Russian,  but 
in  the  ancient  languages,  such  as  when  they  were  origi- 
nally translated,  except  the  modification  which  they 
underwent  at  the  time  of  the  patriarch  Nikon  (see  Ras- 
KOLNiKS :  Philippins),  and  the  further  revision  under 
Czar  Peter.  The  discipline  as  to  the  marriage  of  the 
clergy  is  the  same  as  that  described  for  the  Greek 
Church;  and  in  carrying  out  the  law  which  enforces 
celibacy  on  bishops,  the  Russians  adopt  the  same  ex- 
pedient with  the  Greeks — viz.,  selecting  the  bishops  from 
among  the  monks,  who  are  celibates  in  virtue  of  their 
vow. 

Besides  the  established  R.  C.  there  exists  also  in 
Russia  a  considerable  body  of  dissenters  of  various  kinds. 
For  one  class  of  these,  see  Raskolniks.  But  by  far 
the  most  numerous  dissenters  are  the  Rom.  Catholics, 
chiefly  in  Poland  and  White  Russia.  At  the  partition  of 
Poland,  a  special  provision  was  made  for  the  Rom.  Cath. 
people  of  Poland,  under  the  new  govt.,  by  the  erection 
of  an  archbishopric  in  communion  with  Rome,  at  Mohi- 
lev  1783;  and  the  organization  was  still  more  formally 
completed  by  the  czar  Paul,  who  established  1798  five 
bishoprics  under  that  metropolitan  see;  and  the  ar- 
rangements of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  having  somewhat 
deranged  these  ecclesiastical  dispositions,  a  new  arrange- 
ment was  entered  into  by  Pius  VII.  1818.  But  it  can- 
not  be  doubted  that  the  whole  policy  of  the  Russian 
govt.,  in  reference  to  the  church,  makes  it  almost  impos- 
sible that  they  should  permit  free  exercise  of  worship 
and  of  thought  to  the  Catholics  in  communion  with 
Rome.   The  direct  legislation,  and  still  more  the  prac- 


EUSSIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.- 
tical  administration  of  Russia  in  Poland,  in  reference  to 
marriage,  to  church  property,  to  conventual  establish- 
ments, and  to  ecclesiastical  regulations  generally,  has 
been  a  policy  of  repression  and  of  compulsory  prosely- 
tism.  This  policy  has  been  more  sedulously  pursued 
since  the  recent  reorganization  of  Poland.  In  1867  the 
archbishopric  of  Warsaw  was  abolished,  and  all  the 
Rom.  Catholics  of  the  empire  were  made  subject  to  the 
abp.  of  Mohilev. 

The  govt,  appropriates  annually  about  $5,500,000  for 
the  support  of  the  Holy  Synod. — For  numbers  of  adher- 
ents to  various  creeds,  see  Russia. 

RUSSIAN  LANGUAGE  and  LITERATURE :  princi- 
pal Slavic  language  and  literature. — Russian,as  a  member 
of  the  Slavic  family  of  languages,  became  a  written  lan- 
guage first  in  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  till  which 
period  the  Old  Slavic — the  language  of  the  church — had 
been  the  only  medium  of  literary  expression,  and  had, 
in  consequence,  exercised  important  influence  on  the 
Russian  popular  speech,  as  on  that  of  other  Slavic 
dialects.  The  Mongol  conquest,  and  the  preponderance 
of  Polish  elements  in  w.  parts  of  the  empire,  also  intro- 
duced into  the  Russian  language  a  great  number  of  Mon- 
golian and  Polish  expressions ;  in  addition  to  which,  the 
efforts  of  Peter  the  Great  to  give  his  subjects  the  bene- 
fits of  western  culture  enlarged  the  Russian  vocabulary, 
especially  in  arts  and  industry,  with  numerous  German, 
French,  and  Dutch  words.  The  chief  characteristics  of 
Russian,  as  a  language,  are  simplicity  and  naturalness. 
The  grammatical  connection  of  sentences  is  slight,  and 
the  number  of  conjunctions  scanty.  Perspicuity  and 
expressiveness  are  obtained  by  the  freedom  allowed  in 
placing  of  words.  Auxiliary  verbs  and  articles  there  are 
none ;  while  personal  pronouns  may  or  may  not  be  used 
with  verbs.  The  vocabulary  of  Russian  is  very  rich — 
foreign  words  being  Russianized.  The  capability  of  the 
language  for  forming  compounds  and  derivatives  is  bo 
great,  that  from  a  single  root  not  less  than  2,000  words 
are  sometimes  derived.  The  purest  and  most  grammat- 
ical Russian  is  spoken  in  the  centre,  about  Moscow. 
The  oldest  Russian  Grammar  is  that  of  Ludolf  (Oxf. 
1696) ;  others  are  the  Grammars  of  the  St.  Petersburg 
Acad.  (1802),  of  Gretsch  (Petersb.  1823 ;  new  ed.  1834), 
and  of  Vostokov  (10th  ed.  Petersb.  1859).  A  Russian 
Grammar  for  Englishmen  was  pub.  St.  Petersburg  1822; 
another  (by  Heard)  1827.  The  best  Dictionaries  are 
those  of  the  Russian  Acad.  (4  vols.  Petersb.  1847),  of 
Heym  (1803-05),  of  Schmidt  (Leip.  1815),  Oldekop  (4  vols. 
1825)  Sokolov  (Petersb.  1834),  Reiff  (1862),  Paulovski 
(1859).  There  is  an  English-Russian  grammar  and  dic- 
tionary by  Constantinoff  (3  vols.). 

The  beginnings  of  Russian  literature  are  contempora- 
neous with  the  introduction  of  Christianity  by  the  mis- 
sionaries Cyril  (q.v.)  and  Method,  who  employed  the  Old 
Slavi"  church-tongue  for  literary  purposes.     To  this 


KTJSSIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE. 
earliest  period  belongs — besides  the  Prawda  Ruskaja,  a 
book  on  law — the  noted  history  or  chronicle  of  Nesto- 
rius.  After  the  subjugation  of  Eussia  by  the  Tartars, 
knowledge  withdrew  into  the  shelter  of  the  monasteries, 
whence  proceeded  several  important  historical  works. 
During  this  foreign  domination,  the  Eussian  people  seem 
to  have  sought  consolation  and  hope  in  writing  patriot- 
ic ballads  and  songs  about  their  great  hero-kiDg,  Vladi- 
mir— the  Eussian  Charlemagne  ;  the  most  celebrated  of 
which  is  Igor's  Expedition  against  the  Polowzi  (Berl.  1855). 
When  at  length  the  country  was  freed  from  Mongol 
oppression  by  Ivan  L,  1478,  Eussian  literature  received 
fresh  impulse ;  but  so  tardy  were  its  motions,  so  circum- 
scribed its  achievements,  that,  till  the  18th  c,  the  only 
notable  names  are  the  metropolitan  Makarius  (d.  1564), 
who  wrote  Lives  of  the  Saints,  etc. ;  Zizania,  author  of  a 
Slavic  Grammar  (Wilna  1596) ;  and  Matviejev  (17th  c), 
who  composed  historical  and  heraldic  works.  The  czar 
Alexei  Michailowitch  (whose  prime-minister  Matviejev 
was)  caused  a  valuable  collection  of  Eussian  laws  to  be 
printed  1644,  and  founded  an  acad.  at  Moscow,  in  which 
grammar,  rhetoric,  poetry,  dialectics,  philosophy,  and 
theology  were  taught.  But  from  political  causes,  the 
Polish  element  then  began  to  predominate  in  Eussian 
literature,  and  continued  so,  more  or  less,  until  the  time 
of  Peter  the  Great,  who  made  his  native  language  the 
universal  vehicle  of  communication  in  business  and 
writing.  He  established  schools  and  founded  the  St. 
Petersburg  Acad.  During  his  reign,  the  metropolitans 
Demetrius  (1651-1709)  and  Javorskij  (1658-1722);  the 
abp.  Prokopovitch  (1681-1736);  Sellij  (d.  1746);  the 
national  historian  Tatishshev  (1686-1750) ;  the  poet 
Kantemir;  and  the  Cossacks  Klimovskij  and  Danilov 
were  the  most  distinguished  supports  of  literature.  The 
first  to  place  on  a  firm  basis  the  Eussian  metrical  sys- 
tem was  Trediakovskij  (1703-69).  In  the  period  that 
followed  the  death  of  Peter,  the  writer  that  exercised 
the  strongest  influence  on  Eussian  literature  wasLomo- 
nossov,  who  first  drew  the  lines  of  distinction  sharply 
between  Old  Slavic  and  Eussian,  and  established  the 
literary  supremacy  of  the  dialect  of  Great  Eussia. 
Among  his  successors,  the  poet  Sumarokov  (1718-77) 
did  service  in  development  of  the  Eussian  drama ;  so  did 
Kniashnin  (1742-91),  whose  pieces  still  keep  their  place 
on  the  Eussian  stage;  while  Wizin  (1745-92)  ranks  as 
one  of  the  first  prose  writers  of  his  age.  Some  of  his 
prose  comedies  are  full  of  genuine  humor. — Other  notable 
names  in  poetry,  belonging  in  whole  or  part  to  this 
period,  are  Cheraskov,  Oserov,  Prince  Michailovitch, 
Dolgoruki,  Chvostov,  Petrov,  Bogdanovicz,  and  Derza- 
win  (q.v.),  the  first  universally  popular  Eussian  poet. 
Prose  literature,  however,  developed  itself  more  slowly. 
Lomonossov  was  long  the  model.  Among  the  first  to 
make  a  fresh  reputation  wore  P'aton,  metropolitan  of 
MoscoWj  and  Lewanda  (1736-i°14),  arcbpriest  of  Kieff, 
who   iistinguisbed  themselves  from  their  bombastic 


KUSSIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE, 
brethren  by  the  vigor  of  their  thinking ;  the  historians 
Schtsherbatov  (1733-90),  Boltin  (1735-92),  and  Muraviev 
(1757-1807).  Still  more  important,  in  the  same  depart- 
ment, were  the  labors  of  the  German  Gerh.  Friedr. 
Muiler,  native  of  Westphalia,  who,  1755,  established  at 
St.  Petersburg  the  first  literary  journal.  Novikov  (1744- 
1818)  gave  stimulus  to  the  book-trade  and  to  literary 
productivity,  partly  by  his  professional  zeal,  partly  by 
publishing  a  satirical  journal,  The  Painter. 

A  new  epoch  in  Russian  literature  commenced  with 
Alexander  I.,  who  was  enthusiastic  for  education  and 
progress.    The  number  of  universities  was  raised  to 
seven ;  learned  societies  also  were  increased.    The  great 
ornament  of  literature  at  this  period  was  Karamzin 
(q.v.),  who  freed  it  from  the  trammels  of  the  pseudo- 
classicism  within  which  it  had  been  confined  by  Lo- 
monossov.    His  labors  were  continued  by  Dmitriev  and 
Batjushkov,  while  Shishkov  combated  with  success  the 
tendency  to  deprive  the  language  of  its  Slavic  character ; 
and  in  the  poetry  of  Shakovski,  the  national  elements 
reasserted  themselves.     With  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  historian  Bolchovitihov  (1767-1837)  and  the  theolo- 
gian Drosdov,  Abp.  of  Moscow ;  the  poets  Koslov,  Prince 
Alexander  Shachovski  (d.  1846),  one  of  the  best  comic 
authors  of  Russia,  and  of  amazing  fertility ;  Gribojedov, 
Glinka,  Prince   Vjasemski  (b.  1792),  celebrated  song- 
writer, elegist,  and  critic;   Davidov,  and  Gnieditsh. 
Mersljakov,  who  died  a  prof,  in  Moscow,  was  a  very  able 
critic;  while  Chemnicer  (1744-84)  and  Krylov  (1768- 
1844)  rank  first  among  the  original  fabulists  of  Russia. 
Bulgarin  and  Gretsch  belong  rather  to  the  most  re- 
cent period  of  Russian  literature — a  period  character- 
ized by  predominance  of  Russian  influences,  and  com- 
plete absorption  into  the  one  national  spirit  of  all 
minor   and    foreign  elements.     The     czar  Nicholas 
labored  with  his  wonted  passionate  energy   in  this 
direction.    Among  the  poets  of  this   thoroughly  Rus- 
sian  period,  the  most  conspicuous  and  brilliant  is 
Pushkin  (q.v.),  whose  verses  are  a  mirror  of  Russian  life, 
in  which  are  shadowed  forth  the  joys  and  griefs,  the 
humor  and  the  patriotism,  of  the  true  Russian  peasant. 
The  most  remarkable  of  Pushkin's  contemporaries  and 
successors  are  the  poets  Baratynski  (d.  Iv844),  Baron 
Delvig,     Benediktov,     Podolinski,     Lermctaitov,  N. 
Minski,  Mereshkovski,  Frug,  and  Nadson,  the  poet  of 
melancholy  and  pessimism;  the  dramatists  Nikolaus 
Polevoi  and  Nestor  Kukolnik,  who  drew  the  matter  of 
their  dramas  from  the  national  history;  and  Gogol  (q.v.), 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  names  in  Russian  literature. 
— Russian  novels  exhibit  a  condition  of  society  in  which 
barbarism  struggles  for  supremacy  with  a  superficial 
civilization :  the  best  writers  in  this  department  are 
Bestushev,  Bulgarin,  Sagoskin,  Vasili  Ushakov,  author 
of  Kirgis-Kaisak,  etc. ;  Count  Solohub,  whose  novels  gwe 
a  graphic  picture  of  St.  Petersburg  society ;  Prince  Odo- 
^ovski,  Baron  Theodor.  Korff,  Konst.  Masalski,  and 


RUSSIAS. 

Seukovski  (reckoned  one  of  the   first  journalists  in 
Russia);  Dostoievsky  and  Pisemski,  both  of  whom  died 
1881 ;  Turgeneff  (q.v.),  known  by  numerous  French  and 
English  translations;  Alexander  Hertzen  (q.v.),  the 
4  liberal  Russian '  exile ;  Gontsharov,  Saltykov,  Count 
Leo  Tolstoi  (q.v.),  Uspenski,  Danilevski,  Count  Salias, 
B.  Markewitch,  and  others. — The  delineations  of  Cossack 
life  are  too  numerous  for  special  notice,  but  they  con- 
stitute a  distinct  section  of  the  literature  of  Russian 
fiction,  and  are  composed  for  the  most  part  in  the  dia- 
lect of  Little  Russia. — Great  attention  has  been  given 
in  Russia,  as  in  all  Slavic  countries,  to  popular  songs 
and  proverbs :  the  principal  collections  of  these  are  by 
Novikov,  Kashin,  Maximovitch,  Makarov,  and  Sacharov. 
— The  later  developments  of  Russian  literature  have 
been  chiefly  in  the  department  of  history,  and  among 
the  most  distinguished  names  are  those  of  Prof.  Ustri- 
alov  of  St.  Petersburg,  Prof.  Pogodin  of  Moscow,  Polevoi, 
Vasili  Berg  (d.  1834),  Lieut.Gen.  Michailovski  Dani- 
levski, Prof.  Snjegirev,  Sreznevski,  Slovzov,  Samailov, 
Solovjev,  Strovjev,  Neverov,  Arszenjev,  Wesselovski, 
etc.    The  study  of  the  history  of  Russia  has  been  greatly 
promoted  by  the  Russ.  Hist.  Soc.  and  the  archeological 
institutes  of  St.  Petersburg,  Kieff,  and  Wilna. — Such 
philosophy  as  exists  in  Russia  is  an  echo  of  the  modern 
German  and  English  schools,  and  therefore  lacks  origi- 
nality.— Advances  in  theology  are  hardly  to  be  looked 
for  as  yet  from  a  church  so  deeply  sunk  in  ignorance 
and  intellectual  stupor  as  the  Russian,  yet  nowhere  is 
reform  more  urgently  required:  the  religious  writings 
of  Count  L.  Tolstoi  (q.v.)  are  designed  to  awaken  the 
minds  of  the  people  to  one  of  the  departments  of  social 
ethics  in  Christianity :  but  such  writings  are  not  allowed 
to  be  printed  in  Russia. — As  writers  on  jurisprudence, 
Nevolin,  Moroshkin,  Spassowitsh,  D.  Meyer,  deserve 
mention ;  among  mathematicians,  Simonov,  Perevosht- 
shikov,    Wesselovski,    Tshebyshev,   Savitsh ;  among 
physicists,   Turtshaninov,  Metshnikov,   Sokolov,  Ku- 
torga,  Koksharov,  Kessler,  Annenkov ;  and  as  linguists, 
Vostokov,  Biliarski,  Buslajev,  Jagies,  Lawanski. — See 
Otto,  Text-book  of  Russian  Literature  (Leip.  1837 ;  transl. 
into  Eng.  by  Cox,  Oxford  1839) ;  Jordan,  History  of  Rus- 
sian Literature  (Leip.  1846) ;  Talvi  (Mrs.  Robinson),  View 
of  Literature  of  the   Slavic  Nations  (1850);  Courriere, 
Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Contemporaine  en  Russie  (Paris 
1875);  K.  Haller,  Geschichte  d.  Russ.  Litteratur  (1882); 
A.  Reinholdt,  Gesch.  d.  Russ.  Litt.  (1885). 

RUS'SIAS,  Aiiii  the  :  official  designation  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire  in  Europe ;  assumed  1654,  when  Czar  Alexei 
Mikailowitch  styled  himself  for  the  first  time  *  Tzar  of 
All  the  Russias,'  after  his  conquest  of  Little  Russia  and 
acquisition  of  Smolensk  from  Poland.  This  phrase  at 
first  included  only  Great  Russia,  White  Russia,  and  Lit- 
tle Russia. — Great  Russia,  formerly  Muscovy,  by  far  the 
largest  of  these  three  divisions,  includes  the  territory 


RUSSNIAKS. 

now  comprehended  in  the  19  govts,  of  Archangel,  01o> 
netz,  Vologda,  Novgorod,  Tver,  Jaroslav,  Kostroma, 
Pskov,  Smolensk  (partly},  Moscow,  Vladimir,  Nijni 
Novgorod,  Kalouga,  Toula,  Riazan,  Tambov,  Orel, 
Koursk,  and  Voronetz. —  J\hite  Russia  included  the  prov- 
inces of  Vitebsk,  Mohilev,  and  the  rest  of  Smolensk,  and 
though  long  held  by  the  Poles,  was  re-united  to  Russia 
at  the  first  and  second  partitions  of  Poland  (1772  and 
93).  In  1793,  it  received  the  accession  of  the  Polish 
provinces  which  now  form  the  govts,  of  Vilna,  Minsk, 
Kovno,  Volhynia,  Podolsk ;  and  White  Russia  with  these 
accessions  was  then  denominated  West  Russia. — Little 
Russia  contains  the  ancient  Russian  possessions  in  the 
s.w.,  which,  in  the  middle  ages,  became  independent 
under  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine,  and  were  finally  re- 
united to  Russia  1654 ;  and  is  di  ^ed  into  the  four  prov- 
inces, Kiev,  Tchernigov,  Poltava,  and  Kharkov. — During 
the  18th  c,  the  countries  between  Great  Russia  and  the 
Black  Sea  wrested  from  the  Turks,  were  formed  into  a 
fourth  great  division,  under  the  name  Southern  Russia  : 
this  includes  the  districts  occupied  by  the  Don  Cossacks, 
sometimes  called  New  Russia. — Red  Russia  was  a  portion 
of  the  Russian  principality  of  Galich  (Galicia),  and  with 
the  rest  of  it,  was  subdued  by  Casimir  III.  of  Poland ; 
it  included  what  is  now  the  province  of  Lublin,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  and  the  e.  portion  of  Austrian  Gali- 
icia,  and  is  inhabited  by  Poles,  and  another  and  antago- 
nistic people,  called  Russniaks  (q.v.). 

RUSSNIAKS,  rus'ni-aks,  also  Russine  and  Rutheni  : 
variety  of  peoples  who  form  a  branch  of  the  great  Slavic 
race,  and  are  sharply  distinguished  from  the  Muscovites, 
or  Russians  proper,  by  their  language  and  the  whole 
character  of  their  life.  They  are  divided  into  the  R.  of 
Galicia,  N.  Hungary,  Podolia,  Volhynia,  and  Lithuania, 
and  are  estimated  by  Schafarik  to  number  13,000,000. 
Almost  all  are  agriculturists,  and  on  the  whole  rather 
uncultivated.  Before  the  17th  c,  they  were  a  free  race ; 
but  were  then  subjugated,  partly  by  the  Lithuanians, 
partly  by  the  Poles,  and  for  a  long  time  belonged  to  the 
Polish  kingdom.  Their  language  has  consequently  be- 
come closely  assimilated  to  the  Polish.  In  earlier,  times 
it  was  a  written  speech,  with  distinctive  characteristics, 
as  is  seen  from  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  pub.  at 
Ostrog  1581,  and  other  literary  monuments.  The  R. 
belong  mostly  to  the  United  Greek  Church,  but  in  part 
to  the  Non-united.  They  preserve  many  old  customs 
peculiar  to  themselves,  and  much  folk-lore,  prose  and 
poetic,  like  that  current  in  Poland  and  Servia.  Of  late 
the  name  Ruthenians  has  been  reserved  chiefly  for  the 
Slavonian  inhabitants  of  Austria,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Carpathians ;  and  distinguishes  them  from  their  kins- 
men, the  Little  Russians  of  Russia.  Dislike  to  Poland 
has  led  them  to  incline  to  the  Russian  language.  In 
1880,  there  were  nearly  3,000,000  R.  in  Austria. 


RUSSO-GERMAN  WAR— RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR. 

RUS'SO-GER'MAN  WAR:  name  given  by  German 
historians  to  the  last  stage  of  the  great  European  war 
against  Napoleon,  beginning  with  the  Russian  campaign 
of  1812  and  ending  on  the  field  of  Waterloo:  see  Napo- 
leon. 

RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR:  (see  Cyc—  Japan  and 
Russia)  :  The  Mikado's  govt.,  1904,  Feb.  6,  severed 
diplomatic  relations  with  Russia,  recalled  the  Japanese 
minister  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  next  day  occupied 
the  port  of  Masampo,  Corea,  and  began  landing  troops 
there.  The  first  act  of  war  that  ensued  was  the  de- 
struction, Feb.  8,  of  the  Russian  cruiser  Variag  and  the 
gunboat  Korietz  in  the  Corean  port  of  Chemulpo,  after 
an  hour's  engagement,  by  a  squadron  commanded  by 
Admiral  Urik.  The  same  night,  Feb.  8-9,  the  Russian 
battleships  Retvizan  and  Czarevitch  and  the  cruiser 
Pallada  were  disabled  by  Japanese  torpedo  boats  at  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Port  Arthur.  After  this  ac- 
tion the  Japanese  fleet  hovered  in  the  vicinity  of  Port 
Arthur,  blockading  it  and  at  intervals  bombarding  the 
Russian  works.  Heroic  attempts  were  again  and  again 
made  to  close  the  entrance  channel  by  sinking  at  its 
mouth  stone-laden  hulks,  and  by  sowing  mines;  but  in- 
effectually, as  was  later  proved  when  Russian  battle- 
ships and  cruisers  sallied  out  repeatedly  to  harass  the 
enemy,  or  to  escape  from  the  beleaguered  harbor  and 
join  the  Russian  naval  force  at  Vladivostok.  Mean- 
while Japanese  troops  in  transport  fleets  escorted  by 
warships  were  landing  at  various  points  in  Corea,  and 
marching  northward  to  the  Yalu  r.  and  the  Manchu- 
rian  frontier;  the  Russians  too  were  massing  troops 
on  the  Yalu,  and  occupying  positions  in  n.  Corea.  A 
Japanese  squadron  of  five  battleships  and  two  cruisers 
bombarded  the  defenses  of  Vladivostok  March  6,  but 
without  serious  effect;  in  this  action  the  Russian  war- 
ships in  the  harbor  took  no  part.  At  Port  Arthur  the 
Russian  naval  commander-in-chief,  vice-adm.  Makaroff, 
demonstrated  the  inefficiency  of  the  obstruction  of  the 
channel  entrance  when,  March  26,  with  a  squadron  of 
battleships  and  torpedo  boats  he  issued  out  and  made 
a  reconnoissance  of  the  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  stronghold.  He  afforded  the  Japanese  admiral  Togo 
the  opportunity  for  a  test  of  strength;  but  this  Adm. 
Togo  declined,  sailing  way  precipitately.  But  the  Japa- 
nese squadron  returned  to  its  former  station,  and  March 
31  sank  four  merchant  ships  in  the  w.  entrance  channel. 
Still  the  Russian  ships  passed  in  and  out.  But  in  the 
night  of  April  12,  Adm.  Togo  planted  mines  in  the  har- 
bor mouth,  and  the  following  morning  stationed  a  weak 
squadron  outside. the  port  to  invite  a  sally  by  the  Rus- 
sians, while  he  himself,  with  his  main  force,  veiled  by 
fogs,  lay  off,  prepared  to  attack  the  Russians  at  sea 
if  they  should  succeed  in  evading  the  mines.  Makaroff 
with  the  Petropavlovsk,  Poltava,  and  Pobieda,  battle- 
ships, and  the  Diana,  Askold,  Bay  an,  and  Novik,  cruis- 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR. 

ers,  sailed  out;  clearing  the  mines,  and  headed  for  the 
enemy's  squadron.  The  fog  having  been  dissipated, 
Togo's  fleet  was  descried,  and  Makaroff  put  about  at 
full  speed  for  Port  Arthur.  The  Petropavlovsk,  with 
the  admiral  and  about  600  officers  and  seamen  aboard, 
struck  a  mine  and  almost  instantly  sank.  The  ad- 
miral and  his  guest,  the  illustrious  painter  Verest- 
chagin,  were  among  the  lost.  The  cruisers  Pobieda 
and  Bayan  were  disabled,  but  were  brought  into  the 
harbor.  Toward  the  end  of  April  the  first  Japanese 
army,  under  Gen.  Kuroki,  confronted  the  Russian  force 
on  the  Yalu  r.,  the  Russians  occupying  strongly  forti- 
fied positions  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  and  in  the 
hills.  The  Japanese  left,  resting  on  Wiju,  was  sup- 
ported by  a  flotilla  of  gunboats,  and  the  army  had  a 
perfectly  equipped  pontoon  train.  After  four  days  of 
the  hardest  possible  fighting,  the  Japanese  took  by 
storm  the  entire  line  of  the  Russian  defenses,  com* 
pelling  their  enemy  to  retreat  with  a  Russian  loss  of 
2,397  killed  and  wounded,  and  28  quick-firing  guns;  in 
this  action  and  in  every  subsequent  action  in  several 
months  the  superiority  of  the  Japanese  artillery  was 
demonstrated,  as  also  the  high  efficiency  of  the  Japanese 
military  administration  and  the  discipline  and  fearless 
valor  of  the  troops.  The  Russians  retreated  to  Feng- 
wang-cheng,  and  that  position  having  proved  un- 
tenable, to  Liao-yang.  May  4,  Japanese  transports 
with  troops  convoyed  by  warships,  made  a  landing  at 
Pitsewo,  n.e.  of  Port  Arthur  on  the  e.  coast  of  the 
peninsula;  and  this  force,  marching  westward  severed 
Port  Arthur's  railroad  and  telegraph  communications 
with  the  Russian  commander-in-chief.  Other  landings 
of  troops  on  both  sides  of  the  peninsula  were  suc- 
cessively made  in  the  rear  of  Port  Arthur.  The  Rus- 
sians destroyed  their  new  city  of  Dalny,  blowing  up 
the  breakwater  and  the  piers  and  great  buildings  to 
save  them  from  capture.  May  26,  after  three  days 
of  desperate  fighting  at  Kinshow,  Nanshan  hill,  and 
Talienwan,  about  30  m.  n.  of  Port  Arthur,  the  Rus- 
sians were  driven  out  of  those  strongly  fortified  posi- 
tions and  driven  back  within  the  immediate  fortifica- 
tions of  their  great  stronghold.  In  the  meantime  the 
Russian  army  of  Manchuria  having  fallen  back  on 
Liao-yang,  the  Japanese  armies  under  Gens.  Oku, 
Nodzu,  and  Kuroki  captured  and  occupied  the  impor- 
tant passes  Ma,  Motien,  and  Fenshu  on  their  lines  of 
approach  to  Liao-yang.  There  240,000  Jananese  faced 
200,000  Russians;  and  after  six  days  and  nights  of 
continuous  fighting  the  Russian  army  was  forced  to 
evacuate  the  place  and  retreat  across  the  Tai-tse  r., 
Sept.  1.  The  Japanese  harassed  the  Russians  in  the  re- 
treat toward  Mukden,  but  Gen.  Kuropatkin  halted  at 
the  Hun  r.,  and  Oct.  10  made  a  general  advance  against 
the  enemy.  Again  there  was  a  great  battle  continued 
several  days,  and  Kuropatkin  was  again  beaten  back 
across  the  Sha  r.    There  the  hostile  armies  faced  each 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR. 

other  at  close  quarters,  with  frequent  artillery  duels, 
and  till  far  into  the  winter,  when  military  operations 
on  a  great  scale  were  suspended  till  the  coming  of 
spring.  In  the  meantime  fort  after  fort  of  the  im- 
mediate defenses  of  Port  Arthur  was  captured  by  the 
Japanese,  and  on  Aug.  10,  the  Russian  fleet  was  or- 
dered to  fight  its  way  out,  and  if  possible,  to  escape; 
but  in  the  attempt  was  hopelessly  crippled  by  Adm. 
Togo,  the  Russian  Admiral  Wittshoef,  being  among  the 
killed,  the  vessels  being  scattered  back  to  Port  Arthur, 
or  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  neutral  ports;  one  at  Che- 
foo,  resisting  a  Japanese  search  party,  was  seized  and 
taken  out,  but  sank,  while  the  Novik  escaping  to  Sak- 
halin, was  followed  by  two  Japanese  cruisers  and  de- 
stroyed. Four  days  later,  the  Vladivostok  squadron 
which  had  been  busy  in  destructive  raids  on  transports 
and  fishing  vessels,  was  caught  by  Adm.  Kamimura  on 
Aug.  14,  seeking  to  co-operate  with  the  sortie  of  the 
Port  Arthur  fleet,  and  was  almost  annihilated.  Hence- 
forth, the  besieged  garrison  at  Port  Arthur  made  des- 
perate efforts  to  check  the  persistent  advance  of  their 
foes,  but  on  Dec.  5,  the  Japanese  took  by  storm  203- 
Meter  hill,  with  the  loss,  it  was  roughly  estimated,  of 
15,000  men.  Having  planted  on  this  hill  their  heaviest 
guns,  they  were  able  to  bombard  the  city,  sinking 
several  ships  in  the  harbor  and  rendering  all  positions 
untenable.  Finding  further  resistance  useless,  Gen. 
Stroessel  capitulated  Jan.  2,  1905,  and  surrendered  to 
Gen.  Nogi,  the  successful  Japanese  commander.  The 
siege  had  lasted  eleven  months,  and  the  records  of  its 
great  land  and  sea  battles  are  among  the  most  thrilling 
in  military  history.  The  fall  of  Port  Arthur  and  the 
destruction  of  the  Russian  Asiatic  fleet  released  Adm. 
Togo's  squadron  from  blockading  duty,  and  enabled 
him  to  make  his  battleships  and  cruisers  available  for 
use  against  the  arrival  of  the  Russian  Baltic  fleet, 
commanded  by  Adm.  Rojestvensky  (q.v.).  The  Baltic 
fleet,  after  embroiling  Russia  with  Great  Britain  by 
firing  upon  a  fishing- fleet  in  the  North  Sea  (Oct.  22-23), 
wintered  at  Nossi-Be,  Madagascar,  taking  advantage  of 
French  neutrality. 

Early  in  March,  1905,  Oyama  resumed  offensive  opera- 
tions and  by  strategic  flanking,  sought  to  surround 
Kuropatkin  (q.v.)  at  Mukden,  and  cut  off  his  retreat 
to  Tie  Pass.  Fighting  began  Mar.  6,  and  the  first  at- 
tacks of  the  Japanese  were  savagely  resisted  by  the  Rus- 
sians. On  Mar.  8,  however,  Gen.  Oku,  with  an  im- 
mense force,  menaced  Mukden  on  the  northwest  and 
Kuropatkin  ordered  an  immediate  retirement  on  Tie 
Pass.  The  retreat  degenerated  into  a  scramble  in  which 
great  guns,  ammunition,  arms,  rations  and  other  war 
material  were  abandoned;  the  Japanese,  all  the  while 
harried  their  retiring  foes,  Gen.  Kuropatkin,  with  a 
strong  rear-guard,  covering  the  retreat  and  managing 
to  elude  the  flanking  trap  set  for  him.  The  pursuit 
did  not  end  until  Mar.  12.    The  loss  on  both  sides  was 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR. 

estimated  at  200,000.  In  announcing  his  defeat  ana 
retreat,  Gen.  Kuropatkin  asked  to  be  relieved  of  his 
command  and  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  Linevitch,  Mar.  16. 

On  the  same  date  Rojestvensky  left  Madagascar  and 
crossing  the  Indian  Ocean,  arrived  in  the  Strait  of  Ma- 
lacca at  the  beginning  of  April,  being  reported  as  pass- 
ing Singapore  Apr.  8.  Entering  the  South-China  Sea, 
he  sailed  to  French  Indo-China,  where  he  made  exten- 
sive use  of  the  ports  to  recoal  and  refit,  again  to  the 
straining  of  French  neutrality  and  the  latter's  rela- 
tions with  Japan.  Finally  receiving  orders  to  leave, 
he  sailed  north.  It  was  thought  probable  that  he  would 
skirt  the  eastern  coast  of  Japan,  and  passing  either 
through  Tsugaru  or  La  Perouse  straits,  so  enter  the 
Sea  of  Japan  and  arrive  at  Vladivostok,  avoiding  the 
Japanese  fleet  under  Adm.  Togo  (q.v.),  whose  main 
base  was  supposed  to  have  been  established  on  the 
north  coast  of  Formosa.  Instead,  he  courageously 
adopted  the  boldest  and  shortest  course,  attempting  to 
push  directly  through  the  Tsu-shima  or  Corea  Strait  to 
reach  Vladivostok,  which  is  about  640  miles  due  north 
of  the  Tsu  islands.  His  approach  was  discovered  in  a 
lifting  fog,  on  Saturday,  May  27,  1905,  by  Adm.  Togo's 
scouts.  Adm.  Togo's  base  all  the  time  had  been  at 
Masampo,  Corea,  opposite  the  Tsu  islands.  Rojestven- 
sky's  fleet  when  sighted  was  s.w.  of  the  Hirodo  Islands, 
heading  for  the  e.  channel  in  two  lines,  the  starboard 
comprising  eight  heavy  battleships,  the  port  made  up 
of  cruisers  and  repair  ships,  and  both  flanked  by  tor- 
pedo-boats and  destroyers.  The  Japanese  fleet  steamed 
out  rapidly  to  meet  the  enemy,  its  inner  line  held  by 
Togo  with  the  battleships  and  Kamimura  with  the 
cruisers;  s.e.  of  Tsu  Island,  Togo  made  a  turning 
movement  and  by  this  maneuver  placed  himself  on  the 
w.,  the  Russians  being  on  the  e.,  and  in  the  eye  of  the 
sun.  The  first  shot  fired  from  Adm.  Rojestvensky's 
flagship  and  was  almost  simultaneously  replied  to 
by  Adm.  Togo's  battleship.  Adms.  Kataoka  and 
Yamada  then  attacked  the  Russian  lines  wicn  their 
light  squadrons  and  were  followed  by  Adm.  Kamimura, 
who  fell  southward  to  intercept  any  chance  of  escape 
in  that  direction.  Adm.  Uriu,  near  Iki  island,  burst 
upon  the  third  Russian  line,  raking  it  again  and  again, 
and  early  in  the  battle  two  shells  from  Adm.  Togo's 
flagship  sank  the  Russian  repair-ship  Kamchatka.  A 
terrific  running  fight  ensued  while  the  two  fleets  forged 
along  on  parallel  lines.  The  strength  of  both  in 
number  of  ships  and  armament  had  been  estimated  at 
about  equal;  the  superiority  of  the  Japanese  lay  in  11 
months  of  hard  fighting,  continuous  practice  in  war- 
fare, and  the  choice  of  the  battle  ground.  The  fight 
raged  all  Saturday,  was  continued  through  the  night 
and  on  Sunday,  Monday  being  occupied  by  the  Japanese 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  few  survivors.  Of  thirty-six 
Russian  vessels  which  entered  the  Strait  of  Corea.  four 
only,  two  cruisers  and  two  destroyers,  reached  Vladi- 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR. 

vostok.  Adm.  Togo,  in  six  brief  reports  to  the  Tokio 
government,  summarized  the  overwhelming  victory 
which  showed  that,  six  Russian  battleships,  five  cruis- 
ers, two  special  service  ships,  three  destroyers,  and  one 
coast-defense  ship  were  sunk,  and  two  battleships,  two 
coast-delense  ships,  and  one  destroyer  were  captured 
for  addition  to  the  Japanese  navy.  Over  4,000  prison- 
ers were  taken,  including  Adms.  Rojestvensky  and  Nebo- 
gatoff:  Adm.  Voelkersam  was  among  the  dead,  which 
with  the  missing  were  estimated  at  7,000.  The  total 
Japanese  loss  as  issued  by  the  govt.,  was  three  torpedo- 
boats  sunk,  three  officers  killed,  113  men  killed  and  424 
wounded.  On  May  30,  Adm.  Togo  telegraphed  to  Tokio : 
'  The  naval  battle  fought  from  the  afternoon  of  May  27 
to  May  29  in  the  vicinity  of  Okino  Island  and  extending 
to  the  vicinity  of  Urleung  Island  is  called  The  Naval 
Battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan/    See  Rojestvensky. 

Operations  on  land  were  once  more  begun,  the  Jap- 
anese inflicting  heavy  loss  on  the  Russian  forces,  and 
after  capturing  Liao-yang  Wo  Peng  on  June  16th  con- 
tinuing to  drive  them  north  toward  Harbin.  On  the 
7th  of  July  the  invasion  of  the  Island  of  Saghalien 
was  begun  and  after  several  sharp  engagements  the 
governor  with  70  officers  and  3,200  men  surrendered 
on  the  31st.  On  the  17th  of  July  a  force  was  landed  on 
Olga  Bay  north  of  Vladivostok,  and  on  the  4th  of 
August  a  fleet  began  the  blockade  of  Peter  the  Great 
Bay,  with  the  object  of  the  capture  of  Vladivostok, 
but  peace  was  arranged  before  any  further  action  was 
taken.  Aside  from  some  desultory  fighting  along  the 
outposts  of  the  two  armies  in  Manchuria  no  engage- 
ment of  any  importance  was  reported  and  the  war  was 
practically  ended. 

In  the  meantime  President  Roosevelt  had  in  the 
early  part  of  June  succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  peace 
conference  between  the  two  warring  countries  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth. 

Baron  Komura  and  Minister  Takahira  were  selected 
as  plenipotentiaries  for  Japan,  and  Serge  Witte  and 
Baron  Rosen,  Minister  to  the  U.  S.,  were  appointed  by 
the  Czar  of  Russia.  After  several  meetings  at  the 
Portsmouth  Navy  Yard  the  plenipotentiaries  came  to  a 
complete  understanding  on  the  29th  of  August,  and  the 
treaty  was  drafted  and  signed  by  the  respective  parties 
on  the  5th  of  September.  Several  deadlocks  occurred 
on  indemnity  and  the  cession  of  the  Island  of  Saghalien, 
but  with  characteristic  generosity  and  bravery,  and 
with  the  desire  that  nothing  should  stand  in  the  way 
of  peace,  the  Japanese  waived  all  claims  to  indemnity 
and  agreed  to  the  cession  of  Saghalien  below  the  50th 
degree  of  north  latitude.  Russia  ceded  the  railways 
and  the  major  portion  of  the  territory  in  the  possession 
of  the  Japanese,  and  both  parties  agreed  to  withdraw 
their  troops  within  18  months. 

The  treaty  consists  of  15  articles  with  two  sub- 
articles  to  articles  3  and  9,  and  was  ratified  and  signed 


RUSSOPHILE— RUSTCHUK. 

by  the  Emperor  of  Japan  and  the  Czar  of  Russia  on 
October  14th.  There  was  much  excitement  in  Japan 
over  the  terms  and  the  plenipotentiaries  were  severely 
criticised,  but  finally  the  conservative  element  pre- 
vailed and  the  terms  accepted  with  much  satisfaction. 

RUSSOPHILE,  n.  rua'so-fll  [prefix  Rusao;  Gr.  philos. 
loving,  a  friend] ;  admirer  or  supporter  of  Russia  or  her 
oolioy:  Adj.  A  supporting  Russia  or  her  policy.  Russo- 
PHOBlA,n.  rus-so-fd-bi-a  [prefix  Russo;  Gr.  p hobos,  fear]  : 
fear  of  Russia,  her  power  or  policy ;  strong  feeling  against 
Russia  or  the  Russians.  Russophobist,  n.  rus'so-fob-ist 
or  rus-sofo-bist,  one  who  dreads  or  is  strongly  opposed  to 
Russia  or  her  policy. 

RUST,  n.  rust  [Ger.  and  Sw.  rost;  Dut.  roest,  rust] ; 
coating  formed  on  most  metals  when  exposed  to  the  air 
or  moisture ;  reddish  matter  formed  on  iron  or  steel — 
red  oxide  of  iron ;  loss  of  power  or  ability  by  inactivity 
or  want  of  use;  foul  or  extraneous  matter;  disease  in 
plants  (see  below).  V.  to  gather  rust  or  extraneous  mat- 
ter ;  to  become  rusty ;  to  lose  ability  or  power  by  want 
of  use ;  to  degenerate  in  idleness.  Rust'ing,  imp.  Rust'ed, 
pp.  Rusty,  a.  rustl,  covered  with  rust  or  extraneous 
matter ;  surly ;  impaired  by  inaction  or  neglect  of  use ; 
rough ;  having  the  appearance  of  rust  and  a  rancid  flavor, 
as  bacon.  Rust'ily,  ad.  -i-li.  Rust'iness,  n.  -nes,  the 
state  of  being  rusty. 

RUST :  disease  of  plants,  which  shows  Itself  on  the 
stems  and  leave3  of  many  plants,  and  on  the  ears  of 
grasses,  both  of  the  cereal  grasses,  and  of  many  pasture 
or  forage  grasses ;  in  brown,  yellow,  or  orange-colored 
spots ;  and  after  destroying  the  epidermis  of  the  plant, 
assumes  the  form  of  a  powder,  which  soils  the  fingers 
when  touched.  R.  seems  to  consist  at  first  of  small 
fungi  of  one  cell,  sometimes  divided  by  a  transverse 
wall,  belonging  chiefly  to  genera  Uredo  (q.v.)  and  Puc- 
cinia  (q.v.) ;  which,  finally,  breaking  through  the  diseased 
epidermis,  form  a  colored  dust  of  mere  spores.  The 
name  R.  is  sometimes  restricted  to  the  Uredo  rubigo 
vera. — R.  is  sometimes  very  injurious  to  crops.  No 
remedy  is  known  for  it;  but  it  is  thought  that  rank 
manures  tend  to  produce  or  aggravate  it.    See  Uredo. 

RUSTCHUK,  ros  -choK :  important  town  of  the  princi- 
pality of  Bulgaria,  70  m.  w.s.w.  of  Silistria,  on  the  s. 
bank  of  the  Danube  opposite  Giurgevo.  Its  position  on 
a  range  of  hills,  with  its  white  chimneys,  its  mosques 
and  minarets  rising  from  amid  forests  of  fruit-trees,  gives 
it  a  picturesque  appearance.  The  Danube  is  here  about 
2  m.  wide,  but  its  channel  is  marked  with  islets  and 
shallows.  R.  has  manufactures  of  meerschaum  pipes, 
pottery,  saddlery,  leather,  cloth,  tobacco,  and  silk,  and 
is  connected  by  rail  with  Varna.  It  was  determined  by 
the  Berlin  Congress  1878  that  the  fortifications  of  R., 
extensive  but  not  very  important,  should,  like  those  of 
the  other  Bulgarian  fortresses,  be  destroyed.  Pop. 
nearly  half  Mohammedans,  32,700. 


BUSTIC — HUSTLE. 

RUSTIC,  a.  rus'tik  [F.  rustique,  rustic — from  L.  rvafo* 
cus,  belonging  to  the  country,  rural — from  rue,  the 
country :  It.  rustico]  :  pert,  to  the  country ;  rural ;  having 
the  manners  of  those  living  in  the  country ;  plain ;  rude ; 
untaught ;  awkward :  unadorned ;  N.  an  inhabitant  of 
the  country;  a  peasant.  Rus'tical,  a.  -ti-kal,  rough; 
rude.  Rustically,  ad.  -II.  RusTicalness,  n.  -wes,  the 
quality  of  being  rustical.  Rusticity,  n.  rus-tis'i-tl,  rus- 
tic manners;  simplicity.  Rusticate,  v.  rus'ti-kdt,  to 
dwell  or  reside  in  the  country;  to  banish  from  a  univer- 
sity or  college  for  a  time.  Rusticating,  imp.  Rusti- 
cated, pp.  RusTicaTion,  n.  -ka'shun,  residence  in  the 
country;  state  of  being  rusticated  (in  arch.,  see  below). 
Rustic  chair,  a  chair  or  seat  made  of  the  undressed 
branches  or  boughs  of  trees,  or  made  to  resemble  such. 
Rustic  work,  in  arch,  (see  below). — Syn.  of  4  rustic,  a.' 
inelegant;  rough;  coarse;  savage;  unpolished;  una- 
dorned ;  artless ;  honest ;  simple ;  plain ;  awkward ;  un- 
taught ;  rural ; — of 4  rustic'n.' :  peasant ;  clown ;  country- 
man; hind  ;  swain. 

RUS'TIC,  or  Rusticated,  WORK,  and  Rustication  : 
kind  of  masonry  in  which  the  various  stones  or  courses 
are  marked  at  the  joints  by  splays  or  recesses.  The 
surface  of  the  stone  is  sometimes  left  rough,  sometimes 


ii  ir 


1LZS. 


Rustication. 


polished  or  otherwise  dressed.  R.  is  used  chiefly  in 
classical  or  Italian  architecture,  though  Rustic  Quoins 
(q.  v.)  are  often  used  in  rough  Gothic  work.  In  the  figure, 
a  and  b  show  forms  of  R.  usually  applied  to  surfaces ;  c 
and  d  show  rustic  quoins  with  moldings  on  the  angles. 

RUSTLE,  v.  rus'l  [Low  Ger.  russeln;  Ger.  ruscheln,  to 
rustle :  Sw.  rusta,  to  move  with  a  slight  noise — an  imita- 
tive word] :  to  make  a  low  rattling  noise,  as  in  the 
rubbing  or  movement  of  silk,  dry  leaves,  etc.  Rustling, 
Imp.  ru&ting :  Adj.  making  a  low  slight  sound,  as  of  silk 
cloth  when  shaken  or  rubbed  :  N.  a  quick  succession  of 
low  short  sounds,  as  of  a  rubbing  or  moving  among 
leaves  or  dry  straw.  RusTled,  pp.  -Id.  Rust'leb,  -Jrfr, 
one  who  rustles. 


RUSTRE— RUT. 

RUSTRE,  rus'tr,  in  Heraldry :  one  of  the  subordinates 
consisting  of  a  Lozenge  (q.v.)  with  circular 
opening  pierced  in  its  centre. 

RUSTY :  see  under  Rust. 

RUT,  n.  rut  [OF.  ruit  or  rut,  the  lust  of  deer 
or  boars ;  ruir,  to  roar — f rom  L.  rugirS,  to 
roar :  Bret,  ruda,  to  be  on  heat :  Swiss,  ruden, 
to  bellow :  Sp.  ruido  noise,  uproar] :  the  en- 
gendering or  copulation  of  deer  or  boars :  V.  Rustre. 
to  engender,  as  deer.  Rut'ting,  imp.  Rut'ted, 
pp.  Rut'tish,  a  -Ishy  lustful ;  wanton. 

RUT,  n.  rut  [Fr. route  (see  Route)]  :  the  track  of  a  wheel  ? 
a  line  cut  in  the  soil  with  a  spade:  V.  to  cut  into 
ruts,  as  a  road ;  to  cut  a  line  on  the  soil  with  a  spade. 
Rut'ting,  imp.  Rutted,  imp.  Rut'ty,  a.  4,  full  of  ruts. 


